Literary language as a kind of national language

The culture of speech as a branch of linguistics

Language and Society

Language as the main means of human communication exists only in a society of people. The connection between language and society is two-way: there is no language outside of society and there is no society without language. During the period of emergence and development of society, language contributed to the implementation of joint activities of people, etc.

Language is first and foremost social phenomenon, therefore, he cannot but be influenced by social factors. All changes in the social structure are reflected in the language. Any society is heterogeneous in its composition: people differ in their social status, level of education, place of residence, age, gender, etc. But the social differentiation of the language is not limited to this in the speech of people united by one profession, there are words that are incomprehensible to the uninitiated - professional jargon.

The science that studies the social stratification of language is sociolinguistics. Within its framework, linguistic variability, its causes and role in the process of language development are investigated. It has been established that the social status of a person largely depends on how much the norms characteristic of people of the corresponding circle are observed in his speech. To produce good impression to succeed in business, it is necessary to know the features of the functioning of the language in society, as well as the norms inherent in each variety of language.

Common (or national) language- the language of a given people, taken in the totality of its inherent features that distinguish it from other languages.

Any National language is not uniform in composition, since it is used by people who differ in their social status, occupation, level of culture, etc., and are used in different situations (business conversation, lecture, etc.). These differences are reflected in the varieties of the common language.

In each national language, the main varieties:

· literary language,

· territorial dialects,

· vernacular,

· jargon.

Literary language as a kind of national language

Literary language - the main means of communication between people of the same nationality . It is characterized by two main properties: processing and normalization.

Processedness literary language arises as a result of purposeful selection of all the best that is in the language.

normalization expressed in the fact that the use of linguistic means is regulated by a single universally binding norm. The norm as a set of rules of word usage is necessary to preserve the integrity and comprehensibility of the national language, to transfer information from one generation to another.

Unity and intelligibility − these are the basic requirements that a literary language must meet. Other varieties of the vernacular do not meet these requirements.

The modern Russian literary language is multifunctional and is used in various fields of human activity. In this regard, the means of the literary language (lexicon, grammatical constructions, etc.) are functionally delimited. The use of certain means depends on the type of communication. So The literary language is divided into two functional varieties: colloquial and bookish.. In accordance with this, there is colloquial speech and bookish language.

Colloquial speech used in informal situations. Main features:

Oral form of expression

Implementation predominantly in the form of a dialogue

Unpreparedness, unplanned, spontaneity

Direct contact between communicants.

The norm in colloquial speech is the result of a speech tradition, determined by the appropriateness of using an expression in a given situation. In oral colloquial speech, there are three styles of pronunciation:

1. Full style- distinct articulation, careful pronunciation of all sounds, unhurried pace.

2. neutral style- a fairly distinct articulation, but at the same time some reduction of sounds, a faster, average rate of speech.

3. Conversational style- characteristic of situations of communication in everyday life, in a relaxed atmosphere, fuzzy articulation, "swallowing sounds" and syllables, fast pace.

[now] - [now] - [right now].

Book language is the second functional variety of the literary language. The main features are a written form of expression and implementation mainly in the form of a monologue. The main property of the bookish language is to preserve the text and thus serve as a means of communication between generations. Because bookish language serves different areas life of society, it is divided into functional styles.

Functional style is a kind of bookish language that is characteristic of a certain area. human activity and has a certain originality in the use of linguistic means.

Each functional style is realized in speech genres. genre- a specific type of texts that have specific features that distinguish genres from each other, as well as commonality, which is due to the fact that certain groups of genres belong to the same functional style.

The scientific style is characterized abstraction, strict logic of presentation, a large number special terms, certain features of the syntax. It uses bookish, special, stylistically neutral vocabulary. The following genres are distinguished: article, monograph, dissertation, textbook, review, review, abstract, etc.

Formal business style is distinguished by the accuracy of wording, impersonality and dryness of presentation, high standard, large quantity verbal expressions, clichés. Genres: law, resolution, note, agreement, instruction, announcement, complaint, etc.

Journalistic style primarily for the means mass media. The specificity consists in the combination of two functions of the language: informational and propaganda. It is characterized by the use of expressive-evaluative vocabulary (along with neutral and general functional vocabulary), as well as phraseology. Genres: editorial, report, essay, reportage, feuilleton, etc.

Creatures-t yet language fiction . For artistic speech, it is characteristic that all language means can be used here: not only words and expressions of the literary language, but also elements of vernacular, jargon, territorial dialects (in the 3rd section of this manual, the issue will be discussed more fully).

The concept of literary and national language.

Literary language - the national language of writing, the language of official and business documents, schooling, written communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form (written and sometimes oral), perceived by native speakers of a given language as exemplary. Literary language is the language of literature in the broadest sense. The Russian literary language functions both in oral form and in written form. Signs of a literary language: 1) the presence of writing - affects the nature of the literary language, enriching it means of expression and expanding the scope; 2) normalization - a fairly stable way of expression, which denotes the historically established patterns of development of the Russian literary language.

Normalization is based on the language system and is enshrined in the best examples literary works. This method expressions are preferred by the educated part of society; 3) codification, i.e. fixed in the scientific literature; it is expressed in the presence grammar dictionaries and other books containing rules for the use of the language; 4) stylistic diversity, i.e., the variety of functional styles of the literary language; 5) relative stability; 6) prevalence; 7) general usage; 8) general obligation; 9) compliance with the use, customs and capabilities of the language system. 10) the dialectical unity of book and colloquial speech; 11) close connection with the language of fiction; The protection of the literary language and its norms is one of the main tasks of the culture of speech. Literary language unites the people in terms of language.

The leading role in the creation of the literary language belongs to the most advanced part of society.

Each of the languages, if it is sufficiently developed, has two main functional varieties: the literary language and live colloquial speech. Every person masters live colloquial speech from early childhood.

The assimilation of a literary language occurs throughout the development of a person, right up to old age. The literary language should be generally understandable, that is, accessible to perception by all members of society. The literary language must be developed to such an extent that it can serve the main areas of human activity. In speech, it is important to observe the grammatical, lexical, orthoepic and accentological norms of the language. Based on this, an important task of linguists is to consider everything new in the literary language from the point of view of correspondence general patterns language development and optimal conditions for its functioning.

The modern Russian literary language, expressing the aesthetic-artistic, scientific, social, spiritual life of the people, serves the self-expression of the individual, the development of all forms of verbal art, creative thought, the moral revival and improvement of all aspects of society at a new stage of its development. The national language is the language of the nation, which has developed on the basis of the language of the people in the process of the development of the people into a nation.

The intensity of this process depends on the pace and special conditions the development of a nationality into a nation among different peoples. The national language is a system of several forms of language existence: the literary language (oral and written forms), the colloquial language (varieties of language and dialects). In the process of the formation of the national language, the relationship between the literary language and dialects changes significantly. The national literary language is an evolving form that occupies leading position, gradually replacing the dialects that dominated the early stages of language development, especially in the sphere of oral communication.

At the same time, the formation of new dialect features ceases, and under the influence of the literary language, the sharpest dialect differences are leveled. At the same time, the scope of the literary language is expanding, and its functions are becoming more complicated. This is due to the complication and development of the national culture of the people, as well as the fact that the literary form of N. I, which is developing on a folk basis, displaces written languages ​​\u200b\u200bfor the people (for example, Latin in Western Europe, Church Slavonic in Russia). The national literary language also penetrates into the sphere of oral communication, where the dialect previously dominated.

The most important feature of the national literary language is its normalized character. In connection with the need to satisfy the increasingly complex and diverse needs of society, caused by the development of fiction, journalism, science and technology, as well as different forms oral speech, the syntactic system and vocabulary of the national literary language are intensively developing and enriching.

In the era of the existence of bourgeois society, the national literary language serves mainly the ruling stratum of society, that is, its educated part. The rural population, as a rule, continues to use dialects, and in cities, urban pronunciations compete with the literary language.

Under the conditions of the development of socialist nations, a single normalized nationwide literary language becomes, in connection with democratization and the widespread dissemination of education, the property of every member of the nation. 6.

End of work -

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Russian language and culture of speech

Paronyms. 9. Borrowings in modern Russian. 10. Phraseologisms. eleven. Grammar difficulties modern Russian language. 1. Reasons .. Of course, the influence of these factors on the language is usually not carried out directly, but .. The narrow and increasingly narrowing composition of speakers of territorial dialects also affects their character ..

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literary norm

The literary language is a strictly standardized form of the national common language. All aspects of the language are processed and normalized in the literary language: writing, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, word formation. Rules governing the use of words, their formation, combination, grammatical forms, pronunciation, spelling, construction of sentences, are called the literary norm.

The literary norm changes and develops over time, and at different language levels, the degree of norm mobility is not the same. For instance, orthoepic norms(pronunciation and stress) underwent significant changes during the 20th century, and grammatical norms (rules for the formation of sentences, phrases and words) were more stable.

The literary norm has a very important social significance. Without firmly established language norms, people would have difficulty understanding each other.

Also literary norm protects the national language from the introduction of everything accidental and private. Literary and linguistic norms are obligatory for the mass press, radio and television, entertainment enterprises, they are enshrined in reference literature, dictionaries and textbooks.

A significant contribution to the development of literary and linguistic norms was made by N.M. Karamzin, M.V. Lomonosov, M. Yu. Lermontov, A.S. Pushkin and other classics of our literature of the XIX-XX centuries. “To create a language,” according to V.G. Belinsky, is impossible, because the people create it; philologists only discover its laws and bring them into a system, while writers only create on it in accordance with these laws” [Belinsky 1988: 244].

Features of the literary language

Literary language has a number of distinctive properties. These include:

1) stability;

2) mandatory for each native speaker;

3) processing;

What is the meaning of language processing can be understood from the words of A.M. Gorky. He noted that "any material - and especially language, requires careful selection of all the best that is in it - clear, precise, colorful, sonorous, and - further loving development of this best" [Vvedenskaya 2001: 34].

In the article “On How I Learned to Write,” Gorky notes: “It would be appropriate to recall that the language is created by the people! The division of language into literary and folk only means that we have, so to speak, a "raw" language and processed by masters. The first who perfectly understood this was Pushkin, he was also the first to show how to use the speech material of the people, how to process it” [Gorky 1953: 491].

4) Another feature of the literary language is the presence of oral (sounding speech) and written forms of speech (graphically fixed).

Oral speech presupposes the presence of a listener, an interlocutor. Written speech is usually directed to the absent. The writer can only mentally imagine his reader. At the same time, the reaction of the reader, his emotions, feelings do not affect the written language. Oral speech in most cases is interactive, i.e. depends on the perception of the listener - the reaction can change the nature of speech or even stop it.

The speaker creates his speech immediately. The writer can improve, correct the written text.

5) availability of functional styles;

In accordance with the goals that are set during communication, a variety of linguistic means are selected and varieties of a single literary language are formed, that is, functional styles. The term functional style emphasizes that depending on the functions that the language performs in each case, varieties of the literary language are distinguished:

Scientific style (they write textbooks, reports, scientific papers);

Official business (financial reports, orders, orders);

Journalistic style (articles in newspapers, magazines, speeches on radio and television);

Colloquial and everyday style (in an informal setting).

6) normativity;

Norms exist for both written and oral speech. For example, oral speech includes accentological norms (stress) and orthoepic (pronunciation); punctuation, spelling norms (spelling) are typical for writing. In all forms of speech, lexical, word-formation, syntactic, morphological norms must be observed.

All of the above features make up the peculiarity of the literary language as higher form national language.

The main variant, the main form of existence of the language is the national literary language. The main feature of the literary language is its normalization (for example, English-speaking peoples use the term "standard language" instead of the term "literary language"). Another sign of the literary language is polyfunctionality - the literary language is able to serve not only the domestic sphere, but also the sphere of higher intellectual activity; you can speak and write in the literary language on almost any topic; The literary language is characterized by a wealth of expressive means, primarily vocabulary. Important features of the literary language are also universally binding for all members of the collective (and in connection with this, the inadmissibility of dialect variants) and stylistic differentiation.
As mentioned above, the invariable and constant quality of the literary language, which always distinguishes it from other forms of existence of the language and most fully expresses its specificity, is the normalization of the language. The distinguishing feature "normalization of the language" implies the presence of a certain selection of language means and a certain regulation, carried out on the basis of different criteria; these include genre-stylistic criteria, socio-stylistic selection, as well as the rejection of narrow dialect phenomena and the general tendency towards a supra-dialect language type. The language norm that characterizes the literary language is a historically conditioned set of commonly used language means, as well as the rules for their selection and use, recognized by society as the most suitable in a particular historical period; an example of the use of a language unit. The norm is established either in accordance with the practice of real use (like everyone else, as usual), or based on authority (writers, actors, specialists). Normalization is a constant process, because the norms diverge from practice, grow old, change. The norm sometimes allows for variations; then stylistics comes into play, which determines the choice based on aesthetic taste, various communicative effects.
The literary language is characterized by stylistic differentiation - it is divided into several variants intended for use in various fields of human activity. Such variants of literary language are called functional styles. In book speech, four main styles are usually distinguished: scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic (the language of fiction); conversational style refers to colloquial speech. Each style has its own peculiarities in vocabulary and grammar.
The scientific style is characterized by unemotionality and extreme precision of expression. Words in the scientific style are used in direct, figurative meanings, it uses many special terms. The scientific style tends to complex syntactic constructions, a clear division of the text into chapters, paragraphs, paragraphs. characteristic feature scientific style is a large number of words and expressions containing an assessment of the reliability of the message: “as it seems to us”, “in our opinion”, “it can be considered proven that ...”, “it seems implausible”, etc. In the Russian scientific style, it is customary to avoid the first person singular pronoun "I". Instead, the pronoun "we" is usually used, which does not have the meaning of plurality here. So, it is very unlikely to meet in Russian scientific work a phrase like: "I think"; typical for the Russian scientific style will be the phrases “It seems to us”, “We believe”.
The official business style, like the scientific one, is characterized by the accuracy of information transfer, the use of words in their direct, non-figurative meanings. The official business style is the most standardized among the styles of the literary language: official documents are drawn up, as a rule, according to the model approved by the authorities, here there is a strict adherence to prescribed form. hallmark formal business style is the active use of verbal clichés and clichés: “I bring to your attention”, “in view of the circumstances”, etc.
Publicistic and artistic styles realize the function of emotional impact on the reader. The journalistic style is characterized by the widespread use of socio-political vocabulary and phraseology, the widespread use of emotionally colored words, various kinds of rhetorical questions and exclamations. V last years there is a penetration into Russian journalistic speech of elements of vernacular and even slang.
The language of fiction, in addition to the function of communication and emotional impact on the reader, always also performs an aesthetic function. It most actively uses all the expressive means available in the language. The desire for vivid imagery encourages authors to avoid speech patterns, to clothe thoughts in a new, expressive language shell, using trails.
For conversational style characterized by unpreparedness, spontaneity, dialogical character. The solemn, bookish vocabulary is almost completely absent. Of great importance for this style are intonation, facial expressions, gestures, without which the meaning of the speaker may be incomprehensible.
Book speech as a whole is characterized by the active use of participles and gerunds, participles and participle turns, abstract and verbal nouns, complex sentences. Colloquial speech is characterized by the use of pronouns, interjections, particles, simple and incomplete sentences, absence short forms adjectives, participles, participles and, accordingly, participles and participles.
Thus, the literary language and the language of literature are different phenomena. Literary language, on the one hand, is broader than the concept of "language of fiction", since literary language includes not only the language of fiction, but also the language of journalism, science and government controlled, business language and the language of oral speech, colloquial speech, etc.; on the other hand, the language of fiction is a broader concept than the literary language, since elements of a dialect, urban semi-dialects, and jargon can be included in a work of art. There are cases when works of art were created not in the literary language, but in slang or dialects. So, for example, Vladimir Dal, who published under the pseudonym Cossack Lugansky, wrote many of his stories in the Don dialect. Some works were written in northern Russian dialects famous poet silver age Nikolay Klyuev. Venedikt Erofeev actively used vernacular and slang in his poem "Moscow-Petushki".
Any language really exists only as a set of variants, often quite different from each other. Such options are, in addition to the literary language, various dialects, various slang and jargon, and vernacular. In slang, dialects, vernacular, you can communicate almost exclusively in everyday topics. Cultural, political, scientific terminology in these variants of the language is completely or almost completely absent.
A dialect is a territorial variant of a language. A dialect can differ from a literary language at all levels of the language system: phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactic. So, for example, some northern dialects of the Russian language are characterized by a rounded pronunciation, the replacement of the sound “ch” with “ts” (“tsai” instead of “tea”, “tsyorny” instead of “black”, etc.). Another feature of some northern dialects is the coincidence of instrumental and dative endings. plural nouns. For example: “work with your hands” instead of the all-Russian “work with your hands”. Most of the differences between the literary language and dialects are in the field of vocabulary. So, in the northern Russian dialects, instead of the all-Russian “good”, they say “Basque”, instead of “neighbor” - “shaber”; in Siberian villages, gooseberries are called the word "argus", the hut - the word "buda", and instead of the all-Russian "branch" they say "gilka". Dialects very often retain words lost by the literary language in the process of its historical development. So, for example, in some dialects of Siberia, one can still find the Old Russian words “molonya” (lightning) and “oral” (lips). The dialectal differences in a language can be great: in countries such as Germany or China, the differences between individual dialects can be even greater than the difference between individual languages. In these countries, communication between people speaking different dialects is very difficult or even completely impossible, and the role of a national literary language is growing sharply in them. It happens that individual dialects of a language develop outside the main territory of its distribution. Such dialects are called insular. An example of island dialects is the dialects of the Germans living in Siberia. On the other hand, there are languages ​​in which there is no dialect division at all. Icelandic is an example of such a language. Thus, the literary language can serve as a factor that unites the entire population of the country into one nation.
Jargon (slang, slang) is a social version of the language. Jargon is the language of some more or less closed social group. Jargon can be youth, student, sailor jargon, criminal world jargon, etc. In some cases, as, for example, in a criminal environment, jargon is used as a secret language, incomprehensible to the uninitiated, in others it is just a language game, a way to make one's speech more expressive, unusual. In addition, jargon can serve as a kind of "password": the use of jargon words and expressions by someone in the environment where it is accepted, as it were, signals: "I belong here." Jargon differs from the national language only in vocabulary. There is no special jargon phonetics or grammar. Jargons are present in many, but not all, languages ​​of the world. Some researchers argue that, for example, there is no jargon in the Belarusian and Altaic languages.
In linguistics, the correlation of the terms "jargon", "slang", "slang" is ambiguous. Nevertheless, most researchers actually call the social dialect of a certain age community or professional corporation with jargon. Argo is usually interpreted as the everyday speech of the lower classes of society; a secret language used by members of a closed group, the lower classes of society. Slang is understood as an emphatically informal, “everyday”, “familiar”, “confidential” kind of colloquial speech (meaning a kind of speech with artificially high expression, language game, fashionable neology).
Vernacular, unlike jargon and dialect, is a nationwide variant of the language. In this it approaches the literary language. However, unlike the literary language, vernacular has neither normalization nor polyfunctionality. Its main area of ​​application is household oral speech undereducated part of the population. Russian vernacular is characterized, for example, by such words and word forms as “lay down”, “polta” (plural form of “coat”), “was ustamshi”, indistinguishability of the verbs “dress” and “put on”, the use of the noun “coffee” in the middle gender, the active use of obscene language.

The literary language has a number of features that fundamentally distinguish it from other forms of language existence: processedness, normalization, the breadth of social functioning, universal obligatoryness for all members of the collective, and the development of a functional-stylistic system.

There is a difference between the literary language and the common (national) language. The national language appears in the form of a literary language, but not every literary language immediately becomes a national language.

One can speak about the Russian literary language already from the beginning of the 17th century, while it becomes the national language in the first place. half of XIX century, in the era of A. S. Pushkin. [After Peter the Great began to introduce the achievements of Western culture in Russia, a linguistic element was added to the stratification between the nobility and the rest of the people. The nobility spoke French. Thus, the Russian language became the language of the lower strata, and therefore there was an opinion that it did not have the merits of European languages.]

The national language has a tendency to operate with non-literary layers of vocabulary: dialectisms, jargon, slang, vernacular.

Dialectisms and their stylistic function.

Dialectism- a word or figure of speech used by people of a particular locality. Dialectisms are part of the national language and are opposed to the literary language. In the literary language, they can be used by the author to give the speech of a certain character a certain degree of expressiveness and coloring.

Dialectisms stand out in the flow of literary speech as deviations from the norm. Differ dialectisms phonetic: for example, clatter, i.e. the pronunciation of “dotska”, “nots”; yakan: “pyatukh”, “ryaka”, “syastra”; "x" instead of "g" at the end of the word: "sneh", "druh", "vrach"; grammatical ending "t" in 3rd person verbs: "go", "sit", "take"; ending "e" in forms genitive type: "from my wife", "from my sister"; special usage prepositions: “came from Moscow”, “left for bread”, “go to the hut”; derivational: for example, “on the side” - “on the side”, “blueberries” - “blueberries”, “especially” - “especially”. Lexicaldialectisms there can be several types: words that name objects, phenomena that are characteristic of everyday life, the economy of a given area and have no parallels in the literary language: “poneva” is a kind of skirt, “tuyos” is a vessel made of birch bark; synonymous words corresponding to the literary ones: “kochet” - “rooster”, “hefty” - “very”; words that have a different meaning than in the literary language: “thin” - “bad”, “weather” - “bad weather”. Dialectisms are used in the language of fiction as a means of stylization, speech characteristics characters, creating local color. Dialectisms can also be found in the speech of persons who have not fully mastered the norms of the literary language.

Professional vocabulary. Her stylistic role

Professional vocabulary includes words and expressions used in various fields of human activity, which, however, have not become common. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, production tools, raw materials, products, etc. Unlike terms, which are official scientific names for special concepts, professionalisms are perceived as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific character. As part of professional vocabulary, it is possible to distinguish groups of words that are different in scope and directly dependent on a certain type of activity.

The inclusion of professionalism in the text is often undesirable. Thus, in a newspaper article, the use of highly specialized professionalisms cannot be justified due to the fact that a wide audience of the media simply cannot be familiar with such words. In book styles, professional vocabulary should not be used because of its colloquial vernacular coloring.

Slang vocabulary. Her style.

Jargon(from the French jargon - adverb) is a socially limited group of words, located outside the literary language, belonging to some kind of jargon. Jargon- this is a set of features of the colloquial speech of people, united by a commonality of interests, occupations, social status, etc. Jargon can arise in any team.

The reasons for the emergence of slang words are different. Most often, jargon arises as a result of the desire for a speech expression specific to a given collective, to express a special (ironic, dismissive, contemptuous) attitude to life. This is a kind of collective language game, which ends with the release of a person from this team. In other cases, jargon is a means of linguistic isolation, linguistic conspiracy. This type of jargon is called slang.

Slang vocabulary is expressive, is exclusively oral, often uses abbreviations and modified literary words.

Spacious vocabulary.

colloquial vocabulary- words with a stylistically reduced, rude and even vulgar connotation that are outside the boundaries of literary speech. They are not typical for book speech, but are widely known in various social groups society and act as a socio-cultural characteristic of speakers who usually do not fully master the literary language

Often vernaculars are used in certain types speech communication: in familiar or joking speech, in verbal skirmishes, etc. Proper colloquial they call non-literary vocabulary used in everyday oral speech, while not rude, not having a special expression (enough, inward, theirs, for nothing, hardly, get tired, balk, hard worker, brainy). Rough-colloquial vocabulary has a reduced, rough expressive coloring (dylda, riff-raff, mug, gibberish, pot-bellied, bast shoes, muzzle, bastard, sting, bitch, hamlo, slam). There are words with special colloquial meanings (usually metaphorical): roll ("write"), whistle ("steal"), weave ("talk nonsense"), vinaigrette ("mess"), hat ("blunder"), and cuts ("speaks briskly").

Among vernacular there are commonly used words that differ only in their phonetics and accentology (instr. at cop instead of tool, n O briefcase instead of briefcase, with at serious instead of serious, etc.)

Marks in dictionaries that indicate the stylistic reduction of words or their meanings and give them a negative assessment are numerous, for example: simple. - "colloquial", disapproving - "disapproving", fam. - "familiar", scorns. - "contemptuous", vulg. - “vulgar”, swearing. - “swearing”. P. l. most often contains expressive-evaluative coloring.

Reasons for using vernaculars in different types speeches are different: expressive motives, including outrageous (colloquial speech), characterological motives ( artistic speech), direct authorial attitude to the depicted, pragmatic motives (publicistic speech). In scientific and official business speech P. l. perceived as a foreign style element.