Scientists cannot say exactly when the Old Russian state appeared even in our time. Different groups of historians talk about many dates, but most of them agree on one thing: the appearance of Ancient Russia can be dated to the 9th century. That is why various theories of origin are widespread. ancient Russian state, each of which is trying to prove its own version of the emergence of a great state.
| http://potolkihouse.ru/ |
The emergence of the ancient Russian state briefly
As it is written in the world-famous Tale of Bygone Years, Rurik and his brothers were called to reign in Novgorod in 862. This date for many became the beginning of the countdown of the statehood of Ancient Russia. The Varangian princes sat on the thrones in Novgorod (Rurik), Izborsk (Truvor), in Belozero (Sineus). After some time, Rurik managed to unite the presented lands under a single authority.
Oleg, a prince from Novgorod, in 882 captured Kyiv to unite the most important groups of lands, and then annexed the rest of the territories. It is from that period of the earth Eastern Slavs united into a large state. In other words, the formation of the ancient Russian state dates back to the 9th century, according to most scientists.
The most common theories of the origin of the ancient Russian state
Norman theory 
The Norman theory tells that the Varangians, who at one time were called to the throne, were able to organize the state. We are talking about the brothers that were mentioned above. It is worth noting that this theory originates in The Tale of Bygone Years. Why were the Varangians able to organize the state? The thing is that the Slavs allegedly quarreled among themselves, unable to come to a common decision. Representatives of the Norman theory say that the Russian rulers turned to foreign princes for help. It was in this way that the Vikings established the state system in Russia.
Anti-Norman theory
The anti-Norman theory says that the state of Ancient Russia appeared for other, more objective reasons. Many historical sources say that the statehood of the Eastern Slavs took place before the Varangians. For that period historical development the Normans were lower than the Slavs in level political development. In addition, the state cannot arise in one day thanks to one person, this is the result of a long social phenomenon. Autochthonous (in other words, the Slavic theory) was developed thanks to its followers - N. Kostomarov, M. Grushevsky. The founder of this theory is the scientist M. Lomonosov.
Other notable theories
In addition to these most common theories, there are several more. Let's consider them in more detail.
The IRANO-SLAVIC THEORY of the emergence of the state suggests that in the world there were 2 separate types of Russ - the inhabitants of Rugen (Rus-encouraging), as well as the Black Sea Rus. Some Ilmenian Slovenes invited Russ-encouragers. The rapprochement of the Russ occurred precisely after the unification of the tribes into one state.
COMPROMISE theory in other words is called Slavic-Varangian. One of the first adopters of this approach to the formation of the Russian state was the historical figure Klyuchevsky. The historian singled out a certain urban area - an early local political form. We are talking about a trading district, which was ruled by a fortified city. He called the Varangian principalities the second local political form. After the unification of the Varangian principalities and the preservation of the independence of the city regions, another political form, called the Grand Duchy of Kyiv.
| http://mirakul.ru/ |
In addition, there is a theory called the Indo-Iranian. This theory is based on the opinion that Rus and Rus are completely different nationalities that arose at different times.
Video: Rurik. History of Russian Goverment
Read also:
Ancient Russia is a state about which many books have already been written, and more than one film has been shot. It is worth noting that the ancient Russian state went through a rather long and difficult period of formation. Many have heard that there is a centrist theory of the origin of Old Russian
Ancient Russia is a great state, where great importance was given to the development of music. That is why the ancient musical instruments is a very interesting topic.
According to certain studies, it became known that the ancient Russian runes were initially perceived as separate signs of writing. It is worth noting that at the beginning of the 19th century, this name was understood exclusively as Germanic writing. So, let's look at the main differences between the German
It is no secret that the formation of ancient Russian church literature began after such a process as Christianization. According to certain data, literacy in Russia appeared thanks to Bulgaria, after the well-known religious act took place in 998. This version is not quite
Monuments of the artistic culture of Ancient Russia are a collection of amazing architecture, which is distinguished by its special beauty, as well as amazing designs. It is worth noting that the cultural monuments of the times of ancient Russia, which will be discussed in our article, are the most
It is no secret that ancient civilizations existed for several thousand years, during which time they significantly influenced the scientific and cultural development of mankind. It is worth noting that cultural heritage ancient civilizations - it is quite rich, as well as material culture. If speak about
The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs was a logical result of a long process of decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society.
The process of property and social stratification among the community members led to the separation of the most prosperous part from their midst. The tribal nobility and the prosperous part of the community, subjugating the mass of ordinary community members, needs to maintain their dominance in state structures.
The embryonic form of statehood was represented by the East Slavic unions of tribes, which united in superunions, however, fragile ones. One of these associations was, apparently, the union of tribes headed by Prince Kiy (VI century). There is information about a certain Russian prince Bravlin, who fought in the Khazar-Byzantine Crimea in the VIII - IX centuries. passing from Surozh to Korchevo (from Sudak to Kerch). Eastern historians talk about the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state of three large associations of Slavic tribes: Kuyaba, Slavia and Artania. Kuyaba, or Kuyava, then called the area around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of Lake Ilmen. Its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania - the third major association of Slavs - has not been precisely established.
According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the Russian princely dynasty originates in Novgorod. In 859 the northern Slavic tribes, who then paid tribute to the Varangians, or Normans (according to most historians, immigrants from Scandinavia), drove them across the sea. However, soon after these events, internecine struggle began in Novgorod. To
to stop the clashes, the Novgorodians decided to invite the Varangian princes as a force standing above the opposing factions. In 862, Prince Rurik and his two brothers were called to Russia by the Novgorodians, laying the foundation for the Russian princely dynasty.
Norman theory
The legend about the calling of the Varangian princes served as the basis for the creation of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. Its authors were invited in the XVIII century. to Russia, German scientists G. Bayer, G. Miller and A. Schlozer. The authors of this theory emphasized the complete absence of prerequisites for the formation of a state among the Eastern Slavs. The scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory is obvious, since the determining factor in the process of state formation is the presence of internal prerequisites, and not the actions of individual, even outstanding, personalities.
If the Varangian legend is not fiction (as most historians believe), the story of the calling of the Varangians only testifies to the Norman origin of the princely dynasty. The version about the foreign origin of power was quite typical for the Middle Ages.
The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conditionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kyiv. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus.
2. Socio-economic development
Agriculture
The basis of the economy was arable farming. In the south, they plowed mainly with a plow, or ral, with a double team of oxen. In the north - a plow with an iron plowshare, drawn by horses. They grew mainly grain crops: rye, wheat, barley, spelt, oats. Millet, peas, lentils, and turnips were also common.
Two-field and three-field crop rotations were known. The double field consisted in the fact that the entire mass of cultivated land was divided into two parts. One of them was used for growing bread, the second "rested" - was under fallow. With a three-field crop rotation, in addition to the fallow and winter field, a spring field also stood out. In the forest north, the amount of old arable land was not so significant, slash-and-burn agriculture remained the leading form of agriculture.
The Slavs kept a stable set of domestic animals. Bred cows, horses, sheep, pigs, goats, poultry. Crafts played a rather significant role in the economy: hunting, fishing, beekeeping. With the development of foreign trade, the demand for furs increased.
Craft
Trades and handicrafts, developing, are more and more separated from agriculture. Even in conditions of subsistence farming, home craft techniques are being improved - the processing of flax, hemp, wood, and iron. Actually, handicraft production already numbered more than a dozen types: weapons, jewelry, blacksmithing, pottery, weaving, leather. Russian craft in its technical and artistic level was not inferior to the craft of advanced European countries. Jewelry, chain mail, blades, locks were especially famous.
Trade
Internal trade in the Old Russian state was poorly developed, since subsistence farming dominated the economy. The expansion of foreign trade was associated with the formation of a state that provided Russian merchants with safer trade routes and supported them with its authority in international markets. In Byzantium and the countries of the East, a significant part of the tribute collected by the Russian princes was realized. Products of crafts were exported from Russia: furs, honey, wax, products of artisans - gunsmiths and gold smiths, slaves. Mostly luxury items were imported: grape wines, silk fabrics, fragrant resins and spices, expensive weapons.
Craft and trade were concentrated in cities, the number of which grew. The Scandinavians who often visited Russia called our country Gardarika - the country of cities. In Russian chronicles on early XIII in. more than 200 cities are mentioned. However, the inhabitants of the cities still retained close ties with agriculture and were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding.
social order
The process of formation in Kievan Rus of the main classes of feudal society is poorly reflected in the sources. This is one of the reasons why the question of the nature and class basis of the Old Russian state is debatable. The presence of various economic structures in the economy gives reason to a number of specialists to assess the Old Russian state as an early class state, in which the feudal structure existed along with the slave-owning and patriarchal.
Most scholars support the idea of academician B. D. Grekov about the feudal nature of the Old Russian state, since the development of feudal relations began from the 9th century. leading trend in the socio-economic development of ancient Russia.
Feudalism characterized by the complete ownership of the feudal land and incomplete ownership of the peasants, in relation to whom he applies various forms of economic and non-economic coercion. The dependent peasant cultivates not only the land of the feudal lord, but also his own plot of land, which he received from the feudal lord or feudal state, and is the owner of tools, dwellings, etc.
The beginning process of the transformation of tribal nobility into land owners in the first two centuries of the existence of the state in Russia can be traced, mainly, only on archaeological material. These are rich burials of boyars and combatants, the remains of fortified suburban estates (patrimonies) that belonged to senior combatants and boyars. The class of feudal lords also arose by singling out the most prosperous members of the community, who turned part of the communal arable land into property. The expansion of feudal landownership was also facilitated by direct seizures of communal lands by the tribal nobility. The growth of the economic and political power of landowners led to the establishment of various forms of dependence of ordinary community members on landowners.
However, in Kyiv period there remained a fairly significant number of free peasants, dependent only on the state. The term "peasants" itself appeared in the sources only in the XIV century. Sources of the period of Kievan Rus call the community members dependent on the state and the Grand Duke people or stinks.
The main social unit of the agricultural population continued to be the neighboring community - verv. It could consist of one large village or several small settlements. The members of the vervi were bound by collective responsibility for paying tribute, for crimes committed on the territory of the vervi, by mutual responsibility. The community (vervi) included not only smerds-farmers, but also smerds-artisans (blacksmiths, potters, tanners), who provided the needs of the community in handicrafts and worked mainly to order. A person who broke ties with the community and did not enjoy its patronage was called outcast.
FROM With the development of feudal landownership, various forms of dependence of the agricultural population on the landowner appear. A common name for a temporarily dependent peasant was purchase This was the name of a person who received a kupa from the landowner - assistance in the form of a plot of land, a cash loan, seeds, tools or draft power and was obliged to return or work out the kupa with interest. Another term referring to dependent people is ryadovich, i.e., a person who has concluded a certain agreement with the feudal lord - a series and is obliged to perform various works according to this series.
In Kievan Rus, along with feudal relations, there was patriarchal slavery, which, however, did not play a significant role in the country's economy. Slaves were called serfs or servants. First of all, captives fell into slavery, but temporary debt bondage, which ceased after payment of the debt, became widespread. Kholops were commonly used as household servants. In some estates there were also so-called plowed serfs, planted on the ground and having their own
economy.
Votchina
The main cell of the feudal economy was the estate. It consisted of a princely or boyar estate and dependent communities-verveys. In the estate there was a courtyard and mansions of the owner, bins and barns with "abundance", i.e. supplies, dwellings of servants and other buildings. Special managers were in charge of various sectors of the economy - tiunas and key keeper, at the head of the entire patrimonial administration was fireman. As a rule, artisans serving the lordly household worked in the boyar or princely patrimony. Craftsmen could be serfs or be in some other form of dependence on the votchinnik. The patrimonial economy had a natural character and was focused on the internal consumption of the feudal lord himself and his servants. The sources do not allow us to unequivocally judge the dominant form of feudal exploitation in the patrimony. It is possible that some part of the dependent peasants cultivated corvee, another paid the landowner in kind.
The urban population also fell into dependence on the princely administration or the feudal elite. Near cities, large feudal lords often founded special settlements for artisans. In order to attract the population, the owners of the villages provided certain benefits, temporary exemption from taxes, etc. As a result, such craft settlements were called freedoms or settlements.
The spread of economic dependence, increased exploitation caused resistance from the dependent population. The most common form was the escape of dependent people. This is also evidenced by the severity of the punishment provided for such an escape - turning into a complete, "whitewashed" serf. Data on various manifestations of the class struggle are contained in Russkaya Pravda. It refers to violations of the boundaries of land holdings, arson of side trees, murders of representatives of the patrimonial administration, and theft of property.
3. Politics of the first Kyiv princes
10th century
After Oleg (879-912), Igor reigned, who is called Igor the Old (912-945) and is considered the son of Rurik. After his death during the collection of tribute in the land of the Drevlyans in 945, his son Svyatoslav remained, who at that time was four years old. Igor's widow, Princess Olga, became regent under him. Chronicles characterize Princess Olga as a wise and energetic ruler.
Around 955, Olga traveled to Constantinople, where she converted to Christianity. This visit was also of great political significance. Returning from Constantinople, Olga officially transferred power to her son Svyatoslav (957-972).
Svyatoslav, first of all, was a warrior prince who sought to bring Russia closer to the largest powers of the then world. All of it short life took place in almost continuous campaigns and battles: he defeated the Khazar Khaganate, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Pechenegs near Kyiv, made two trips to the Balkans.
After the death of Svyatoslav, his son Yaropolk (972-980) became the Grand Duke. In 977, Yaropolk quarreled with his brother, the Drevlyansk prince Oleg, and began hostilities against him. The Drevlyansk squads of Prince Oleg were defeated, and he himself died in battle. Drevlyane lands were annexed to Kyiv.
After the death of Oleg, the third son of Svyatoslav Vladimir, who reigned in Novgorod, fled to the Varangians. Yaropolk sent his deputies to Novgorod and thus became the sole ruler of the entire Old Russian state.
Returning two years later to Novgorod, Prince Vladimir expelled the Kyiv governors from the city and entered the war with Yaropolk. The main core of Vladimir's army was a mercenary Varangian squad, which came with him.
A fierce clash between the troops of Vladimir and Yaropolk took place in 980 on the Dnieper near the city of Lyubech. The victory was won by the squad of Vladimir, and the Grand Duke Yaropolk was soon killed. Power throughout the state passed into the hands of Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015).
The heyday of the Old Russian state
During the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, Cherven cities were annexed to the Old Russian state - East Slavic lands on both sides of the Carpathians, the land of the Vyatichi. The line of fortresses created in the south of the country provided more effective protection of the country from the Pecheneg nomads.
Vladimir sought not only the political unification of the East Slavic lands. He wanted to reinforce this association with religious unity, unifying the traditional pagan beliefs. Of the numerous pagan gods, he chose six, which he proclaimed the supreme deities on the territory of his state. The figures of these gods (Dazhd-bog, Khors, Stribog, Semargl and Mokosh) he ordered to be placed next to his tower on a high Kiev hill. The pantheon was headed by Perun, the god of thunder, the patron of princes and combatants. The worship of other gods was severely persecuted.
However, the pagan reform, called first religious reform did not satisfy Prince Vladimir. Carried out in a violent way and in the shortest possible time, it could not be successful. In addition, it had no effect on the international prestige of the Old Russian state. Christian Powers pagan Russia perceived as a barbarian state.
The long and strong ties between Russia and Byzantium ultimately led to the fact that in 988 Vladimir adopted Christianity in its Orthodox version. The penetration of Christianity into Russia began long before it was recognized as the official state religion. Princess Olga and Prince Yaropolk were Christians. The adoption of Christianity equated Kievan Rus with neighboring states, Christianity had a huge impact on the life and customs of Ancient Russia, political and legal relations. Christianity, with its more developed theological and philosophical system compared to paganism, and its more complex and magnificent cult, gave a huge impetus to the development of Russian culture and art.
To consolidate their power in various parts vast state, Vladimir appointed his sons governors in various cities and lands of Russia. After the death of Vladimir, a fierce struggle for power began between his sons.
One of the sons of Vladimir, Svyatopolk (1015-1019), seized power in Kyiv and declared himself a Grand Duke. By order of Svyatopolk, three of his brothers were killed - Boris of Rostov, Gleb of Murom and Svyatoslav Drevlyansky.
Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who occupied the throne in Novgorod, understood that he was also in danger. He decided to oppose Svyatopolk, who called on the help of the Pechenegs. Yaroslav's army consisted of Novgorodians and Varangian mercenaries. The internecine war between the brothers ended with the flight of Svyatopolk to Poland, where he soon died. Yaroslav Vladimirovich established himself as the Grand Duke of Kyiv (1019-1054).
In 1024, Yaroslav was opposed by his brother Mstislav Tmutarakansky. As a result of this strife, the brothers divided the state into two parts: the area east of the Dnieper passed to Mstislav, and the territory west of the Dnieper remained with Yaroslav. After the death of Mstislav in 1035, Yaroslav became the sovereign prince of Kievan Rus.
The time of Yaroslav is the heyday of Kievan Rus, which has become one of the strongest states in Europe. The most powerful sovereigns at that time sought an alliance with Russia.
carrier supreme power in
The first signs of fragmentation
The whole princely family was considered to be the Kyiv state, and each individual prince was considered only a temporary owner of the principality, which he got in turn of seniority. After the death of the Grand Duke, it was not his eldest son who “sat down” in his place, but the eldest in the family between the princes. His vacated inheritance also went to the next in seniority among the rest of the princes. Thus, the princes moved from one area to another, from less to more rich and prestigious. As the princely family increased, the calculation of seniority became more and more difficult. The boyars of individual cities and lands intervened in the relations of the princes. Capable and gifted princes sought to rise above their elder relatives.
After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, Russia entered a period of princely strife. However, it is still impossible to speak of feudal fragmentation at this time. It comes when separate principalities are finally formed - lands with their capitals, and their princely dynasties are fixed on these lands. The struggle between the sons and grandsons of Yaroslav the Wise was still a struggle aimed at maintaining the principle of tribal ownership of Russia.
Yaroslav the Wise before his death divided the Russian land between his sons - Izyaslav (1054-1073, 1076-1078), Svyatoslav (1073-1076) and Vsevolod (1078-1093). The reign of the last of the sons of Yaroslav, Vsevolod, was especially restless: the younger princes were fiercely at enmity over the destinies, the Polovtsy often attacked the Russian lands. The son of Svyatoslav, Prince Oleg, entered into allied relations with the Polovtsy and repeatedly brought them to Russia.
Vladimir Monomakh
After the death of Prince Vsevolod, his son Vladimir Monomakh had real chances to take the princely throne. But the presence in Kyiv of a rather powerful boyar group, opposed to the descendants of Vsevolod in favor of the children of Prince Izyaslav, who had more rights to the princely table, forced Vladimir Monomakh to abandon the struggle for the Kyiv table.
The new Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich (1093-1113) turned out to be a weak and indecisive commander and a poor diplomat. His speculation in bread and salt during the famine, patronage of usurers caused bitterness among the people of Kiev. The death of this prince served as a signal for a popular uprising. The townspeople defeated the yard of the Kyiv thousand, the yards of usurers. The Boyar Duma invited Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113-1125), popular among the people, to the Kyiv table. Chronicles for the most part give an enthusiastic assessment of the reign and personality of Vladimir Monomakh, calling him an exemplary prince. Vladimir Monomakh managed to keep the entire Russian land under his rule.
After his death, the unity of Russia was still maintained under his son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132), after which Russia finally disintegrated into separate independent lands-principalities.
4. Early feudal monarchy
Control
The Old Russian state was an early feudal monarchy. Kyiv was at the head of the state Grand Duke.
The relatives of the Grand Duke were in charge of certain lands of the country - appanage princes or his posadniki. In governing the country, the Grand Duke was assisted by a special council - boyar thought, which included junior princes, representatives of the tribal nobility - boyars, combatants.
The princely squad occupied an important place in the leadership of the country. The senior squad actually coincided in composition with the boyar thought. From the senior warriors, princely governors were usually appointed to the largest cities. The younger warriors (youths, gridi, children) performed the duties of petty stewards and servants in peacetime, and in the military they were warriors. They usually enjoyed part of the princely income, such as court fees. The prince shared with the younger squad the collected tribute and military booty. The senior squad had other sources of income. In the early stages of the existence of the Old Russian state, senior combatants received from the prince the right to tribute from a certain territory. With the development of feudal relations, they became owners of land, owners of estates. Local princes, senior combatants had their own squads and boyar thoughts.
The military forces of the Old Russian state consisted of detachments of professional soldiers - princely and boyar combatants and the people's militia, which gathered on especially important occasions. A large role in the army was played by cavalry, suitable for fighting the southern nomads and for long-distance campaigns. The cavalry was made up mainly of vigilantes. The Kyiv princes also had a significant rook fleet and made long-range military and commercial expeditions.
In addition to the prince and the squad, a significant role in the life of the Old Russian state was played by veche. In some cities, for example, in Novgorod, it acted constantly, in others it was collected only in emergency cases.
Collection of tribute
The population of the Old Russian state was subject to tribute. The collection of tribute was called polyudie. Every year in November, the prince with his retinue began to detour the territories subject to him. While collecting tribute, he carried out judicial functions. The size of state duties under the first Kyiv princes was not fixed and was regulated by custom. The attempts of the princes to increase the tribute provoked resistance from the population. In 945, Prince Igor of Kyiv, who tried to arbitrarily increase the amount of tribute, was killed by the rebellious Drevlyans.
After the murder of Igor, his widow, Princess Olga, traveled around some parts of Russia and, according to the chronicle, “established statutes and lessons”, “dues and tributes”, that is, established a fixed amount of duties. She also determined the places of collection of taxes: "camps and churchyards." Polyudyu is gradually being replaced new form receiving tribute - cart- delivery of tribute by the taxable population in a specially designated places. As a unit of taxation, a peasant agricultural economy was defined (tribute from the ral, plow). In some cases, tribute was taken from smoke, that is, from every house with a hearth.
Almost all the tribute collected by the princes was an export item. In early spring, along the high hollow water, tribute was sent for sale to Constantinople, where it was exchanged for gold coins, expensive fabrics and vegetables, wine, and luxury items. Almost all the military campaigns of the Russian princes against Byzantium were connected with the provision of the most favorable conditions for security on trade routes for this interstate trade.
"Russian Truth"
The first information about the system of law that existed in Russia is contained in the treaties of the Kievan princes with the Greeks, where the so-called “Russian law” is reported, the text of which we do not
The earliest legal monument that has come down to us is Russkaya Pravda. The most ancient part of this monument is called the “Ancient Truth”, or “The Truth of Yaroslav”. Perhaps it is a charter issued by Yaroslav the Wise in 1016 and regulating the relationship of the prince's warriors among themselves and with the inhabitants of Novgorod. In addition to the "Ancient Truth", the "Russian Truth" includes the legal regulations of the sons of Yaroslav the Wise - "The Truth of the Yaroslavichs" (adopted around 1072). "The Charter of Vladimir Monomakh" (adopted in 1113) and some other legal monuments.
The Pravda Yaroslav speaks of such a relic of patriarchal-communal relations as blood feud. True, this custom is already dying out, since it is allowed to replace blood feud with a fine (vira) in favor of the family of the murdered. The "Ancient Truth" also provides for punishments for beatings, mutilations, blows with sticks, bowls, drinking horns, harboring a runaway slave, damage to weapons and clothes.
For criminal offenses, Russkaya Pravda provides for a fine in favor of the prince and a reward in favor of the victim. For the most serious criminal offenses, the loss of all property and expulsion from the community or imprisonment were provided. Robbery, arson, horse theft were considered such grave crimes.
Church
In addition to civil law in Kievan Rus, there was also ecclesiastical law that regulated the share of the church in princely incomes, the range of crimes subject to ecclesiastical court. These are the church statutes of princes Vladimir and Yaroslav. Family crimes, witchcraft, blasphemy and the trial of people belonging to the church were subject to church court.
After the adoption of Christianity in Russia, a church organization arises. The Russian Church was considered part of the universal Patriarchate of Constantinople. Her head is metropolitan- Appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1051, the Metropolitan of Kyiv was elected for the first time not in Constantinople, but in Kyiv by a council of Russian bishops. It was Metropolitan Hilarion, an outstanding writer and church figure. However, subsequent Kievan metropolitans were still appointed by Constantinople.
In large cities, episcopal sees were established, which were the centers of large church districts - dioceses. Bishops appointed by the Metropolitan of Kyiv were at the head of the dioceses. All churches and monasteries located on the territory of his diocese were subordinate to the bishops. The princes gave a tenth of the tributes and dues received for the maintenance of the church - tithe.
Monasteries occupied a special place in the church organization. Monasteries were created as voluntary communities of people who abandoned family and ordinary worldly life and devoted themselves to serving God. The most famous Russian monastery of this period was founded in the middle of the XI century. Kiev-Pechersky monastery. Just like the highest church hierarchs - the metropolitan and bishops, the monasteries owned land and villages, and were engaged in trade. The wealth accumulated in them was spent on the construction of temples, decorating them with icons, and copying books. Monasteries played a very important role in the life of medieval society. The presence of a monastery in a city or principality, according to the ideas of the people of that time, contributed to stability and prosperity, since it was believed that “the prayers of the monks (monks) save the world.”
The church was of great importance for the Russian state. It contributed to the strengthening of statehood, the unification of individual lands into a single state. It is also impossible to overestimate the influence of the church on the development of culture. Through the Church, Russia joined the Byzantine cultural tradition, continuing and developing it.
5. Foreign policy
The main tasks facing foreign policy The ancient Russian state was the fight against the steppe nomads, the protection of trade routes and the provision of the most favorable trade relations with the Byzantine Empire.
Russian-Byzantine relations
The trade of Russia and Byzantium had a state character. In the markets of Constantinople, a significant part of the tribute collected by the Kievan princes was sold. The princes sought to provide for themselves the most favorable conditions in this trade, they tried to strengthen their positions in the Crimea and the Black Sea region. Attempts by Byzantium to limit Russian influence or violate the terms of trade led to military clashes.
Under Prince Oleg, the combined forces of the Kievan state besieged the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople (the Russian name is Tsargrad) and forced the Byzantine emperor to sign a trade agreement beneficial for Russia (911). Another treaty with Byzantium has come down to us, concluded after Prince Igor's less successful campaign against Constantinople in 944.
In accordance with the agreements, Russian merchants came to Constantinople every summer for the trading season and lived there for six months. A certain place on the outskirts of the city was allocated for their residence. According to Oleg's agreement, Russian merchants did not pay any duty, trade was predominantly barter.
The Byzantine Empire sought to draw neighboring states into a struggle among themselves in order to weaken them and subject them to its influence. Thus, the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros Foka tried to use the Russian troops to weaken the Danube Bulgaria, with which Byzantium waged a long and exhausting war. In 968, the Russian troops of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich invaded Bulgaria and occupied a number of cities along the Danube, of which the most important was Pereyaslavets, a large commercial and political center in the lower reaches of the Danube. Svyatoslav's successful offensive was seen as a security threat Byzantine Empire and its influence in the Balkans. Probably under the influence of Greek diplomacy, the Pechenegs attacked militarily weakened Kyiv in 969. Svyatoslav was forced to return to Russia. After the liberation of Kyiv, he made a second trip to Bulgaria, already acting in alliance with the Bulgarian Tsar Boris against Byzantium.
The fight against Svyatoslav was led by the new Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes, one of the prominent commanders of the empire. In the first battle, the Russian and Bulgarian squads defeated the Byzantines and put them to flight. Pursuing the retreating army, Svyatoslav's troops captured a number of major cities and reached Adrianople. Near Adrianople, peace was concluded between Svyatoslav and Tzimisces. The bulk of the Russian squads returned to Pereyaslavets. This peace was concluded in the fall, and in the spring Byzantium launched a new offensive. The Bulgarian king went over to the side of Byzantium.
The army of Svyatoslav from Pereyaslavets moved to the Dorostol fortress and prepared for defense. After a two-month siege, John Tzimisces offered Svyatoslav to make peace. According to this agreement, Russian troops left Bulgaria. Trade relations were restored. Russia and Byzantium became allies.
The last major campaign against Byzantium was made in 1043. The reason for it was the murder of a Russian merchant in Constantinople. Having not received worthy satisfaction for the insult, Prince Yaroslav the Wise sent a fleet to the Byzantine shores, headed by his son Vladimir and the governor Vyshata. Despite the fact that the storm scattered the Russian fleet, the ships under the command of Vladimir managed to inflict significant damage on the Greek fleet. In 1046, peace was concluded between Russia and Byzantium, which, according to the tradition of that time, was secured by a dynastic union - the marriage of the son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to the daughter of Emperor Constantine Monomakh.
The defeat of the Khazar Khaganate
The neighbor of the Old Russian state was the Khazar Khaganate, located on the Lower Volga and in the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov. The Khazars were a semi-nomadic people of Turkic origin. Their capital Itil, located in the Volga delta, became a major trading center. During the heyday of the Khazar state, some Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars.
The Khazar Khaganate held in its hands key points on the most important trade routes: the mouths of the Volga and Don, the Kerch Strait, the crossing between the Volga and the Don. The customs posts established there collected significant trade duties. High customs payments had a negative impact on the development of trade in Ancient Russia. Sometimes the Khazar Khagans (rulers of the state) were not content with trading fees, detained and robbed Russian merchant caravans returning from the Caspian Sea.
In the second half of the X century. the systematic struggle of the Russian squads with the Khazar Khaganate began. In 965, the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav defeated the Khazar state. After that, the Lower Don was again settled by the Slavs, and the former Khazar fortress Sarkel (Russian name Belaya Vezha) became the center of this territory. On the shore Kerch Strait formed Russian principality with the center in Tmutarakan. This city with a large seaport became an outpost of Russia on the Black Sea. At the end of the tenth century Russian squads made a number of campaigns on the Caspian coast and in the steppe regions of the Caucasus.
Fight against nomads
In the X and early XI centuries. nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs lived on the right and left banks of the Lower Dnieper, who made quick and decisive attacks on Russian lands and cities. To protect against the Pechenegs, the Russian princes built belts of defensive structures of fortified cities, ramparts, etc. The first information about such fortified cities around Kyiv dates back to the time of Prince Oleg.
In 969, the Pechenegs, led by Prince Kurei, besieged Kyiv. Prince Svyatoslav at that time was in Bulgaria. At the head of the defense of the city stood his mother, Princess Olga. Despite the difficult situation (lack of people, lack of water, fires), the people of Kiev managed to hold out until the arrival of the princely squad. South of Kyiv, near the city of Rodnya, Svyatoslav utterly defeated the Pechenegs and even captured Prince Kurya. And three years later, during a clash with the Pechenegs in the area of the Dnieper rapids, Prince Svyatoslav was killed.
A powerful defensive line on the southern borders was built under Prince Vladimir the Holy. Fortresses were built on the rivers Stugna, Sula, Desna and others. The largest were Pereyaslavl and Belgorod. These fortresses had permanent military garrisons recruited from combatants (“ the best people”) of various Slavic tribes. Wishing to attract all the forces to the defense of the state, Prince Vladimir recruited into these garrisons mainly representatives of the northern tribes: Slovenes, Krivichi, Vyatichi.
After 1136, the Pechenegs ceased to pose a serious threat to the Kievan state. According to legend, in honor of the decisive victory over the Pechenegs, Prince Yaroslav the Wise built the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv.
In the middle of the XI century. The Pechenegs were forced out of the southern Russian steppes to the Danube by the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Kipchaks who came from Asia. In Russia they were called Polovtsy, they occupied the North Caucasus, part of the Crimea, all the southern Russian steppes. The Polovtsians were a very strong and serious opponent, often making campaigns against Byzantium and Russia. The position of the Old Russian state was further complicated by the fact that the princely strife that began at that time crushed its forces, and some princes, trying to use the Polovtsian detachments to seize power, themselves brought enemies to Russia. The Polovtsian expansion was especially significant in the 90s. 11th century when the Polovtsian khans even tried to take Kyiv. At the end of the XI century. attempts were made to organize all-Russian campaigns against the Polovtsians. At the head of these campaigns was Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh. The Russian squads managed not only to recapture the captured Russian cities, but also to strike at the Polovtsy on their territory. In 1111, the capital of one of the Polovtsian tribal formations, the city of Sharukan (not far from modern Kharkov), was taken by Russian troops. After that, part of the Polovtsy migrated to the North Caucasus. However, the Polovtsian danger was not eliminated. Throughout the XII century. there were military clashes between the Russian princes and the Polovtsian khans.
International significance of the Old Russian state
The ancient Russian state, in terms of its geographical position, occupied an important place in the system of European and Asian countries and was one of the strongest in Europe.
The constant struggle against the nomads protected a higher agricultural culture from ruin and contributed to the security of trade. The trade of Western Europe with the countries of the Near and Middle East, with the Byzantine Empire, largely depended on the military successes of the Russian squads.
The marriage ties of the Kyiv princes testify to the international significance of Russia. Vladimir the Holy was married to the sister of the Byzantine emperors, Anna. Yaroslav the Wise, his sons and daughters became related to the kings of Norway, France, Hungary, Poland, Byzantine emperors. Daughter Anna was the wife of the French King Henry I. Son Vsevolod is married to the daughter of the Byzantine emperor, and his grandson Vladimir, the son of the Byzantine princess, married the daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king Harald.
6. Culture
epics
The heroic pages of the history of the Old Russian state, connected with its defense from external dangers, were reflected in Russian epics. Epics are a new epic genre that arose in the 10th century. The most extensive epic cycle is dedicated to Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, who actively defended Russia from the Pechenegs. In epics, the people called him the Red Sun. One of the main characters of this cycle was the peasant son, the hero Ilya Muromets, the defender of all the offended and unfortunate.
In the image of Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, scientists see another prince - Vladimir Monomakh. The people created in the epics a collective image of the prince - the defender of Russia. It should be noted that the events, although heroic, but of lesser importance for the people's life - such as the campaigns of Svyatoslav - were not reflected in the folk epic poetry.
Writing
Treaty of Prince Oleg with the Greeks in 911. compiled in Greek and Russian, is one of the first monuments of Russian writing. The adoption of Christianity by Russia significantly accelerated the spread of education. It contributed to the widespread penetration of Byzantine literature and art into Russia. The achievements of Byzantine culture initially came to Russia through Bulgaria, where by this time there was already a significant supply of both translated and original literature in an understandable Slavic language in Russia. The Bulgarian missionary monks Cyril and Methodius, who lived in the 9th century, are considered the creators of the Slavic alphabet.
With the adoption of Christianity, the emergence of the first educational institutions is associated. According to the chronicle, immediately after the baptism of the people of Kiev, St. Vladimir arranged a school in which the children of the “best people” were to study. During the time of Yaroslav the Wise, more than 300 children studied at the school at St. Sophia Cathedral. Monasteries were also original schools. They copied church books and studied the Greek language. As a rule, monasteries also had schools for the laity.
Literacy was quite widespread among the urban population. This is evidenced by graffiti inscriptions on the things and walls of ancient buildings, as well as birch bark letters found in Novgorod and some other cities.
Literature
In addition to translated Greek and Byzantine works, Russia has its own literary works. In the Old Russian state, a special kind of historical composition arose - an annals. Based on weather records major events chronicles were compiled. The most famous ancient Russian chronicle is The Tale of Bygone Years, which tells the history of the Russian land, starting with the settlement of the Slavs and the legendary princes Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv.
Prince Vladimir Monomakh was not only an outstanding statesman, but also a writer. He was the author of Teachings to Children, the first memoir in the history of Russian literature. In the "Instruction" Vladimir Monomakh draws the image of an ideal prince: a good Christian, a wise statesman and a brave warrior.
The first Russian metropolitan, Hilarion, wrote "The Sermon on Law and Grace" - a historical and philosophical work showing the deep mastering and understanding of the Christian view of history by a Russian scribe. The author affirms the equal position of the Russian people among other Christian peoples. The "Word" of Hilarion also contains praise for Prince Vladimir, who enlightened Russia with baptism.
Russian people made long journeys to various countries. Some of them left travel notes and descriptions of their campaigns. These descriptions constituted a special genre - walking. The oldest walk was compiled at the beginning of the 11th century. Chernigov hegumen Daniel. This is a description of a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and other holy places. Daniel's information is so detailed and accurate that his "Journey" for a long time remained the most popular description of the Holy Land in Russia and a guide for Russian pilgrims.
Architecture and fine arts
Under Prince Vladimir, the Church of the Tithes was built in Kyiv, under Yaroslav the Wise - the famous St. Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate and other buildings. The first stone churches in Russia were built by Byzantine masters. The best Byzantine artists decorated the new Kyiv churches with mosaics and frescoes. Thanks to the cares of the Russian princes, Kyiv was called a rival of Constantinople. Russian craftsmen studied with visiting Byzantine architects and artists. Their works combined the highest achievements of Byzantine culture with national aesthetic ideas.
RUSSIA IN XII - EARLY 17th century
SOURCES
Chronicles remain the most important sources for the history of medieval Russia. From the end of the XII century. their circle is expanding considerably. With the development of individual lands and principalities, regional chronicles spread. In the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow in the XIV - XV centuries. a common Russian chronicle appears. The most famous all-Russian chronicles are the Troitskaya (beginning of the 15th century), Nikonovskaya (mid-16th century) chronicles.
The largest body of sources is made up of act materials-letters written on a variety of occasions. Letters were granted, deposit, in-line, bill of sale, spiritual, truce, statutory and others, depending on the purpose. With the strengthening of the centralization of state power and the development of the feudal-local system, the number of current clerical documentation (scribe, sentinel, bit, genealogical books, formal replies, petitions, memory, court lists) increases. Actual and office materials are the most valuable sources on the socio-economic history of Russia. From the 14th century in Russia they begin to use paper, but for household and household records they continue to use parchment and even birch bark.
AT historical research scientists often use works of fiction. The most common genres in ancient Russian literature were stories, words, teachings, journeys, lives. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (end of the 12th century), “The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener” (beginning of the 13th century), “Zadonshchina” (end of the 14th century), “The Tale of Mama’s Battle” (the turn of the 14th - 15th centuries. ), “Walking (walking) over the three seas” (end of the 15th century) enriched the treasury of world literature.
The end of the XV - XVI centuries. became the heyday of journalism. The most famous authors were Iosif Sanin (“The Enlightener”), Nil Sorsky (“Tradition by a Disciple”), Maxim Grek (Messages, Words), Ivan Peresvetov (Big and Small Upholstered People, “The Tale of the Fall of Tsar-Grad”, “The Legend of Magmete-saltane").
In the middle of the XV century. The Chronograph was compiled - a historical work that examined not only Russian, but also world history.
According to some researchers, the formation of the Old Russian state was the result of the unification of the East Slavic tribes. However, disputes arose between many historians on the issue of the formation of the state. This is due to the so-called "Norman theory" that originated about 200 years ago.
AT ancient chronicles the year 862 is mentioned as the time with Rurik dominating over them in the Slavic lands. This need arose in connection with the spread of internal strife. Inhabitants of Scandinavia (princes-Varangians) are called in some sources "northern people" - Normans.
Discussions about their vocation began in the 18th century after the founding of the Academy of Sciences and the transformations of Peter 1. At that time, invited to serve in the St. Petersburg Academy, Schlozer, Miller and Bayer became the founders of the assumption about how the formation of the Old Russian state took place. The "Norman theory" assumed that the Scandinavians brought statehood. Thus, the state was formed not by the Slavs, but by the Varangian princes. At the same time, another, "anti-Norman suggestion" began to spread. Its founders, Lomonosov and Trediakovsky, argued that the formation of the Old Russian state was the merit of the Slavs.
To one degree or another, most of the historians in the 19th century were supporters of the assumption that the Varangians formed the state. However, the historical science of the 20th century subjected the Norman theory to serious criticism. As a result, today most of the scholars-researchers of history do not deny some influence of the Normans on the formation of Russian statehood, but the degree of this influence is not exaggerated.
The leaders were called princes. The genealogy of the kings and princes of the state was conducted from the prince of the Varangians Rurik.
After the death of Rurik, who reigned in Novgorod, the Varangians came to the Dnieper. The first real ruler was Oleg. Reliable information has been preserved about him. Oleg took up the unification of the lands. In 882, he captured Kyiv, killed Dir and Askold, who reigned in it. Having made the capital of the city, Oleg called it "the mother of Russian cities." Thus, the formation of the Old Russian state of Kievan Rus took place.
During the reign, Oleg fought several successful battles with powerful Byzantium, twice he went on campaigns to Constantinople. As a result of this activity, in 907 and 911, Russia concluded favorable peace agreements.
The formation of the Old Russian state continued even after Igor ascended the throne after Oleg. According to some sources, he was the son of Rurik. During the reign of Igor, the inclusion of various tribal formations into Kievan Rus continued. So, he contributed to the emergence of Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula, subjugated the street dwellers. In addition, Igor very actively continued Oleg's foreign policy activities. After military campaigns against Byzantium, he concluded a mutually beneficial agreement with her in 944. One of the first encountered the Turkic folk group- Pechenegs.
The first ruler known history, became Olga, the widow of Prince Igor. The princess managed to retain power not only over Kyiv, but over all of Russia. During the reign of Olga, tribute duties were strictly regulated.
The formation of the Old Russian state continued until the very time of the reign of Yaroslav (1019-1054). This ruler was nicknamed "The Wise". Yaroslav united almost all ancient Russian lands. The prince adopted "Russian Pravda" the first legislative code. During his reign, the state reached its highest power.
The prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state were the disintegration of tribal ties and the development of a new mode of production. The Old Russian state took shape in the process of development of feudal relations, the emergence of class contradictions and coercion.
Among the Slavs, a dominant layer was gradually formed, the basis of which was the military Nobility of the Kyiv princes - the squad. Already in the 9th century, strengthening the position of their princes, the combatants firmly occupied leading positions in society.
It was in the 9th century. in Eastern Europe, two ethno-political associations were formed, which eventually became the basis of the state. It was formed as a result of the association of glades with the center in Kyiv.
Slavs, Krivichi and Finnish-speaking tribes united in the area of Lake Ilmen (the center is in Novgorod). In the middle of the 9th c. Rurik (862-879), a native of Scandinavia, began to rule this association. Therefore, the year 862 is considered the year of formation of the ancient Russian state.
The presence of the Scandinavians (Varangians) on the territory of Russia is confirmed by archaeological excavations and records in the chronicles. In the 18th century German scientists G.F. Miller and G.Z. Bayer proved the Scandinavian theory of the formation of the ancient Russian state (Rus).
M.V. Lomonosov, denying the Norman (Varangian) origin of statehood, connected the word "Rus" with the Sarmatians-Roksolans, the Ros River, flowing in the south.
Lomonosov, relying on The Tale of the Vladimir Princes, argued that Rurik, being a native of Prussia, belonged to the Slavs, who were the Prussians. It was this “southern” anti-Norman theory of the formation of the ancient Russian state that was supported and developed in the 19th and 20th centuries. historian scholars.
The first mention of Russia is attested in the "Bavarian Chronograph" and refers to the period 811-821. In it, the Russians are mentioned as a people within the Khazars, inhabiting Eastern Europe. In the 9th century Russia was perceived as an ethno-political formation on the territory of the glades and northerners.
Rurik, who took control of Novgorod, sent his squad led by Askold and Dir to rule Kyiv. Rurik's successor, Varangian Prince Oleg(879-912), who took possession of Smolensk and Lyubech, subjugated all the Krivichi to his power, in 882 he deceived them from Kyiv and killed Askold and Dir. Having captured Kyiv, he managed to unite the two most important centers of the Eastern Slavs - Kyiv and Novgorod, by the power of his power. Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi.
In 907, Oleg, having gathered a huge army of Slavs and Finns, undertook a campaign against Tsargrad (Constantinople), the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The Russian squad devastated the surroundings, forced the Greeks to ask Oleg for peace and pay a huge tribute. The result of this campaign was very beneficial for Russia peace treaties with Byzantium, concluded in 907 and 911.
Oleg died in 912, and became his successor Igor(912-945), son of Rurik. In 941, he attacked Byzantium, which violated the previous agreement. Igor's army plundered the shores of Asia Minor, but was defeated in a naval battle. Then in 945, in alliance with the Pechenegs, he undertook a new campaign against Constantinople and forced the Greeks to conclude a peace treaty again. In 945, while trying to collect a second tribute from the Drevlyans, Igor was killed.
Igor's widow Duchess Olga(945-957) rules for the infancy of his son Svyatoslav. She brutally avenged the murder of her husband by devastating the lands of the Drevlyans. Olga streamlined the size and places of tribute collection. In 955 she visited Constantinople and was baptized into Orthodoxy.
Svyatoslav(957-972) - the most courageous and influential of the princes, who subjugated the Vyatichi to his power. In 965, he inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Khazars. Svyatoslav defeated the North Caucasian tribes, as well as the Volga Bulgarians, and plundered their capital Bulgar. The Byzantine government sought an alliance with him to fight external enemies.
Kyiv and Novgorod became the center of formation of the ancient Russian state; East Slavic tribes, north and south. In the 9th century both of these groups united into a single ancient Russian state, which went down in history as Russia.
The development of the Old Russian state
1. Formation of the Old Russian state at the end of the 9th century. Causes, nature, features
2. Development of the Old Russian state in the X-beginning of the XII centuries.
3. General characteristics of the Old Russian state and its significance in the history of our Motherland
List of used literature
Old Russian state Rurik power
1.Education Old Russian states in end I X in. The reasons, character, peculiarities
The Old Russian state was formed as a result of a complex interaction of a whole complex of both internal and external factors, socio-economic, political and spiritual. First of all, one should take into account the changes that took place in the economy of the Eastern Slavs in the VIII-IX centuries. Yes, already mentioned development of agriculture , special arable land in the steppe and forest-steppe region of the Middle Dnieper, led to the appearance of an excess product, which created conditions for the separation of the princely retinue group from the community (there was separation of military administrative work from productive ). In the north of Eastern Europe, where farming could not be widely spread due to harsh climatic conditions, crafts continued to play an important role, and the emergence of an excess product was the result of the development exchange and foreign trade. In the area where arable farming is spread, tribal community evolution, which, thanks to the fact that now a separate large family could provide for its existence, began to transform into agricultural or neighboring (territorial ). Such a community, as before, mainly consisted of relatives, but unlike the tribal community, arable land, divided into allotments, and the products of labor were here in the use of separate large families who owned tools and livestock. This created some conditions for property differentiation, but social stratification did not occur in the community itself - the productivity of agricultural labor remained too low. Archaeological excavations of East Slavic settlements of that period revealed almost identical semi-dugout family dwellings with the same set of objects and tools.
To political factors The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs should be attributed to the complication of intra-tribal relations and inter-tribal clashes, which accelerated the formation of princely power, increased the role of princes and squads both defending the tribe from external enemies and acting as an arbiter in various kinds of disputes.
The evolution of the pagan ideas of the Slavs of that era also contributed to the formation of the power of the prince. So, as the military power of the prince, who brought booty to the tribe, defended it from external enemies and took on the problem of resolving internal disputes, grew, his prestige grew and, at the same time, alienation from free community members occurred.
Thus, as a result of military successes, his performance of complex managerial functions, the prince’s removal from the circle of affairs and concerns familiar to the community members, which often resulted in the creation of a fortified intertribal center - the residence of the prince and squad, he began to endow his fellow tribesmen with supernatural powers and abilities, in it more and more they saw the guarantee of the well-being of the entire tribe, and his personality was identified with a tribal totem. All this led to the sacralization of princely power, created the spiritual prerequisites for the transition from communal to state relations.
External prerequisites include the "pressure" exerted on the Slavic world by its neighbors - the Khazars and the Normans.
On the one hand, their desire to take control of the trade routes linking the West with the East and South accelerated the formation of princely retinue groups that were drawn into foreign trade. Taking, for example, products of crafts, primarily furs from their fellow tribesmen and exchanging them for prestigious consumption products and silver from foreign merchants, selling them captured foreigners, the local nobility more and more subjugated the tribal structures, enriched themselves and isolated themselves from ordinary community members. . Over time, she, having united with the Varangian warrior-merchants, will begin to exercise control over trade routes and trade itself, which will lead to the consolidation of previously disparate tribal principalities located along these routes.
On the other hand, interaction with more advanced civilizations led to the borrowing of certain socio-political forms of their life. It is no coincidence that for a long time the great princes in Russia were called, following the example of the Khazar Khaganate, Khakans (Kagans). For a long time, the Byzantine Empire was considered the true standard of the state-political structure.
It should also be taken into account that the existence in the Lower Volga of a powerful state formation - the Khazar Khaganate, protected the Eastern Slavs from the raids of nomads, who in previous eras (Huns in the 4th-5th centuries, Avars in the 7th century) hampered their development, interfered with peaceful labor and, as a result, the emergence of the “embryo” of statehood.
In its development, the ancient Russian state went through a number of stages. Let's consider them.
At the first stage of the formation of the ancient Russian state (VIII-mid-IX centuries), the prerequisites mature, the formation of intertribal unions and their centers - principalities, which are mentioned by Eastern authors. By the ninth century the appearance of the polyudya system goes back, i.e. collecting tribute from the community in favor of the prince, which in that era, most likely, was still voluntary and was perceived as compensation for military and administrative services.
At the second stage (the second half of the 9th - the middle of the 10th century), the process of folding the state is accelerated largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and the Normans (Varangians). PVL speaks of the raids of the warlike inhabitants of Northern Europe, who forced the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi and Finno-Ugric tribes of Chud and Vesi to pay tribute. In the South, the Khazars collected tribute from the meadows, northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi.
Modern researchers, overcoming the extremes of Normanism and anti-Normanism, have come to the following conclusions: the process of folding the state began before the Varangians, the very fact of their invitation to reign indicates that this form of power was already known to the Slavs; Rurik - a real historical figure, being invited to Novgorod to play the role of an arbitrator and, perhaps, a defender from the "overseas Varangians" (Svei), seizes power. His appearance in Novgorod (peaceful or violent) is in no way connected with the birth of the state; the Norman squad, not burdened by local traditions, more actively uses the element of violence to collect tribute and unite Slavic tribal unions, which, to a certain extent, accelerates the process of folding the state. At the same time, there is a consolidation of the local princely squad elite, its integration with the Varangian squads and the Slavicization of the Varangians themselves; Oleg, having united the Novgorod and Kyiv lands and bringing together the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks", brought the economic base under the emerging state; ethnonym "Rus" of northern origin. And although the chronicle refers it to one of the Norman tribes, but, most likely, this is a collective name (from the Finnish ruotsi - rowers) under which was hidden not an ethnic, but an ethno-social group consisting of representatives various peoples engaged in sea robbery and trade. Then, on the one hand, the spread of this term, which is no longer associated with any ethnic group, among the Eastern Slavs, and on the other hand, the rapid assimilation of the Varangians themselves, who, moreover, adopted local pagan cults and did not hold on to their gods.
During the reign Oleg (879-912) in his hands concentrated power over the territory from Ladoga to the lower reaches of the Dnieper. There was a kind of federation of tribal principalities headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv. His power was manifested in the right to collect tribute from all the tribes included in this union. Oleg, relying on the power of the Slavic-Norman squads and "wars" (armed free community members), in 907 makes a successful campaign against Byzantium. As a result, an agreement beneficial for Russia was signed, which provides it with the right to duty-free trade. New concessions were made in the agreement of 911.
Igor (912-945) sought to preserve the unity of the intertribal federation, and also defended its borders from the formidable nomads who appeared - the Pechenegs. In the 40s, he made two campaigns against Byzantium, which violated its agreements with Russia. As a result, having failed, he concluded in 944 a less favorable agreement, and in 945, during a polyudy in Drevlyane land was killed for demanding extra tribute.
Third, the final stage of the folding of the state begins with the reforms of the princess Olga. Having avenged the Drevlyans for the death of her husband, she establishes a fixed rate of tribute, and arranges " graveyards" , which became the mainstay of princely power in the field. Her son's politics Svyatoslav (964-972), famous for the victory over Khazaria and campaigns on the Danube, which ended in failure, required the mobilization of significant forces for external conquests. This somewhat delayed the internal dispensation of the Russian land.
The complete elimination of tribal principalities occurs during the reign of St. Vladimir (980-1015). He tries strengthen the pagan faith and hence their power. For this purpose, a pantheon of five main gods is being created, headed by Perun, who was especially revered among the princely combatants. But this measure did not change much, and then Vladimir goes on a kind of "spiritual revolution" from above - he introduces in 988 Christianity. This essentially monotheistic religion made it possible to supplant local pagan cults and laid the spiritual foundation for the emerging unified Russian people and the Old Russian state.