Correctness is the most important sign of speech culture.
The correctness of speech is determined by compliance with the norms inherent in the literary language.
What is the norm? What are the standards? What makes them special? How are norms born? These are the questions that need to be answered.
Norm - rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development literary language.
Norm is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. The standards differ:
Language norms - historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 30s and 40s the words were used graduate student And graduate to express the same concept: “A student completing a thesis.” Word graduate student was a colloquial version of the word diploma student In the literary norm of the 50-60s, there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial graduate student now denotes a student, a student during the period of defending his thesis, receiving a diploma. In a word graduate began to name mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of shows, competitions awarded with a diploma (for example, Diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition, Diploma winner of the International Vocal Competition).
The norm of using the word has also changed enrollee. In the 30s and 40s applicants they called both those who graduated from high school and those who entered university, since both of these concepts in most cases refer to the same person. IN post-war years the word for those graduating from high school has become graduate, and the word enrollee in this meaning has fallen out of use. Applicants began to be called those who take entrance exams at universities and technical schools.
The history of the word is interesting in this regard dialectical. In the 19th century it was formed from a noun dialect and meant “belonging to one dialect or another.” From a philosophical term dialectics also formed an adjective dialectical. Homonyms appeared in the language: dialectical (dialectical word) And dialectical (dialectical approach). Gradually the word dialectical in the meaning of “belonging to a particular dialect” is outdated and replaced by the word dialectal, and the word dialectical has the meaning “peculiar to dialectics; based on the laws of dialectics."
In one of the issues of Literaturnaya Gazeta, in an article about the correctness of speech, such a case was described. The lecturer rose to the podium and began to speak like this: “Some people spit on the norms of literary speech. They say, everything is allowed to us, our families say so, they will bury us that way. I shuddered when I heard this, but did not oppose...”
At first the audience was perplexed, then there was a murmur of indignation and, finally, laughter. The lecturer waited until the audience calmed down and said: “You are laughing in vain. I speak in the best literary language. In the language of the classics...” And he began to give quotes that contained “incorrect” words from his lecture, comparing them with the readings of dictionaries of that time. With this technique, the speaker demonstrated how the norm of language has changed over 100 years.
Not only lexical and accentological norms change, but also morphological norms. Let's take the ending of the nominative case as an example. plural masculine nouns:
vegetable garden - vegetable gardens, garden - gardens, table - tables, fence - fences, horn - horns, side - sides, bank - banks, eye - eyes.
As you can see, in the nominative plural case, nouns have the ending -s or -A. The presence of two endings is associated with the history of declination. The fact is that in the Old Russian language, in addition to the singular and plural, there was also a dual number, which was used in the case when we were talking about two objects: table(one), table(two), tables(some). From the 13th century this form began to collapse and was gradually eliminated. However, traces of it are found, firstly, in the ending of the nominative plural of nouns denoting paired objects: horns, eyes, sleeves, banks, sides; secondly, the singular genitive form of nouns with numerals two (two tables, two houses, two fences) historically goes back to the nominative case form of the dual number. This is confirmed by the difference in emphasis: two hours and not an hour passed, in two rows and left the row.
After the disappearance of the dual number along with the old ending -s Masculine nouns have a new ending in the nominative plural -A, which, as a younger one, began to spread and displace the endings.
So, in modern Russian language train the nominative plural has the ending -a, while in the 19th century the norm was -s.“Trains on the railway stop due to heavy snowfall for four days,” wrote N.G. Chernyshevsky in a letter to his father on February 8, 1855. But it's not always the end -A the old ending wins -s. For example, the word tractor was borrowed in the 20th century from English, in which tractor - suffixal derivative from Latin traho, trahere -"pull, drag." In the 3rd volume of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, published in 1940, only tractors, and ending with -a (tractor) considered colloquial. Twenty-three years later, volume 15 of the Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language was published. It contains both forms (tractors And tractor) are given as equal rights, and twenty years later the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1983) puts the ending -a in first place as more common. In other cases, the nominative plural form is -A remains outside the literary language and is classified as incorrect (engineer) or slang (driver).
If the old, original norm is designated by the letter A, and the competing version by the letter B, then the competition between them for a place in the literary language takes place in four stages and graphically looks like this:
At the first stage, the only form A dominates; its variant B is beyond the limits of the literary language and is considered incorrect. At the second stage, option B already penetrates into the literary language and is considered acceptable (label additional) and, depending on the degree of its distribution, qualifies as colloquial (litter colloquial) in relation to norm A or equal to it (litter AND). At the third stage, the senior norm A loses its dominant role, finally gives way to the junior norm B and becomes obsolete norms. At the fourth stage, B becomes the only norm of the literary language.
The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargon; other languages.
Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language.
For example, in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” the accented variants of such words as normalize And standardize, label And label, thinking And thinking. Some variants of words are given with corresponding marks: cottage cheese and (colloquial) cottage cheese, contract and (simple) contract If we turn to the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” (M., 1997), then we can follow the fate of these options. Yes, words normalize And thinking become preferred and normalize And thinking are marked “extra.” (acceptable). From options label And label becomes the only correct one mark. In a relationship cottage cheese And cottage cheese the norm has not changed. Here's an option agreement from the colloquial form has passed into the category of colloquial, has the mark “extra.” in the dictionary.
Shifts in standardization can be clearly seen in the example of the pronunciation of the combination - chn.
Let's present this in a table.
As you can see, out of 10 words, only two (on purpose, scrambled eggs) the pronunciation [sh] is preserved; in one case (bakery) preference is given to the pronunciation [shn], but [chn] is also allowed; in two cases, both pronunciations are considered equal (see. decent, decent), in the remaining five the pronunciation [chn] wins, while in a nutshell (diner, toy) it is considered the only correct one, and in three (everyday, creamy, apple) Pronunciation [shn] is also allowed.
The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:
■ standard 1st degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;
■ level 2 norm - neutral, allows equivalent options;
■ norm 3 degrees - more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.
The historical change in the norms of a literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers. The development of society, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.
According to scientists, the process of changing language norms has become especially intensified in recent decades.
Norms in the modern Russian language are an indicator of purity, correctness, and accuracy of speech
1. The concept of language norms.
2. Standard options.
3. Orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, lexical norms.
“This Russian language is difficult, dear citizens! I heard a conversation the other day. It happened at the meeting. My neighbor leaned over and politely asked:
– What, comrade, will this be a plenary meeting or what?
“Plenary,” the neighbor answered casually.
“Look,” the first one was surprised, “that’s why I’m looking, what is it?” As if it were plenary.
“Yes, be calm,” the second one answered sternly. – Today it’s very plenary and the quorum has reached such a level – just hang in there.
– ...But it’s somehow closer to me. Everything somehow comes out in them minimally on the essence of the day... Although I will say frankly that I have a rather permanent attitude towards these meetings. So, you know, the industry is going from empty to empty.
It’s difficult, comrades, to speak Russian!” – concludes the author of the story M. Zoshchenko.
Indeed, it is difficult if you do not know the rules and norms that exist in each language.
The most important quality of speech culture is its correctness. Literary correct speech constructed in accordance with language norms.
The norm of a language (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means, a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of elements of a literary language in a certain period of its development. Characteristic features of the norm of the Russian literary language are relative stability, prevalence, common use, universal obligatory nature, compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language.
Literary norm compulsory for oral and writing and depends on the conditions in which speech occurs. The norm does not divide the means of language into good or bad. It indicates the appropriateness of using them in communication. Sources of language norms - works classical literature, the generally accepted modern use of language, Scientific research.
The norm reflects the desire of language in a given period to stop, solidify, stability, continuity, universality, and at the same time the desire to go beyond the original, generating new possibilities.
Language norms are a historical phenomenon, constantly changing. Changes in literary norms are associated with the development of language, social changes, the development of literature, etc. What was the norm in the last century and even 10 years ago may today be a deviation from it. If you look at dictionaries from 100 years ago, you can see how norms have changed, for example, pronunciation and stress.
So, in the 19th century. they said - trains, weather, nowadays only older generation actors pronounce the return particle xia – sj firmly - returned (b).
The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: lively colloquial speech, dialects, borrowings, professionalism. Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually already exist in the language and are used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language.
For example, in the “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” variants of words are given - thinking, thinking, etc.
There are 3 degrees of normativity, which are reflected in various dictionaries:
norm of the 1st degree – strict, rigid, does not allow options (putting down, not laying down);
norm of the 2nd degree – neutral, allows equivalent options (decent (w));
the 3rd degree norm is more flexible, allowing colloquial, outdated forms (cottage cheese, cottage cheese).
The norm of the 1st degree is called an imperative norm, the norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees are called dispositive norms.
Currently, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable against the backdrop of events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in social sphere, science, technology.
A linguistic norm is not a dogma. Depending on the goals and objectives of communication, on the characteristics of a particular style, deviations from the norm are possible. But these deviations should reflect the existing norms in the language.
The following norms are distinguished: spelling, spelling and punctuation, lexical, morphological, syntactic.
Orthoepic norms(Greek correct speech) - norms of pronunciation and stress.(He took ishshaka (boxes) from the store - incorrect pronunciation makes it difficult to understand.) Spelling errors make it difficult to perceive the speaker’s speech. Social role correct pronunciation is very important, since knowledge of orthoepic norms greatly facilitates the communication process. In the play by D.B. The show “Pygmalion”, professor of phonetics Higgins not only taught the dirty street flower seller Eliza Doolittle, who spoke vulgarly and incorrectly, literate and cultured speech. She turned into an elegant and charming woman and realized her place in society.
In Russian, the stress is free, not fixed, in different places, that is, it is on any syllable in the word - begin, began, began. The emphasis is mobile - right, right, right.
There are common mistakes to avoid:
– for example, at the end of words G should sound like To, exception is the word God(x);
– combination – chn- this is how it is pronounced, except for proper names: - Nikitishna - and individual words - yaishnitsa, kopeeshny, trifle as options;
- before the letter e consonants in borrowed words are softened - rector, engineer, theory, the sound is pronounced softly l– molecule; in some borrowed words there are consonants before e pronounced firmly - codex (code), cafe (cafe);
– stress in verb forms: verbs ending in – ate with stress in indefinite form on the last syllable: bonus - awarded, form - formed.
To avoid making mistakes in speech, you need to use special dictionaries, for example “ Spelling dictionary Russian language". It gives normative marks.
Equal options are connected by a union And; variants of norms, one of which is the main one: the mark “acceptable” - additional, marked “acceptably outdated” – add. outdated
Options outside the literary norm use prohibitive marks: “not recommended” - not rec., " wrong" - not right.,"grossly wrong" - grossly wrong.
A whole layer of vocabulary is associated with the professional sphere of use. Dictionaries also record these options - atomic, compass, alcohol - and have the mark - prof.
Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are
– the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form,
- the use of a word in the meanings that it has in the language,
– the appropriateness of its use in a given situation. Compliance with lexical norms – the most important condition correctness of speech.
Lexical norms first of all require knowledge of the meaning of words. In addition, compliance with lexical norms is the correct and appropriate use of synonyms, polysemantic words, outdated words, neologisms, phraseological units, words of foreign origin. The same applies to clericalism and professional vocabulary.
(“The waves rolled over the pier and fell down like a swift jack.” From the novel “12 Chairs” by I. Ilf and E. Petrov.
“Oblomov was lying on the sofa, where his personality was decaying.” From the essay.)
Lexical norms require lexical compatibility, that is, words in a sentence must be selected taking into account their semantic compatibility, for example, you cannot say: increasing the level (it can increase or decrease); borrow money from someone (borrow - lend).
Lexical norms are associated with the ability to distinguish paronyms (words that sound similar, but have different meaning). For example, put on - put on. The verb to put on is used when the action is directed at its manufacturer - to put on a coat, glasses, as well as in constructions with the preposition to - on child. The verb to dress is used when the action is directed to another object, designated indirect object– dress a child, a doll. Or provide – submit (I was given the floor at the meeting. The report must be submitted in writing).
Must be avoided in speech
– pleonasms (redundancy of expression: a souvenir, my autobiography, a price list;
– tautologies (repetition of words with the same root or identical morphemes): this abstract provides data; the following shortcomings should be noted.
Compliance with lexical norms makes speech accurate. Speech accuracy requires:
ability to think clearly (logical accuracy),
knowledge of the subject of speech (subject accuracy),
knowledge of the meaning of words used in speech (conceptual accuracy).
Failure to comply with standards leads to errors and oddities. For example, one study provides a translation of the words of a Russian song: “And who knows why he blinks...”: “Nobody knew what was wrong with his eye.”
Morphological norms require proper education grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech.
The most common errors:
1. Foreign indeclinable words denoting inanimate objects, usually belong to the neuter gender: highway, cafe, coat.
2. In the genitive plural the following forms are used:
– masculine words: a pair of shoes, boots, stockings (socks, oranges, eggplants, hectares, tomatoes, tangerines), Armenians, Georgians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Turkmens (Kalmyks, Mongols, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Yakuts), ampere, watt, volts (grams, kilograms);
– feminine words: barges, waffles, fables, shoes, weddings, sheets;
– neuter words: saucer, towels, blanket, mirror;
– words that do not have a singular number: manger, everyday life, twilight.
3. The prepositional case of forms like on vacation, on vacation is preferable to – e(on - y - colloquial forms).
4. In literary language, forms ending in - and I: director, inspector, doctor, professor, vacation, passport, etc.; with ending – and, – s: engineers, drivers, accountants, editors, contracts, cakes, workshops, etc.
5. Preposition because of used when a negative reason is given, thanks to - at positive reason(due to the rain I missed the bus, thanks to the rain the fields turned green).
6. Pronouns are often used incorrectly: correctly – I’m thinking about you, I miss you, they miss us, I’m coming to you, their choice (not theirs).
7. Adjective in short form– characteristic, inactive, responsible.
8. The formation of comparative and superlative degrees causes difficulties: it is impossible to say which is the closest.
9. The collective numerals two, three, etc. are used in the following cases:
– with nouns naming male persons (two friends);
– with nouns children, people, guys, persons (meaning person);
– with nouns used only in the plural (three days).
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of phrases and sentences. When constructing sentences, it is necessary to remember that in the Russian language, with free word order, direct word order is preferable rather than reverse (inversion). In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, and the original information precedes the new information. If this order is not followed, the sentence may be ambiguous. “Will he go to the seminar? He will go..."
When constructing a phrase, you need to remember about management. For example, director of something, in charge of something, pay for something, pay for something, talk about something, point out something, worry about someone, worry about someone, superiority over something -, advantage over someone, etc.
Prepositions thanks, in agreement, in spite of require the use of the dative case - according to the schedule.
It is a mistake to use two subjects: The room was not small at all.
It is often unjustified to include a word like this, for example: Automation conditions, they are like this...
With a subject expressed by a collective noun (row, majority, minority, part) in combination with genitive case plural, the predicate is usually put in the plural if we are talking about animate objects, and in the singular if we are talking about inanimate ones (most students passed the exams).
At the words a lot, a little, a little, a lot, how much the predicate is in the singular (how many schemes were developed?).
Prepositions are used to express cause-and-effect relationships in view of, as a result of, in connection with, due to and etc.
When constructing a participial phrase, we must remember that the main action, expressed by the verb, and the additional action, expressed by the participle, are performed by one person: While reading a book, the student usually took notes.
When using homogeneous members of a sentence, you must remember:
– it is impossible to combine heterogeneous concepts as homogeneous members – study mathematics and varieties of tea; and also you cannot include specific and generic concepts (I love mathematics, physics, academic subjects);
– double unions should be connected by homogeneous members: he not only received the technical task, but also completed it;
– at two homogeneous members a general controlled word is placed if the control words require the same case and preposition (read and take notes on lectures) (not right, love and think about the country).
It is also necessary to avoid piling subordinate clauses, for example: Design engineers gathered for a meeting, which took place in assembly hall, which was recently renovated by builders who tried to correct the deficiencies within the time limit that was established by the plan, which was approved a month ago in the same room.
In M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Heart of a Dog” there is an example of incorrect sentence construction: “We, the management of the house,” Shvonder spoke with hatred, “came to you after general meeting residents of our building, on which the issue of densifying the apartments of the building was raised... - Who stood on whom? - Philip Philipovich shouted.
Stylistic norms are associated with the characteristics of functional styles, speech genre, the purpose and conditions of communication.
“Of course, standing on the platform, I inform you that apartment No. 10 is suspicious in terms of moonshine. And in the kitchen their little dog, a poodle, attacks the consumer and tears his legs. This poodle, cholera in her side, grabbed me by the legs.” This letter from the hero of the story M. Zoshchenko is an indicator of confusion various styles– official business, scientific, colloquial and everyday. As a result, the official paper causes laughter.
Norms make speech understandable, logical, and expressive.
In the Russian language, native Russian vocabulary makes up 90%. The rest of the vocabulary is borrowed from different languages. Original Russian vocabulary is divided into the following groups:
– Indo-Europeanisms are the most ancient words, formed in 5–4 thousand BC. e. (oak, wolf, sheep, mother, son, moon, snow, daughter);
– Common Slavic vocabulary – words inherited from the Common Slavic language before the 6th century. and now used in South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic languages (see, sow, fight, head, man, sit, gold, I, you, you);
– East Slavicisms – words that arose and are used in the East Slavic group of languages (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian) (here, today, village, dog, bullfinch);
– Russian words themselves appear in the period from the 16th century. to the present (sadness).
Borrowed vocabulary consists of three groups:
1) words that are the only names for life important concepts(bed, bath, mathematics, sailor, guitar);
2) words that are the only names of designated concepts, but are recognized as foreign (metro, trolleybus, pajamas);
3) names that have original Russian analogues (punctual - precise, contract - agreement).
The third group gives barbarisms - foreign words included in speech unnecessarily. Currently, there are a lot of them - impeachment, monitoring, holding, presentation, briefing, populist, etc. Purity of speech requires correct use borrowed words and limits the scope of their distribution.
Relevance is a requirement for such a selection of linguistic means that make speech meet the goals and conditions of communication. The same style is not suitable for every situation, age, moment and listener. There are stylistic, contextual, personal and psychological relevance. Style is taking into account the methods of selecting vocabulary in accordance with the style used - business, scientific, conversational. Contextual is determined by the speech environment. Personal-psychological requires speaking delicately and tactfully, kindly and respectfully.
A beautiful, correctly constructed speech is always rich in nuances, it is expressive, evokes a response, and creates a certain mood.
The expressiveness and richness of language depends on the inclusion of epithets, metaphors, the use of phraseological units, comparisons, hyperboles and much more. Examples include the works of Russian poets and writers, speeches by famous Russian lawyers, lectures by scientists, and articles by journalists.
All of us, all of us in this world are perishable,
Copper quietly pours from the maple leaves...
May you be blessed forever,
What has come to flourish and die.
S.A. Yesenin
A.C. Pushkin, according to estimates, used more than 21 thousand words, Shakespeare - more than 20 thousand words, modern man– significantly less – 5–9 thousand. “Consolidated Dictionary of Modern Russian Vocabulary” in 2 volumes contains more than 170,000 words. It is a kind of guide to dictionaries, as it includes 14 dictionaries. This and other dictionaries reflect various aspects of the linguistic reality of the modern period, linguistic richness. Using dictionaries, you can significantly expand your lexicon and check yourself.
Exist explanatory dictionaries, where the meaning of words is explained, one of the most popular is edited by SI. Ozhegova. Etymological dictionaries are published that explain the origin and history of words, dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, dictionaries foreign words, dictionaries of word compatibility, spelling dictionaries, dictionaries of Russian names and many others.
Thanks to the use of norms, richness and expressiveness, as the great L. Tolstoy said: “The Russian language is real, strong, where necessary - strict, serious, where necessary - passionate, where necessary - lively and lively.”
1. Types of norms, practice of their application. Give your examples of using norms in speech.
2. Working with a dictionary.
APPLICATION
Russian language dictionaries
Alexandrova Z.E. Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. M., 1989.
Akhmanova O.S. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language. M., 1989.
Belchikov Yu.A., Panyusheva M.S. Dictionary of paronyms of the modern Russian language. M., 1994.
Lvov M.R. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language. M., 1997.
Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1997.
Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language / Ed. P.A. Avanesova. M., 1989.
Rosenthal D.E., Dzhandzhakova E.V., Kabanova N.P. Handbook of spelling, pronunciation, literary editing. M., 1999.
Modern dictionary of foreign words. M., 1993.
Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language / Ed. A.I. Molotkov. St. Petersburg, 1994.
From the book How the Bible Came to Be by Edel Conrad From the book Lorenzo the Magnificent author Klulas Ivan From the book Watching the English. Hidden rules behavior by Fox Kate From the book Culturology (lecture notes) by Khalin K E From book Everyday life Florence in the time of Dante by Antonetti PierreLecture 13. Trends in cultural universalization in the modern global process 1. Factors and mechanisms of cultural transformation Over ten thousand years of its development, human culture has gone from the stone ax to space exploration. She never stayed
From the book America... People live! author Zlobin Nikolay VasilievichLITERATURE IN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE SOURCES Boccaccio G. Decameron / Trans. with it. N. Lyubimova; Life of Dante / Trans. with it. E. M. Linetskaya. 1987. Villani J. New Chronicle, or History of Florence. M., 1997. Dante A. New life; Divine Comedy / Trans. with it. M. Lozinsky. M., 1967. Dante A. Small
From the book Hello, children! author Amonashvili Shalva Alexandrovich From the book Biblical phraseological units in Russian and European culture author Dubrovina Kira NikolaevnaThe joy of communicating in Russian Another day of ours school life I asked the children: - Do you want to learn Russian? And they answered me trustingly and joyfully: - Yes! They told me “yes” not only out of gullibility and naivety, not knowing what they were agreeing to, but because they
From the book Everyday Life in the Time of the Troubadours of the 12th-13th Centuries author Brunel-Lobrichon GenevieveAbout the status biblical phraseological units in Russian Biblical phraseological units are “Russified foreigners” in Russian. Some of them are very closely related to the original source both in form and content, while others have only a “surname” left from their foreign ancestors, i.e.
From the book Women of Victorian England. From ideal to vice by Coty Katherine From the book Everyday Life of the Surrealists. 1917-1932 by Dex Pierre From the book England and the British. What guidebooks are silent about by Fox KateBibliography in Russian Antokolsky P. Two centuries of French poetry. M., 1976. Anthology of the literary avant-garde of the 20th century / Translated. from English and French, comp. V. Lapitsky. 2nd ed., add. and processed St. Petersburg, 2006. Anthology of French surrealism of the 20s / Comp., commentary, trans. S. Isaeva, E.
From the book Articles about Schubert author Ganzburg GregoryClass norms of speech culture You can’t talk about English speech etiquette, without mentioning classes, because any Englishman, as soon as he speaks, instantly reveals his belonging to one class or another. Perhaps this is true to some extent and
From the book Rise and Fall Ottoman Empire. Women in power author Mamedov IskanderClass norms of cultural speech. Vowels vs. Consonants The first indicator of class is the type of sounds you prefer to pronounce, or rather, the type of sounds you don't pronounce. According to representatives of the elite of society, they say
From the author's bookBooks about F. Schubert in Russian The life of Franz Schubert in documents: According to publ. Otto Erich Deutsch and other sources / Comp., total. ed., introduction and notes. Yu. Khokhlova. – M., 1963. Memoirs of Schubert / Comp., trans., preface. and note. Yu. N. Khokhlova. – M.: Music, 1964. Franz Schubert.
A. NORS OF MODERN RUSSIAN
LITERARY LANGUAGE
(OPTIONS, TYPES OF STANDARDS)
Plan
1. The concept of language norms (literary norms).
2. Variants of norms.
3. Types of norms.
1. The most important quality of speech culture is its correctness, in other words, its compliance language standards.
What is included in this concept? Let's offer a definition.
The norm of a language (literary norm) is the rules for the use of linguistic means, the uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of elements of a literary language in a certain period of its development.
A linguistic norm is a complex and rather contradictory phenomenon: it dialectically combines a number of opposing features. Let us list the most important of them and give the necessary comment.
1. Relative sustainability And stability language norms are necessary conditions ensuring the balance of the language system over a long period of time. At the same time, the norm is a historical phenomenon, which is explained by the social nature of language, which is constantly developing together with the creator and speaker of the language - society itself.
The historical nature of the norm is due to its dynamism, variability. What was the norm in the last century and even 10-15 years ago may become a deviation from it today. If you turn to dictionaries and literary sources from 100 years ago, you can see how the norms of stress, pronunciation, grammatical forms of words, their (words) meaning and use have changed. For example, in the 19th century they said: cabinet(instead of closet), fat(instead of heat), strict(instead of strict), quiet(instead of quiet), Alexandrinsky theater (instead of Alexandrinsky), returned(instead of returning); at the ball, weather, trains, this beautiful paleto(t) (coat); certainly(instead of Necessarily), necessary(instead of necessary) and so on.
2. On the one hand, the norm is characterized by widespread And universality compliance with certain rules, without which it would be impossible to “control” the element of speech. On the other hand, we can talk about “linguistic pluralism” – the simultaneous existence of several options (doublets) that are recognized as normative. This is a consequence of the interaction of traditions and innovations, stability and variability, subjective (author of speech) and objective (language).
3. Basic sources of language norms- These are primarily works of classical literature, exemplary speech of highly educated native speakers, generally accepted, widespread modern usage, as well as scientific research. However, recognizing the importance literary tradition And authority of sources, you should also remember author's individuality, capable of violating norms, which is certainly justified in certain situations communication.
In conclusion, we emphasize that the literary norm is objective: it is not invented by scientists, but reflects the natural processes and phenomena occurring in the language. Language standards are mandatory for both oral and written speech. It is necessary to understand that the norm does not divide linguistic means into “good” and “bad”. It indicates the appropriateness of their use in a specific communicative situation.
In general, the literary norm enshrines all the best that has been created in the speech behavior of representatives of a given society. It is necessary because it helps preserve the integrity and general intelligibility of the literary language, protects it from colloquialisms, dialectisms, and jargon.
2. Changes in language norms are preceded by their appearance options(doublets), which actually already exist in speech and are used by native speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in special dictionaries, such as the “Spelling Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language”, “Dictionary of Word Compatibility”, etc.
Exist 3 degrees of normativity:
– 1st degree norm– strict, tough, not allowing options (for example, put, but not lay down; call but not rings; socks, but not sock);
– norm 2nd degree– less strict, allowing equal options, united in a dictionary entry by the conjunction “and” (for example, right And right, blinds(Wed And pl.), immoral And immoral);
– norm 3rd degree– the most flexible, where one option is the main (preferred), and the second, although acceptable, is less desirable. In such cases, the second option is preceded by the mark "additional"(permissible), sometimes in combination with stylistic marks or just a stylistic mark: "colloquial"(colloquial), "poetic"(poetic), "prof."(professional), etc. For example: bank sprat(add. sprats),cup tea(additional colloquial) tea), compass(prof. compass).
The 1st degree norm is called imperative norm, norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees - dispositive norms.
Currently, the process of changing language norms has become especially active and noticeable against the backdrop of events of historical and political significance, economic reforms, changes in the social sphere, science, and technology. It should be remembered that a language norm is not a dogma: depending on the conditions, goals and objectives of communication, and on the characteristics of a particular style, deviations from the norm are possible. However, these deviations should reflect the variants of norms that exist in the literary language.
3. In accordance with the main levels of language and areas of use of linguistic means, the following are distinguished: types of norms.
1. Orthoepic norms(Greek correct speech) – norms for stress and pronunciation. Spelling errors make it difficult to perceive the speaker’s speech. The social role of correct pronunciation is very great, since knowledge of spelling norms greatly facilitates the communication process.
In order not to make mistakes in speech, you need to use special dictionaries, such as “Dictionary of Stresses of the Russian Language”, “Spelling Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Difficulties” oral speech" and etc.
Options that are outside the literary norm are accompanied by prohibitive notes: “ not rec."(Not recommended), "not right."(wrong), "rude."(rough), "bran."(expletive language), etc.
2. Lexical norms or norms of word usage, is: a) the use of a word in the meanings that it has in modern language; b) knowledge of its lexical and grammatical compatibility; c) correct choice of word from synonymous series; d) the appropriateness of its use in a particular speech situation.
3. Morphological norms regulate the formation and use of grammatical forms of words. Let us note that morphological norms include, first of all: norms for determining the grammatical gender of some nouns, norms for the formation of the plural of nouns, norms for the formation and use of case forms of nouns, adjectives, numerals and pronouns; norms of comparative and superlatives adjectives and adverbs; norms for the formation and use of verb forms, etc.
4. Syntactic norms are associated with the rules of construction and use of phrases and various models offers. When constructing a phrase, you must first of all remember about management; When constructing a sentence, you should take into account the role of word order and follow the rules of use participial phrases, laws of construction complex sentence etc.
Morphological and syntactic norms are often combined under the general name - grammatical norms.
5. Spelling norms (spelling norms) And punctuation norms do not allow distortion of the visual image of a word, sentence or text. To write correctly, you need to know the generally accepted rules of spelling (spelling a word or its grammatical form) and punctuation (punctuation).
Questions for self-control:
1. What is a language norm and what are its features?
2. How is the inconsistency of the norm manifested?
3. What differences exist in the degree of normativity?
4. What types of norms can be distinguished in accordance with the main levels of language and areas of use of linguistic means?
Let us move on to a detailed consideration of the types of norms indicated above.
Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena occurring in language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources for establishing language norms include the works of classical and modern writers, analysis of the language of means mass media, generally accepted modern usage, data from living and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by linguists.
Thus, the compilers of the dictionary of grammatical variants used sources stored at the Institute of Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences:
1) a card index of grammatical fluctuations, which was compiled on materials of Soviet artistic prose during 1961-1972;
2) materials of a statistical survey on newspapers of the 60-70s. The total sample amounted to one hundred thousand options;
3) recordings on music libraries of modern colloquial speech;
4) materials from the answers to the questionnaire;
5) data from all modern dictionaries, grammars and special studies on grammatical variants.
The compilers of the dictionary did a tremendous amount of work to determine which of the grammatical forms should be considered the norm, which should be limited in use, and which should be considered incorrect.
To get an idea of the questionnaires that are filled out by native speakers, here are a few examples from the “Questionnaire on Modern Russian Literary Pronunciation” (1960):
35. How do you pronounce:
When or when?
Where or Where?
Sometimes or inoHda?
smog or smoH?
nemoK or nemoH?
67. How do you pronounce the following words (underline):
A) arteriya or artery?
bacterium or bacterium?
brunnet or brun NO?
andNERTNY or inert?
conSErvy or canned food?
kriTerip or criterion?
portpVain or port wine?
progRESs or progress?
strATEG or strategist?
Tema or Subject!
shinEl or Overcoat?
b) butERbrod or sandwich?
DEgassing or DEgassing?
DEKAN or Decak?
DEMOBILIZATION or Demobilization?
intense or intensive?
copy or COPY?
Why are questions asked about the pronunciation of words? when, where, sometimes And I couldn't, I couldn't!
This is explained by the fact that in a literary language the letter G in position before vowels, sonorant consonants ( R, l, m, n) And V conveys the sound [g]: newspaper, gnome, thunder, hum, nail. When the sound [g] is formed, the back of the tongue closes with the soft palate; noise occurs at the moment when a stream of exhaled air opens the closed organs of speech. Therefore, the sound [g] is called explosive, instantaneous.
Southern Russian dialects, including the Don ones, are characterized by [g] slotted. When a slit [r] is formed, the back of the tongue does not close, but only moves closer to the soft palate, and a gap is formed between them. The noise arises from the friction of exhaled air against the edges of the adjacent organs of speech. This sound is indicated by the letter “g”.
In the Russian literary language (with rare exceptions), only the pronunciation of [g] plosive is permissible. The exception is the word God in indirect cases: of god, by god, about god And sometimes, then, always. They had to pronounce [g] fricative: bo[g]a, bo[g]om, o bo[g]e, ino[g]da, then[g]da, all[g]da.
It was important for scientists to find out what sound the majority makes and whether the norm should be changed.
At the end of words, the sound [g], like other voiced consonants, is deafened: shore [g]a - bere[k], but [g]a - but [k], la [g]u - la [k]. In the South Russian dialect [g] at the end of words also turns into a voiceless consonant, but not in [k], as in the literary language, but in [x]: bere[g]a - bere[x], but[g]a - but[x].
Thus, a violation of one orthoepic norm, i.e., pronunciation [g] instead of [g], leads to a violation of other pronunciation norms.
The formulation of question 67 is also understandable. In this case we are talking about the pronunciation of borrowed words. They, as a rule, obey the orthoepic norms of the modern Russian literary language and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features.
Thus, in most borrowed words, the consonants before [e] are softened: ka[t"]et, faculty[t"]et, [t"]e-oria, [d"]emon, [d"]espot, [n" ]firsts, [s"]section, [s"]series, mu[z"]ey, newspaper [z"]eta, [r"]enta, [r"]ector.
However, in a number of words of foreign language origin, the firmness of the consonants before [e] is preserved: sh[te]p-sel, o[te]l, s[te]nd, ko[de]ks, mo[de]l, ka[re] , [dz]mi-urg, [de]mping, kash[ne], e[ne]rgia, [de]marsh, mor[ze], k[re]do, etc.
[se], criterion [te and additional, those], port [ve and additional. ve], progress [re and additional. re], strategist [te and additional, te], theme [te], overcoat [not]; b) sandwich [te], degassing [de and de], dean [de and additional. de], demobilization [de and additional, de], intensive [te], international [te], instance [ze and additional, ze].
The indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to talk about three degrees of normativity:
1st degree norm- strict, tough, not allowing options;
norm 2nd degrees- neutral, allows equivalent options;
norm 3rd degrees- more flexible, allows the use of colloquial as well as outdated forms.
Task 139. Using the data " Spelling dictionary» about the norm of pronunciation of foreign words, give examples for all three degrees of norms.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.
The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication). The norm does not divide language means into good and bad, but indicates their communicative expediency.
Literary norm– uniform, generally accepted rules for the use of linguistic units, recorded in dictionaries and existing during a certain period of language development.
Norms exist at all linguistic levels and in the oral form of the literary language.
Codified norms- included in the dictionary.
Sources of norms:
1. Classical (fiction) Russian literature.
2. The language of some media (TV channel “Culture”).
3. The speech of the intelligentsia is not in the 1st generation.
4. Research by linguists (questionnaire data).
Sources of changes in norms:
1. Colloquial speech(plural forms of nouns in – a: tractor, doctor, professor, etc.).
2. Local dialects (they were dialectal, but the words zaimka, kvashnya, arable land, plow, etc. became literary).
3. Professional jargon (conductor, cruiser, huntsman, etc.).
4. Vernacular (in modern dictionaries it is allowed to use the word coffee as a neuter noun).
5. Other languages.
According to the degree of normativity, it is customary to distinguish the following types of norms:
1. Strict(mandatory) norm (1st degree norm) – in this type of norm there is only one correct option. Pr: document.
2. Neutral norm (2nd degree norm) – there are two equal options. Ex: cottage cheese - cottage cheese.
3. Movable norm (norm of the 3rd degree) - has two options, these options are not equal: the 1st option is the main one, the 2nd option is not literary.
Question 5. Basic orthoepic norms of the Russian language: norms of pronunciation of vowels and consonants.
Orthoepic norms– norms for the correct pronunciation of sounds and stress placement in words.
Basic rules for pronunciation of consonants:
1. Pronunciation of consonants /d/, /t/, /z/, /s/ and /r/ before /e/v foreign words presents a difficulty, since in some cases these consonants are pronounced only firmly, and in others only softly; in some words, variable pronunciation is possible.
Typically, a hard consonant before /e/ is pronounced in words and expressions that are not sufficiently mastered by the Russian language (in accordance with pronunciation in Western European languages), while in native Russian words the consonants before /e/ were soft ( veche, dough, river etc.).
The pronunciation of hard consonants before /e/ remains: a) in expressions that are often reproduced using the Latin alphabet ( de facto, de jure); b) in words denoting the realities of foreign life ( cocktail, cottage); c) in terms of ( grotesque, sepsis); d) in proper names (Voltaire, Goethe).
In long-borrowed words, the consonant before /e/ is usually softened ( beret, museum, tenor).
2. There are no extra consonant sounds (and letters) in the words: leatherette, intriguer, incident, compromise, compromise, competitive, state, mock, slip, post office, precedent, escort, legal adviser, viands.
3. Write Thu, but we read /pcs/ in the word What and its derivatives ( so that, nothing, for nothing). Exceptions: something, insignificant, destroy.
Basic norms for pronunciation of vowels:
1. Unstressed /o/ is pronounced clearly in the following words: radio, boa, modern, veto, rococo, baroque, oasis, beau monde, bonton and etc.
2. Without /th/ the words are read: project, design, designer, design, patient.
3. There are no extra vowel sounds (and letters) in the following words: unmercenary, future, knowledgeable (but: next), porcupine, perturbation, cake, institution, excessive, extraordinary.
4. See page 57, under number 5.
5. See page 56, under number 1.