From the south and southeast, Russia constantly encountered nomadic peoples represented by Turkic-speaking tribes - the Khazars and Bulgars, later with the Pechenegs and Polovtsy. Byzantium was also in the south, which played a huge role in the formation and development of Old Russian state. Russian-Byzantine relations of the 9th-11th centuries are both peaceful economic, political, cultural ties, and sharp military clashes. On the one hand, Byzantium was a convenient source of military booty for the Slavic princes and their combatants. On the other hand, Byzantine diplomacy sought to prevent the spread of Russian influence in the Black Sea region, and then tried to turn Russia into a vassal of Byzantium, especially with the help of Christianization. At the same time, there were constant economic and political contacts. Evidence of this is the existence of permanent colonies of Russian merchants in Constantinople. The agreement between Prince Oleg and Byzantium provided for preferential terms of trade for Russian merchants, the solution of legal and military issues. Trade exchange with Byzantium is reflected in a large number of Byzantine items found on the territory of our country.
The first treaty between Russia and Byzantium was concluded on favorable terms
Oleg nails his shield to the gates of Constantinople. Engraving by F. A. Bruni, 1839
After Christianization, cultural ties with Byzantium intensified. Russian squads, crossing the Black Sea on ships, raided the coastal Byzantine cities, and Oleg even managed to take the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople (in Russian - Tsargrad). Igor's campaign was less successful. Russians passed Black Sea coast from the Bosphorus to Paphlagonia. The fleet of the prince was defeated by the fleet of parakimomen patrician Theophanes. The second campaign against Byzantium took place in 944. It ended with an agreement that confirmed many of the provisions of the previous agreements of 907 and 911, but abolished duty-free trade.
In the second half of the 10th century, some Russian-Byzantine rapprochement was observed. Princess Olga's trip to Constantinople, where she was received on friendly terms by the emperor, strengthened relations between the two states. Byzantine emperors sometimes used Russian squads for wars with their neighbors.
A new stage in Russia's relations with both Byzantium and other neighboring peoples falls on the reign of Svyatoslav, who pursued an active foreign policy. Grand Duke entered into a clash with the powerful Khazar Khaganate, which once levied tribute from the territory of southern Russia. Already under Igor, in 913, 941 and 944, Russian warriors made campaigns against Khazaria, achieving a gradual release of the Vyatichi from paying tribute to the Khazars. Svyatoslav dealt a decisive blow to the khaganate, defeating the main cities of the state and capturing its capital, Itil. The defeat of Khazaria led to the formation of the Tmutarakan principality from Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula and to the liberation of the Volga-Kama Bulgarians from the power of the Kaganate, who then formed their own state.
The fall of the Khazar Khaganate and the advance of Russia in the Black Sea region caused concern in Byzantium. In an effort to mutually weaken Russia and Danubian Bulgaria, against which Byzantium pursued an aggressive policy, the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phocas suggested that Svyatoslav make a trip to the Balkans. The prince won a victory in Bulgaria and captured the city of Pereyaslavets on the Danube. This result was unexpected for Byzantium. There was a threat of unification into one state of the eastern and southern Slavs, with which Byzantium would not have been able to cope. Svyatoslav himself said that he would like to move the capital of his land to Pereyaslavets.
Byzantine cavalry of the 10th century. Miniature from the chronicle of John Skylitzes
Quite a lot of news has been preserved about the foreign policy relations of the Bulgar Emirate with Russia and the ancient Russian principalities. Judging by the annals, peaceful cooperation between them was often violated by military clashes, which usually arose due to a mismatch of interests of the parties in the sphere of foreign trade. During the 10th century, Kievan Rus organized four military campaigns against the Bulgar Emirate - in 977, 985, 994 and 997. The Bulgars did not take retaliatory actions. The result of the campaign in 985 was the conclusion of a peace treaty between Russia and Bulgaria, which was calculated for eternity. The parties decided that "toly do not wake the world between us, or else the stone will begin to float, and the hops will become dirty." Nevertheless, small campaigns within Bulgaria continued.
In 986 and 987 the chroniclers report about the visit of the Bulgar ambassadors-missionaries to Kyiv and the Russian ambassadors to Bulgaria on the issue of the choice of faith on the eve of the adoption of a new religion by Vladimir Svyatoslavich. The prince did not like the Muslim faith offered by the Bulgars, and he converted to Christianity.
From the 11th century, only three annalistic reports about the Bulgaro-Russian relations have survived. Two of them, relating to 1006 and 1024, speak of the conclusion of a trade agreement between Russia and the Volga Bulgaria and the delivery of wheat to the starving Suzdal people. In 1088, the Bulgars took Murom, because in those days there were robberies on the Volga and the Oka, and the Russians "robbed and beat many trading Bulgarians."
In the tenth century Kievan Rus organized 4 military campaigns against Bulgaria
A whole series of military campaigns is noted in the annals of the 12th century. So, in 1107 the Bulgars came "to Suzdal and surrounded the city and did a lot of evil." After 13 years, the campaign was undertaken by Yuri Dolgoruky, who "go to the Bulgarians and took a lot and a regiment of their victory." The chronicle message of 1152 is connected with the campaign of the Bulgars who attacked Yaroslavl. Four military campaigns were made in the 60-80s of the XII century by Andrei Bogolyubsky, including twice to Bilyar, to Bulgar and other cities, to "many villages".
IN early XIII century, the confrontation between the Volga Bulgaria and the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued on trade routes. In 1205, Vsevolod Yurievich's campaign against the Bulgars took place, and in 1218 the Bulgars made a return campaign against Ustyug. In 1220, the last large-scale campaign of Russian squads against the city of Oshel took place before the Mongol invasion, which was burned and looted. In the same years, the Bulgars made a number of persistent attempts "with a great prayer, and with many gifts and petitions" to conclude a peace treaty with the Russians, which was signed in 1221, and in 1229 was extended for another six years. This was very important in view of the danger of an invasion by Mongol troops from the East hanging over the country.
Svyatoslav invades Bulgaria with Pecheneg allies. From the chronicle of Konstantin Manas
To weaken Russian influence in Bulgaria, Byzantium used the Pechenegs. This Turkic nomadic people was first mentioned in the Russian chronicle of 915. Initially, the Pechenegs roamed between the Volga and the Aral Sea, and then, under pressure from the Khazars, they crossed the Volga and occupied the Northern Black Sea region. The main source of wealth for the Pecheneg tribal nobility was raids on Russia, Byzantium and other countries. Either Russia or Byzantium from time to time managed to “hire” the Pechenegs for attacks on the other side. So, during the stay of Svyatoslav in Bulgaria, they, apparently at the instigation of Byzantium, raided Kyiv. Svyatoslav had to urgently return to defeat the Pechenegs, but soon he again went to Bulgaria, where the war with Byzantium began. The Russian squads fought fiercely and bravely, but the Byzantine forces were too outnumbered. In 971, a peace treaty was concluded: Svyatoslav's squad got the opportunity to return to Russia with all their weapons, and Byzantium was satisfied with the promise of Russia not to attack.
On the way, on the Dnieper rapids, apparently having received a warning from Byzantium about the return of Svyatoslav, the Pechenegs attacked him. Svyatoslav died in battle, and the Pecheneg prince Kurya, according to chronicle legend, made a bowl from the skull of the Kievan prince and drank from it at feasts.
Pechenegs kill Svyatoslav Igorevich
A new stage of Russian-Byzantine relations falls on the reign of Vladimir and is associated with the adoption of Christianity by Russia. Shortly before this event, the Byzantine emperor Vasily II turned to Vladimir with a request to help the armed forces in suppressing the uprising of the commander Varda Foki, who captured Asia Minor, threatened Constantinople and claimed the imperial throne. In exchange for help, the emperor promised to marry his sister Anna to Vladimir. The 6,000-strong retinue of the Kiev prince helped put down the uprising, and Varda Foka himself was killed. However, the emperor was in no hurry with the promised marriage, which was of great political importance. Byzantine emperors occupied the highest place in the feudal hierarchy of the then Europe, and marriage to a Byzantine princess sharply raised the international prestige of the Russian state. In order to achieve the fulfillment of the terms of the agreement, Vladimir laid siege to the center of Byzantine possessions in the Crimea - Chersonese (Korsun) and took it. The emperor had to fulfill his promise. Only after that did Vladimir make the final decision to be baptized. Russia became on a par with the largest Christian powers of medieval Europe.
By 1055, the first appearance of the Polovtsians at the Russian borders
As already mentioned, the constant struggle of Ancient Russia had to be waged with nomads. Vladimir managed to establish a defense against the Pechenegs, however, their raids continued. In 1036, taking advantage of the absence of Yaroslav in Kyiv, the Pechenegs laid siege to the city. Yaroslav quickly returned and inflicted a severe defeat on the Pechenegs, from which they were never able to recover. They were forced out of the Black Sea steppes by other nomads - the Polovtsians.
Polovtsy, they are also Kipchaks or Kumans, are also a Turkic people, who lived in the territory of northwestern Kazakhstan as far back as the 10th century. In the middle of the 10th century, the Polovtsy moved into the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Caucasus. After they ousted the Pechenegs, a huge territory came under their rule, which was called the Polovtsian steppe, or Desht-i-Kypchak. It stretched from the Syr Darya and the Tien Shan to the Danube. The Polovtsy were first mentioned in Russian chronicles in 1055, and in 1061 the first clash with them took place: "When the Polovtsy came, they were the first to fight on the Russian land." The second half of the XI - XII centuries - the time of the struggle of Russia with the Polovtsian danger.
“After the battle of Igor Svyatoslavich with the Polovtsy”, V. M. Vasnetsov, 1880
Simultaneously with Byzantium, Russia was establishing political relations with Western Europe. This interaction was reflected in the dynastic ties of the Russian princes. So, Yaroslav the Wise was married to the daughter of the Swedish king Olaf Ingigerda. Yaroslav's daughter Anna was married to the French king Henry I, another daughter, Elizabeth, became the wife of the Norwegian king Harald III. The Hungarian queen was the third daughter - Anastasia. Granddaughter of Yaroslav the Wise Eupraxia (Adelgeida) was the wife of the German Emperor Henry IV. One of the sons of Yaroslav Vsevolod was married to a Byzantine princess, the other son Izyaslav was married to a Polish one. Among the daughters-in-law of Yaroslav were also the daughters of the Saxon margrave and Count Stadensky.
Svyatoslav Yaroslavich with his family. Miniature from Izbornik 1073
Relations with Western Europe became especially intense in the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. They were expressed in the fact that countries exchanged products of applied art, and as a result, certain technical skills. The interaction of cultures was carried out through trade and through the gifts of embassies, through foreign craftsmen, who were often invited to Russia from Western Europe most often from Germany. In Russia, such handicrafts of Western masters as bronze casting, bowls, jewelry, bone carving, including caskets, were common. Items of ancient Russian arts and crafts, in turn, found their way to the West.
Russia was not inferior in its development to most countries of Western Europe
From the middle of the 11th century, individual elements of Romanesque architecture, which dominated in the 11th century, began to penetrate into Russia. XIII centuries not only in Western Europe, but also in the whole cultural circle, which covered the Caucasus, the Balkans, as well as Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary - close neighbors of the Old Russian state. The influence of the Romanesque style was manifested in external design of individual buildings erected in Russia, such elements as arched belts, later groups of semi-columns and pilasters, sometimes with carved capitals and consoles, columnar belts on the walls, perspective portals, and intricate stone carvings on the outer surface of the walls were used in architecture.
The cultural communication of Ancient Russia with the countries of Western Europe also went along the lines of literary and folklore ties. Through pilgrims and travelers, interaction was maintained along the lines of church relations, which were quite strong until the division of churches in 1054. However, after the attempts of the papacy to "convert" Russia into catholic faith, relations with the West became more limited than with Byzantium, but still left a certain mark on Russian culture.
In the territories that became part of Kievan Rus, as is known from chronicle sources, there lived twelve Slavic unions of tribal principalities that developed in the 6th-8th centuries. In the Middle Dnieper region (the area from the lower reaches of the Pripyat and Desna rivers to the Ros river) lived clearing, northwest of them south of Pripyat - drevlyans, west of the Drevlyans to the Western Bug - Volynians(another name for the same union - boozhane), in the upper reaches of the Dniester - Croats(part of a large Proto-Slavic tribe, which broke up into several parts in the 6th century), down the Dniester - Tivertsy, and in the Dnieper south of the glades - convict. On the Dnieper Left Bank in the basins of the river. Desna and the Seimas, there was a union that bore the name north, in the river basin Sozh (left tributary of the Dnieper north of the Desna) - radimichi, on the Upper Oka - Vyatichi. Between Pripyat and Dvina to the north of the Drevlyans lived dregovichi, and in the upper reaches of the Dvina, Dnieper and Volga - krivichi. The northernmost Slavic community, located in the area of \u200b\u200bFr. Ilmen and r. Volkhov up to the Gulf of Finland, was called Slovenia, coinciding with the common Slavic self-name.
On the basis of the Polyansky union of tribal principalities by the beginning of the 9th century. formed a political entity called Russia. There is a widespread opinion about the introduction of this term to Eastern Europe by the Scandinavian combatants (called in Russia Varangians). But its first reliable mention in the south of Eastern Europe(in the so-called "Bavarian Chronograph", compiled between 811 and 821 - Ruzzi are named after the Khazars, who lived between the Don and the Volga) dates back to the time when the presence of the Normans in this region is not yet traced. The question remains debatable, but it is most likely that this name has a local, southern (at the same time, most likely, non-Slavic in the basis) origin and dates back to the time, in any case, earlier than the 9th century. In the same century, it acts as a designation of an ethno-political entity that does not coincide territorially with any Slavic union of tribal principalities: "Rus" in the 9th century. included, in addition to the land of the glades, a significant part of the territory of the northern union. Kyiv became the center of Russia.
Military and economic relations with neighbors had the greatest influence on the historical course of the development of the ancient Russian state. The most important relationships are with:
Byzantium - the largest empire in the southeast of Europe (with significant possessions in Asia)
FROM eastern neighbors- nomadic pastoral tribes of the steppes (Khazars, Polovtsy, Pechenegs, the latter lived mainly in the south - in the Black Sea and Danube zones.)
With northern neighbors - Varangians (Scandinavian states)
There are known facts of military alliances with each of the listed entities, as well as military conflicts.
5. Kiev princes and their policy in the 9th-th centuries.
Ruler of Russia in the first half of the 9th century. adopted in addition to the common Slavic title prince eastern title "kagan"(“khakan”), among the Turkic and Mongolian peoples, denoting the supreme ruler (“khan of khans”). This event was of great importance. Firstly, the title "Kagan" was the name of the ruler of Khazaria - a state created in the 7th century. in the region of the Lower Volga and the Don by the Turkic nomads-Khazars. Part of the Eastern Slavs (Polyane, Sever, Radimichi and Vyatichi) were forced to pay tribute to the Khazar Khagan. The adoption by the Kiev prince of the title of kagan thus symbolized the independence of the new state - Rus - from the Khazars. Secondly, it emphasized the supremacy of the Russian prince over the princes of other large Slavic communities, which at that time! bore titles bright prince And Grand Duke(These titles were retained, along with the title of kagan, for the prince of Kiev in the first half of the 10th century).
The 9th-10th centuries were the time of gradual involvement of East Slavic unions of tribal principalities into dependence on Kyiv. The leading role in this process was played by the military service nobility - retinue Kiev princes. The retinue layer among the Slavs is recorded according to Byzantine sources and archeological data already in the era of settlement, in the 6th-7th centuries. By the 9th century he is undoubtedly promoted to a leading position in society. For some of the unions of tribal principalities, submission to the Kiev princes took place in two stages. At the first stage, the union retained internal "autonomy", being obliged only to pay tax - tribute. Tribute was collected by Kiev squad detachments, which traveled around the territories of the subordinate union; such a detour with a collection given was called polyudie. Tribute was levied in the 10th century. in fixed amounts, in kind or in cash.
With the liquidation of the "autonomy" of the East Slavic unions of tribal principalities, the form of exploitation of their population by the Kiev military retinue nobility changed. Now there was no need for polyudye - detours emanating from Kyiv; the tribute was collected by the governors of the Kiev prince, who ruled in the territories of the former unions of tribal principalities. Part of the tribute collected (according to available information, two-thirds) was sent to Kyiv, the other was distributed among the vigilantes of the prince-viceroy. Territories within the framework of a single early feudal state, ruled by princes - vassals of the Kiev ruler, received the name parish. The state as a whole in the X century. was called "Rus" (spread from the region of the Middle Dnieper to the entire territory subject to the Kiev princes) and "Russian land". Such a structure of the state took shape by the end of the 10th century, in the era of the Kiev reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, who put his sons to reign in the nine largest centers of Russia: in Novgorod (Slovenian land) - Vysheslav, later Yaroslav, in Polotsk (Krivichi) - Izyaslav, in Turov (Dregovichi) - Svyatopolk, in the land of the Drevlyans - Svyatoslav, in Vladimir-Volynsky (Volynians) - Vsevolod, Smolensk (Krivichi) - Stanislav, Rostov (land of the Finnish-speaking tribe Merya) - Yaroslav, later Boris, in Murom (Finnish-speaking Muroma ) - Gleba, Tmutarakan (Russian possession on the Taman Peninsula) - Mstislav. In addition to these lands of the East Slavic and partially Finnish-speaking peoples, which constituted the territory of the Old Russian state, in the 9th-10th centuries. a wide non-Slavic periphery was formed from Finnish-speaking and Baltic-speaking tribes, which were not directly part of Kievan Rus, but were obliged to tribute to the Russian princes. It included ethnic groups that lived along the northwestern, northern and northeastern borders of Russia: Lithuania, Curonians, Semigallians, Latgalians, Livs, Chud (Ests), hedgehog (a tribe in Eastern Finland), Pechers, Perm, Cheremis (Mari) , Mordva, etc.
The first known foreign policy action of the Old Russian state was an embassy to Constantinople (ancient Russian - Tsargrad) - the capital of the Byzantine Empire, the most powerful state of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea - in 838. Relations with Byzantium and in subsequent times are an important direction of Russian foreign policy.
The Kiev princes Oleg and Igor at the beginning of the 10th century made campaigns against Constantinople, in which hired Vikings also participated. Svyatoslav, the son of Igor and Olga, waged successful wars in the east, conquering Volga Bulgaria, and then, together with Byzantium, Bulgaria, located in the Balkans. Relations with the Turkic-speaking Pechenegs, at the beginning of the 10th century. who occupied the Black Sea steppes from the Danube to the Don, were also an important part of the Old Russian foreign policy. Both the facts of allied relations of Russia with individual Pecheneg tribes (in 944 and 970 against Byzantium) and military conflicts (920, 968, 972) are known. The Pecheneg onslaught on the South Russian lands was especially strong at the end of the 10th century. Kyiv prince Vladimir (980-1015), the youngest son of Svyatoslav (from a concubine), organized the defense of the southern borders by building watchtowers along the border rivers with the steppe - Desna, Seima, Sulya, Ros.
The ancestors of the Slavs (Proto-Slavs) belonged to the Indo-European family of peoples who settled from Europe to India. The ancestral home of the Slavs was the territory of Polissya, the Carpathian region, the Dnieper region, the upper reaches of the Dniester, as well as the interfluve of the Vistula and the Oder. In the I-II centuries. n. e. the ancient historians Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, Ptolemy and others mention the Slavs under the name of "Venedi". Byzantine historians write about the Slavs, subdividing them into Wends, Antes and Sklavins.
In the IV-V centuries. the settlement of the Slavs begins to the south, then to the west and east, where they meet with the Goths and Huns, and in the VI century. the Byzantine Empire suffered greatly from the raids of the Slavs. During the settlement, the Slavs were divided into three branches: Western Slavs (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks), southern (Serbs, Croats, Bulgarians) and eastern, who settled the Russian Plain.
Before the arrival of the Slavs to the Russian Plain, these lands were poorly populated by various Finno-Ugric tribes (Chud, whole, Estonians, Merya, Mordvins). By the 8th century the Slavs partially pushed them back, partially assimilated them. Huge territories and low population density contributed to the fact that the Slavs and Finno-Ugric peoples established peaceful coexistence. By this time, Eastern Slavs there were about 15 largest unions of tribes, the most significant of which were Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Polyany, Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi.
By the ninth century the Slavs developed a complex of beliefs and cults that reflected the dependence of man on nature and consolidated centuries-old social experience. The main natural elements were: Perun - the god of thunder and lightning, Dazhbog and Svarog - solar deities, Stribog - the god of the winds, Veles was the patron of cattle breeding, Mokosh - a deity feminine and women's work.
The basis of the economic life of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture - slash-and-burn in the north, arable in the south. Cattle breeding and various forest industries (hunting, beekeeping) were also developed. Initially, as elsewhere, the basic unit of the social structure was the tribal community, whose members jointly owned the tools of labor, jointly cultivated the land and jointly consumed the resulting product. Only the joint work of the team made it possible to carry out hard work on clearing arable land from the forest. In such communities there were no rich and poor. They were ruled by the most senior and respected members of the clan - tribal elders.
Gradually, with the improvement of tools and the development of trade and crafts, the Eastern Slavs began the process of property stratification and decomposition of the tribal system. First of all, this happened in the regions near the main river trade routes that passed through the Russian Plain. These were existing in the IX-XIII centuries. way "from the Varangians to the Greeks", allowing you to get along the Dnieper and other rivers from the Baltic Sea to Byzantium, and Volga trade route, through which there was trade with the East and the Arab countries. On these paths in the VIII-IX centuries. cities appear, among which two main centers of East Slavic statehood stand out - Kyiv And Novgorod.
The formation of the state in Russia was preceded by a period called military democracy. Power in a military democracy belonged to a military leader ( prince), who was elected by the popular assembly ( veche) and ruled jointly with the tribal elders. The immediate environment of the prince was a squad - professional soldiers.
At this time, the tribes of the Eastern Slavs were subjected to an ever-increasing onslaught from the nomadic Khazars in the south and the Scandinavians (Varangians-Vikings) in the north. Under the conditions of constant wars, the importance of the prince increased, his power gradually became hereditary, and the military squad nobility came to the fore. Thus, both external and internal prerequisites for the formation of the state are formed.
The process of unification of the East Slavic tribes was stimulated by the Scandinavian squads of merchant warriors, who in the 9th century. engaged in robbery and trade on the waterways throughout Europe. In the West they were called Vikings,or Normans, and in Russia - Varangians. The first stronghold for the Varangians in Russia was the settlement of Ladoga on the banks of the Volkhov River, not far from its confluence with Lake Ladoga (the Scandinavian name is Aldeigya, contemporary - Staraya Ladoga). The settlement was founded in 753 (presumably by Scandinavians) and became a center of trade between Finnish, Arab, Slavic and Scandinavian merchants 1 . In the ninth century the Vikings established themselves at the source of the Volkhov from Lake Ilmen, where a settlement appeared on the site of the future Novgorod, now known as Rurik settlement. Its appearance and name are connected with chronicle evidence 2 that in 862 Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes living around Lake Ilmen, suffering from civil strife, called on the reign of the Varangian leader Rurik. His successor Oleg (879-912), who ruled on behalf of the young son of Rurik - Igor, in 882 G. captured Kyiv. These events marked creation of the Old Russian state led by the Varangian dynasty. The Varangian squad was accepted in Kyiv because it helped the glades to free themselves from the power of the Khazar Khaganate, located in the lower reaches of the Volga, to which they had previously paid tribute.
The chronicle news about the calling of the Varangians became the basis for Norman theory formation of the Russian state, whose supporters spoke of the decisive role of the Varangian (German) factor in the formation of the state in Russia. Its authors were German scientists of the XVIII century. Miller, Schlözer and Bayer. M. V. Lomonosov considered such an interpretation offensive to the national feelings of the Russian people and, in contrast to it, put forward an anti-Norman theory, in which it was argued that the state of the Eastern Slavs originated in connection with internal reasons.
Modern historians do not deny the fact that the Varangian dynasty was established in Kyiv and its role in accelerating the process of creating the Old Russian state. At the same time, the fact is also emphasized that the creation of the state is the result of a long-term internal socio-economic development of society, during which the tribal system is no longer able to perform the functions of power and control in large territorial settlements (cities) and new supra-tribal structures of power and management, which are defined by the term "state".
Thus, we can say that the Varangians did not bring statehood to Russia (it was already emerging in the depths of ancient Russian society), but only played the role of a military force that contributed to the unification of the Eastern Slavs into a single Kievan Rus.
Under the first princes, the Kievan state was a union of tribes, soldered by the need to protect against common enemies, as well as military force and the authority of the Kiev prince. He collected tribute from the tribes, and in exchange offered them protection, as well as the possibility of obtaining booty from successful military campaigns.
The collection of tribute was carried out in the form polyudya when, at the end of autumn, the prince with his retinue left Kyiv and went around his lands, taking advantage of the ease of movement in winter conditions. At the same time, he carried out judicial and administrative functions along the way, that is, he judged and solved those problems that the local authorities could not cope with. In the spring, the prince returned to Kyiv and organized military expeditions and trade trips to Constantinople. These measures ensured the security of the borders, brought booty and tribute, and increased the authority of the prince as a successful commander. Prince Oleg (879– 912) led active campaigns of conquest, subjugating the neighboring Slavic tribes. IN 907 G. he made a trip to Constantinople with a large army, which consisted of a Varangian squad and a Slavic militia. As a result of the campaign, a profitable trade agreement was concluded, which contributed to the establishment of ties with Byzantium, the strongest power in Europe.
Oleg's activity was continued by the prince Igor (912–945) - the son of Rurik. He subjugated the tribes streets and tivertsev; made two trips to Byzantium: unsuccessful in 941 and successful in 944 G., after which a trade agreement was again concluded with the Byzantines, although less profitable. The list of close associates of the prince given in it testifies to the process of mixing the Varangians and Slavs and the penetration of Christianity into Russia.
At the same time, Igor's reign showed the fragility and "looseness" of the state, the strength of which depended on the authority and personal qualities of the prince. Relations between the prince and the tribes subordinate to him were regulated by custom and were not clearly fixed, which gave rise to conflicts when one of the parties behaved, in the opinion of the other, inappropriately. One such conflict took place in 945 when, during the polyudya, the Drevlyans killed Prince Igor, who tried to collect too much tribute from them. Under these conditions, the princess Olga (945 –964) , Igor's wife, having avenged the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband, regulated the collection of tribute - replaced polyudye cart: established places of tribute collection - graveyards and its dimensions lessons. Now the prince was sitting in Kyiv, and in places his servants collected tribute. Thus, a clearer administrative and tax system began to take shape.
Princess Olga was one of the first in Russia to realize that for the unity of the state, a common ideology is needed, which she saw in Christianity (there is one God in heaven, one ruler in the state). IN 955 Olga was baptized in Constantinople under the name of Helen, but at that time it became only personal the choice of the princess.
Prince Svyatoslav (964 –972) , son of Igor and Olga, in 965 defeated the Khazar Khaganate, the payment of tribute to the Khazars was stopped. He made campaigns against the Danube Bulgaria ( 967 ) and Byzantium ( 970 –971 ). Svyatoslav also subjugated the Vyatichi tribes who lived in the interfluve of the Volga and Oka. Thus, the process of unification of the East Slavic tribes into a single state was completed, covering a vast territory.
The constant absence of the prince, who fought in distant lands, prevented him from performing his judicial and administrative functions, which caused abuse and discontent among the population. Svyatoslav sent his sons to reign in the most important cities. After the death of Svyatoslav, this led to strife between his sons - Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir. Came to power following its results Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980–1015) began to look for ways to ensure greater unity of their possessions. For these purposes, in 980 he created a nationwide pantheon of gods, headed by Perun, the god of war, thunder and lightning. However, it soon became clear that even centralized paganism did not ensure the unity of the country, moreover, pagan Russia found itself isolated from its main neighbors, who professed monotheistic religions.
According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the prince considered various options for religious reform, discussing the possibility of adopting Judaism, Islam, and Christianity in its Catholic or Orthodox form. Judaism was rejected by Vladimir, as it was distinguished by the complexity of dogmatics and rituals. Islam did not correlate well with Slavic traditions (the ban on the consumption of pork and alcohol, the rite of circumcision, etc.). Proximity to its main centers and the fact that it had already spread in Russia spoke in favor of Christianity. The closest Christian center was Orthodox Byzantium, with which Russia maintained close trade ties. In favor of Orthodoxy, it was also said that Orthodox Church more dependent on secular power and helped to strengthen it, while the Catholic Church in the person of the Pope, on the contrary, claimed primacy in relation to secular power. An essential argument in favor of Orthodoxy was the use of the native language in worship, while the Catholic Church conducted services in Latin. The creation by the Greeks of Slavic writing, on which an extensive literature had already been created, was also an important plus.
As a result, the choice of the prince fell on Byzantium and Orthodox Christianity. Traditionally Baptism of Russia belong to 988 During the campaign against the Byzantine fortress of Chersonesos (Korsun), Vladimir himself was baptized and his squad was baptized, sealing the alliance with Byzantium by marrying the Byzantine princess Anna. Upon returning to Kyiv, the pagan idols were destroyed by order of the prince, and the people of Kiev were baptized in the Dnieper. The adoption of Christianity was not a one-time event. It was a long process, stretching for more than 200 years, during which Christianity in Russia absorbed many remnants of pagan culture.
Having adopted Christianity, Russia joined the culture of Byzantium. Icon painting, stone architecture, Slavic writing (Cyrillic) and extensive Christian literature came to Russia, giving an idea of world history. The new faith contributed to the rallying of the East Slavic tribes into a single ancient Russian people.
In an effort to consolidate the monopoly of the Rurik dynasty on power, Vladimir repeated the experience of Svyatoslav and seated his numerous sons in key cities and volosts. The unity of the state was also supported by the creation of an all-Russian defense system against more frequent raids. new wave steppe nomads - the Pechenegs, for which the northern cities regularly sent their troops to the southern border. The large-scale construction of fortresses by Vladimir was also subordinated to the goals of defense.
Vladimir significantly expanded the territory and strengthened the defense of Russia: he fought with the Poles for Cherven Rus (now Western Ukraine); conquered the Yotvingians and Radimichis.
He entered the historical memory of the people not only as Saint Vladimir, but also as Vladimir the Red Sun, becoming one of the main characters in the cycle of epics about heroes (Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, etc.).
However, after the death of Vladimir, a struggle for power began between his sons, as a result of which Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054). Under him, Kievan Rus reached its highest peak.
Yaroslav pursued an active foreign policy: he won a final victory over the Pechenegs ( 1036 ); fought in 1043 G. with Byzantium; founded the cities of Yuryev (a Russian trading outpost in the Baltic states) and Yaroslavl on the Volga. The place Kievan Rus occupied in Europe can be judged by dynastic marriages: Yaroslav himself was married to the daughter of the Swedish king, he married his daughters to the Norwegian, Hungarian and French kings, he married one son, Izyaslav, to the daughter of the Polish king, and another, Vsevolod, - on the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Constantine. However, Yaroslav the Wise is much more famous for his activities in the organization and development of Russia. During his reign, a single Old Russian written language appeared for the entire territory of the state. vault laws "Russian Truth", which was initiated by "The Truth of Yaroslav" in 1016, supplemented in 1072 by his sons ("The Truth of Yaroslavich"). Under him, grandiose Sophia cathedrals were built in Kyiv, and then in Novgorod and Polotsk, a new Church Charter was published, expanded in content; temples and monasteries were actively built. 1051 g. with the support of the prince, a Russian priest was elected (and not appointed from Constantinople) as metropolitan Hilarion.
In 1186, one of the enlighteners, the German Meinhard, built the first Latin church on the banks of the Dvina River. The pope was so pleased with such zeal that he made Meingard Bishop of Livonia, from then on the Germans gained great power in the Eastern Baltic. In 1197, Albert von Bugsgevden became a bishop, who founded the city of Riga in 1200 in order to establish himself in Livonia. Albert received permission from the Pope to establish a military and spiritual Order of Knights, which will protect and promote catholic church, to conquer the lands of infidel peoples, to baptize them. So in 1201 the Order of the Swordbearers or the Order of Christ's Warriors was created. Pope Innocent III gave them the charter of the glorious Knights of the Temple, subordinating them to the Bishop of Riga. The cross and sword became symbols of the new brotherhood.
In 1237, the Order of the Swordsmen was renamed the Livonian Order, which became part of the Teutonic Order. It lasted until 1560.
This is a brief history of the creation of the Order.
In 1203, the fortress of Kukenoys or Koknes, located in the lower movement of the Dvina River, was subjected to aggression by the Crusaders. This fortress was ruled by the vassals of the prince of Polotsk. The appearance of the crusaders threatened Polotsk with the loss of influence in these lands, where the Livs and Latgalians lived, paying tribute to the Polotsk princes. In 1203 and 1206 Prince Vladimir of Polotsk undertook campaigns against the German knights, which turned out to be unsuccessful. In 1209, the crusaders burned down another outpost of the Polotsk principality - Gertsik.
About the cruelty with which german knights converted to their faith, the following case, described in the annals, testifies: “Liv and Chud named the very creator of the universe after their main idol, Yumalla, they were already Christians, but they still went to pray in the sacred forests, made sacrifices to trees, annually celebrated the feast of the dead with rituals paganism and put weapons, food, money in the grave, saying to the dead: “Go, unhappy, to a better world, where the Germans can no longer rule over you, but will be your slaves!” This poor people for centuries did not forget the violence of their cruel enlighteners! »
In 1226 Lithuanians attacked the Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk, Toropetsk lands, killing merchants and capturing landowners. Prince Yaroslav, in alliance with princes David Toropetsky and Vladimir Pskov, repulsed the attack, destroying the Lithuanian army. After that, Yaroslav in 1227 undertook a campaign in northern part Finland, captured many inhabitants. In response to the aggression, the Finnish in 1228 ravaged the villages around Olonets.
Russian squads and subsequently often attacked Finland, which caused dissatisfaction with the Swedish king, who planned to conquer Ladoga and Novgorod in 1240. The Swedish king also wanted to take control of the northern section of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
At the head of the Novgorod land at that time was Prince Alexander, the son of Grand Duke Yaroslav II. To carry out the capture on the Neva River, many ships were sent with Swedes and Norwegians, Finns under the command of the son-in-law of the Swedish king Birger, who presumptuously declared to the Novgorod prince Alexander: “Fight with me if you dare; I am already standing in your land.” The army of the Swedes was more numerous, Prince Alexander could only count on his talent as a commander and on the help of God. Alexander Yaroslavovich also sought to unite the forces of Novgorod and neighboring principalities. On July 15, 1240, the battle began. Novgorodians won a complete victory, showing miracles of courage and physical and spiritual strength. For example, Sbyslav Yakunovich from Novgorod with one ax burst into the ranks of the enemies, and another, named Misha, destroyed the Swedish ships with an infantry detachment, leaving only two, on which the remnants of the king's army went back to Sweden.
Of great importance for the success of this battle was the talent of the commander Alexander Yaroslavovich, who decided to attack the camp of the Swedes suddenly, when they were not ready to resist. After this battle, Prince Alexander began to be called Nevsky in memory of such a great and glorious victory.
It is impossible to overestimate the importance of the personality of Alexander Nevsky. He was an unusually brave, wise, believing man, an excellent commander and strategist; he never started a battle without praying to God. Thanks to the spiritual strength and talent of their leader, the Novgorodians were able, despite the small army, to defend their native lands, to protect their cultural and religious identity. The defeat in the Battle of the Neva threatened the expansion of the crusaders, who could easily take possession of the weakened Novgorod. Consequently, the victory over the Swedes was not only of strategic and military importance, since it made it possible to maintain access to the Baltic Sea, it also instilled hope in the hearts of the inhabitants of Russia, exhausted by civil strife and raids of the Tatar-Mongols, moreover, this victory largely predetermined the successful outcome of another great for our history of the battle - the Battle of the Ice.
The Livonian knights, who by that time had joined the Order of the Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem, became even more dangerous for Russia. The troops of the Order of the Knights of St. Mary conquered almost the entire territory of Prussia and with no less cruelty converted local residents to their faith. In the early autumn of 1240, the crusaders attempted to seize the Novgorod lands, they captured the city of Izborsk, Pskov. In the autumn of the same year, the Livonian knights founded the Koporye fortress on the shores of the Gulf of Finland, from here they could control the most important trade routes. There was a real threat to Novgorod.
The inhabitants decided to call Alexander Nevsky, who, due to the intrigues of the Novgorod boyars, left Novgorod, leaving for Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. In 1241, he returned Koporye and Pskov, gained control over the western territories of the Novgorod lands. The main battle with the crusaders took place on the morning of April 5, 1242, this event was preceded by the landing of the reconnaissance detachment of the order, which managed to defeat the small Russian army, which was marching ahead of the main army of Prince Alexander.
In this battle, the competent alignment of the main forces of the Russian army was of decisive importance. The fact is that the crusaders used the tactics of disposing troops, called the knightly "pig". Alexander Nevsky pushed forward a detachment of shooters, and then the right and left regiments surrounded the enemy army on the flanks. After that, the cavalry regiment entered the battle, finally completing the rout of the crusaders. Russian troops pursued the enemy for a long time on the ice Lake Peipsi, many Livonians drowned due to the weight of knightly armor, about 50 were taken prisoner.
The significance of this victory is great: the invasion from the West was suspended, the masters of the Order proposed a truce, and the peace was concluded on favorable terms for Russia. The ambassadors of the Order refused to encroach on Russian lands. The crusader offensive to the East was suspended, and this was one of the priority tasks of German foreign policy in the period from 1201 to 1241.
Alexander Nevsky was also wise enough to establish diplomatic relations with Batu Khan, thereby eliminating all pretexts for new invasions. Consequently, thanks to the foresight of their prince, the Novgorodians did not experience the full horror of the Tatar-Mongol invasions.
Conclusion
Thus, the relations of the Old Russian state with its neighbors were not easy. Undoubtedly, relations with Byzantium were one of the main reasons for the adoption of Christianity in Russia. Successfully developing trade and diplomatic relations with Byzantium, the fact that Russia was surrounded by states dominated by monotheism, as well as the need to strengthen power and unite the Russian people - all of these factors led to the fact that in 988 an official baptism took place Russia and the process of gradual Christianization of the Russians began ..
The struggle of Russia with the steppe peoples occupied an important place in Russian history and culture. Moreover, the origins of this struggle should be sought in the fact that the struggle between the “forest and the steppe” is historically predetermined and necessary. Undoubtedly, the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols was a real tragedy for the Old Russian state. but Tatar-Mongol yoke nevertheless, it became a lesser evil for Russia, since it did not encroach on the cultural identity and religion of the Russian land. P. N. Savitsky’s statement seems to be quite fair: “The Tatars, a ‘neutral’ cultural environment that accepted ‘all kinds of gods’ and tolerated ‘any cultures’, fell on Russia as a punishment from God, but did not muddy the purity of national creativity. If Russia had gone to the Turks, infected with "Iranian fanaticism and exaltation," its test would have been many times more difficult and its fate would have been bitter. If the West had taken her, he would have taken her soul out of her.” The significance of the victories over the Swedes and Germans is extremely great for our Fatherland, since the Western aggressors threatened to completely destroy Russian identity and culture.
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The era of Ancient Russia refers to the period from the moment the Old Russian State was formed inIXin to Mongol invasion in 1237. The initial period of the existence of the state can be considered the reign of the legendary princes inIX-
Xcenturies
When the almost fabulous Rurik, Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav, Vladimir, Yaroslav expanded the Russian lands, including all new Slavic, and not only, tribes in the state. period up toXIin, is richest in archaeological finds. Including weapons. This is due to the fact that before the adoption of Christianity, and for some time after it, it was customary to put things in burials that were necessary for the deceased in the next world. They also burned horses, dogs, birds of prey, etc. with noble people. Based on the analysis of the results of excavations, one can get a lot of information about the military organization of society and the complex of weapons of warriors. Including the differentiation of weapons depending on the social strata of the population.
From the north, Kievan Rus bordered on the dragons of the sea - the Vikings (Varangians, Normans), who lived on the territory of the present northern Europe. Vikings long time were the best infantry in the region, and throughoutVIII-
XIcenturies terrorized the cities of Europe.
In the southwest, Russia bordered on Hungary and Bulgaria.
