The theory of the origin of the Slavs.
There are many hypotheses about the origin of the Slavs. One of the migration theories was called "Danube" or "Balkan". It appeared in the Middle Ages, and for a long time it was shared by historians of the 18th - early 20th centuries. The Danube ancestral home of the Slavs was recognized by S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky and other historians. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, the Slavs moved from the Danube to the Carpathian region. He argued that “the history of Russia began in the 6th century. on the northeastern foothills of the Carpathians ". From here, part of the Slavs settled east and northeast to Lake Ilmen in the 7th-8th centuries.
The emergence of another migration theory of the origin of the Slavs, called "Scythian-Sarmatian", dates back to the Middle Ages. Her followers argued that the ancestors of the Slavs advanced from Western Asia along Black Sea coast to the north and became known as "Scythians", "Sarmatians", "Alans", "Roxolans". Gradually, the ancestors of the Slavs settled from the Northern Black Sea region to the west and southwest.
The original theory of the origin of the Slavs was put forward by the prominent historian and linguist Academician A.A. Chess. In his opinion, the first ancestral home of the Slavs was the basin of the Western Dvina and Lower Neman rivers in the Baltic. Hence, at the turn of the II-III centuries. the Slavs, under the name of Wends, advanced to the Lower Vistula. Shakhmatov considered the Lower Vistula to be the second ancestral home of the Slavs.
In contrast to the theories of the migratory nature of the origin of the Slavs, there are points of view according to which the Slavs were the indigenous inhabitants of the places where they lived since ancient times. Domestic historians, pointing out the complexity of the process of the emergence of one or another ethnic group, including the Slavic, emphasized that this process is based on the interaction of many tribes with their subsequent unification. It is associated with various stages of gradual cultural and linguistic development. The role of migrations in this development, according to these historians, is secondary.
Early political associations of the Eastern Slavs of the 5th-8th centuries.
The Slavs were part of the ancient Indo-European unity, which included the ancestors of the Germans, Balts, Slavs and Indo-Iranians. Over time, communities with related language, economy and culture began to stand out from the mass of Indo-European tribes. The Slavs became one of such associations.
Since about the 4th century, along with other tribes of Eastern Europe, the Slavs found themselves in the center of large-scale migration processes known in history as the Great Migration of Peoples. During the 4th-8th centuries. they took over vast new territories.
Within the Slavic community, tribal alliances began to take shape - prototypes of future states.
In the future, three branches stand out from the common Slavic unity: the southern, western and eastern Slavs. By this time, the Slavs are referred to in Byzantine sources as antes.
The South Slavic peoples (Serbs, Montenegrins, etc.) were formed from the Slavs who settled within the Byzantine Empire.
The Western Slavs include tribes that settled on the territory of modern Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia.
East Slavs occupied a huge space between the Black, White and Baltic Seas. Their descendants are modern Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians.
The geography of settlement of the East Slavic tribes in the second half of the 1st millennium is described in the "Tale of Bygone Years".
In the 4-8 centuries. To protect themselves from external attacks, the eastern Slavs united in 12 territorial tribal alliances: glade (middle and upper Dnieper), Drevlyans (south of Pripyat), Croats (upper Dniester), Tivertsi (lower Dniester), Uchiha (southern Dniester), northerners (Desna rivers and Seim), Radimichi (River Sozh), Vyatichi (Upper Oka), Dregovichi (between Pripyat and Dvina), Krivichi (upper reaches of the Dvina, Dnieper and Volga, Duleba (Volyn), Slovenia (Lake Ilmen).
The Slavic tribes were formed on the basis of ethnic and social homogeneity. The association was based on blood, linguistic, territorial and religious-cult kinship.
Eastern Slavs lived in small villages. Their houses were semi-dugouts equipped with ovens. The Slavs settled, if possible, in hard-to-reach places, enclosing the settlements with an earthen rampart.
The basis of their economic activity- arable farming: in the eastern part - slash-and-burn, in the forest-steppe - shifting. The main arable implements were plow (in the north) and ralo (in the south), which had iron working parts.
Main agricultural crops: rye, wheat, barley, millet, oats, buckwheat, beans. The most important branches of economic activity were: cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, beekeeping (collecting honey).
The development of agriculture and cattle breeding led to the emergence of surplus products, and, as a result, made it possible for individual families to exist independently. In the 6-8 centuries. this hastened the process of disintegration of tribal associations.
Economic ties began to play a leading role in the relations between fellow tribesmen. The neighboring, or territorial community was named vervi. Within this formation, there was family ownership of land, and forestry, water areas and hayfields were common.
The professional occupations of the Eastern Slavs were trade and handicrafts. These occupations began to be cultivated in cities, fortified settlements that arose in tribal centers or along water trade routes (for example, "from the Varangians to the Greeks").
Gradually, the tribes began to form self-government from the tribal council, military and civilian leaders. The formed alliances led to the emergence of larger communities.
In the 2nd half of the 1st millennium, the Russian nationality was formed, the basis of which was the Eastern Slavs.
- Formation of the ancient Russian state
The prerequisites for the formation of the ancient Russian state were the disintegration of tribal ties and the development of a new mode of production. The Old Russian state took shape in the process of the development of feudal relations, the emergence of class contradictions and coercion.
Among the Slavs, a dominant stratum was gradually formed, the basis of which was the military know Kiev princes- squad. Already in the 9th century, strengthening the position of their princes, the warriors firmly took leading positions in society.
It was in the 9th century. in Eastern Europe, two ethnopolitical associations were formed, which eventually became the basis of the state. It was formed as a result of the unification of the glades with the center in Kiev.
Slavs, Krivichi and Finnish-speaking tribes united in the area of Lake Ilmen (center - in Novgorod). In the middle of the 9th century. this association was ruled by a native of Scandinavia Rurik (862-879). Therefore, the year of the formation of the ancient Russian state is considered to be 862.
The first mentions of Russia are attested in the "Bavarian Chronograph" and refer to the period 811-821. In it, the Russians are referred to as a people within the Khazars inhabiting Eastern Europe. In the 9th century. Russia was perceived as an ethnopolitical formation on the territory of the glades and northerners.
Rurik, who took control of Novgorod, sent his squad, led by Askold and Dir, to rule Kiev. Rurik's successor, the Varangian prince Oleg (879-912), who took possession of Smolensk and Lyubech, subjugated all the Krivichi to his power, in 882 deceived him from Kiev and killed Askold and Dir. Having seized Kiev, he was able to unite by the force of his power the two most important centers of the Eastern Slavs - Kiev and Novgorod. Oleg subdued the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichs.
In 907, Oleg, having gathered a huge army from the Slavs and Finns, undertook a campaign against Constantinople (Constantinople), the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The Russian squad devastated the neighborhood forced the Greeks to ask Oleg for peace and pay a huge tribute. The result of this campaign was very beneficial for Russia. peace treaties with Byzantium, concluded in 907 and 911.
Oleg died in 912, and Igor (912-945), the son of Rurik, became his successor. In 941, he committed against Byzantium, which violated the previous treaty. Igor's army plundered the shores of Asia Minor, but was defeated in a naval battle. Then in 945, in an alliance with the Pechenegs, he undertook a new campaign against Constantinople and forced the Greeks to conclude a peace treaty again. In 945, while trying to collect a second tribute from the Drevlyans, Igor was killed.
Igor's widow Princess Olga (945-957) ruled over the early childhood of her son Svyatoslav. She brutally avenged the murder of her husband, ravaging the lands of the Drevlyans. Olga arranged the sizes and places for collecting the tribute. In 955 she visited Constantinople and was baptized into Orthodoxy.
Svyatoslav (957-972) - the bravest and most influential of the princes, who subjugated the Vyatichi to his power. In 965 he inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Khazars. Svyatoslav defeated the North Caucasian tribes, as well as the Volga Bulgarians, and plundered their capital, the Bulgarians. The Byzantine government sought an alliance with him to fight external enemies.
Kiev and Novgorod became the center of formation of the ancient Russian state, around them the East Slavic tribes, northern and southern, united. In the 9th century. both of these groups united into a single ancient Russian state, which went down in history as Russia.
- Political and socio-economic system Kievan Rus.
In historical science, opinions were divided about the nature of the political system of Ancient Rus. It is generally accepted that Ancient Russia(9-11 centuries) - an early feudal state that preserved the remnants of tribal relations.
The grand dukes gradually lost the features of military leaders (inherent in them in the 4th-7th centuries) and, becoming secular rulers, took part in the development of laws, the organization of the court, and trade. The duties of the prince included the functions of state defense, tax collection, legal proceedings, the organization of military campaigns, the conclusion of international treaties.
The prince ruled with the help of a squad, the backbone of which was a guard of mercenaries (at first the Vikings, in the Kiev period - nomads). The relationship between the prince and the warriors was of a vassal nature. The prince was considered the first among equals. The guards were fully supported and lived in the prince's court. They were subdivided into senior and junior. Senior vigilantes were called boyars, from which representatives were appointed the highest ranks princely administration. The boyars closest to the prince were the princely council, which made the most important decisions.
By the 10th century. in the hands of the Grand Duke was concentrated all the fullness of the legislative, executive, judicial and military power... The Grand Duke was a representative of the Kiev dynasty, which had the supreme right to power. He ruled in Kiev, and his children and relatives were governors in the lands subject to him. After the death of the Grand Duke, power was transferred by seniority from brother to brother. This led to strife, as often Grand Duke tried to transfer power not to his brother, but to his son. In the second half of the 11th century. critical issues of internal and foreign policy decided at the princely congresses.
Gradually tribal gatherings turned into veche meetings. For a long time, their role was insignificant, but in the 9th century. with the beginning of fragmentation, it increased sharply.
Russia 9-12 centuries. was a federation of city-states headed by the great Kiev prince.
A significant political role was played by veche meetings, at which city dwellers resolved issues of war and peace, legislation, land management, finance, etc. They were led by representatives of the nobility.
Veche meetings, which were an element of the people's self-government, testify to the presence of democracy in the ancient Russian state. 14 great Kiev princes (out of 50) were elected at the veche. With the strengthening of the princely power, the role of the latter decreased. By the middle of the 12th century. for the veche, only the function of recruiting the people's militia was preserved.
In the ancient Russian state, there was no division between administrative, police, financial and other types of self-government. In the practice of government, the princes relied on their own law.
The court was dominated by the accusatory process applied in both civil and criminal cases. Each of the parties proved their case. The testimony of witnesses played the main role. The princes and their mayors acted as intermediaries between the parties, charging a fee.
Old Russian legislation was formed as the statehood was strengthened. The first set of laws that has survived to this day is Russkaya Pravda, compiled during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise on the basis of an even more ancient set of laws.
The document included a set of criminal and civil laws. In civil cases, "Russkaya Pravda" established a court of twelve electives.
The law did not recognize corporal punishment or torture, and the death penalty was imposed in exceptional cases. The practice of fines was applied. "Russkaya Pravda" was replenished with new articles during the reign of the Yaroslavichs (second half of the 11th century) and Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125
- The introduction of Christianity and its historical significance.
Paganism prevailed in Russia until the middle of the 10th century. The basis of the mentality of the pagan Slavs was formed by the ideas of eternity and the equivalence of good and evil as two independent forms being. Their ideas were inextricably linked with natural phenomena. The fight against the "evil" forces of nature led to the belief in the possibility of uniting the forces of "good" against the forces of "evil".
The Eastern Slavs perceived the world on the basis of paired concepts - favorable and hostile. Space - order was opposed to chaos - disorder. The circle served as a symbol of protection from all hostile. This geometric shape attributed magical properties... The Slavs wore rings, chains, wreaths, they circled their homes in a circular shaft.
The pagan mentality permeated the entire cultural system of the Eastern Slavs. This manifested itself in ritual dances, games, sacrifices, and the specifics of handicrafts. The imprint of a pagan vision of the universe is also evident in the structure of cities. In the upper part of the city lived the best people, at the bottom - commoners.
The Eastern Slavs created a single pantheon of pagan gods - Stribog corresponded to the father-god, Dazhdbog to the son-god, and Mokosh to the Mother of God. The main deities were considered Perun and the winged Semargl, who were intermediaries between heaven and earth.
In the conditions of "polytheism" there was a need to choose a single faith. The adoption of a common religion for Russia demanded the interests of the unity of the state, since other countries perceived pagan Russia as a barbaric state. The "Tale of Bygone Years" contains a detailed description of this event, in which the princes and boyars took part.
Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich had numerous conversations with preachers of many religions. Prince Vladimir rejected the faith of the Jews due to the loss of their land, and Islam - for strict restrictions on food and drink.
Vladimir preferred Eastern Christianity for the beauty of its temples and rituals according to the Byzantine canon, which made a deep impression on him. The final choice was also influenced by the long-standing ties with Byzantium.
Orthodoxy, to a greater extent than other religions, corresponded to the cultural type of the Slavs. Unlike Catholicism, focused on the rational knowledge of the world, Orthodoxy understood the meaning of life as the achievement of inner perfection and unity, a collective striving for a better future and social justice.
In 988, Vladimir (among the people of the Red Sun) adopted Christianity in its Orthodox version.
The preference for Orthodoxy is also explained by the fact that the Roman Catholic Church limited divine services only to Latin, and Constantinople Orthodox Church made it possible to use the Slavic language in ministries.
One of the reasons for choosing Orthodoxy was the political claims of the Roman Church and its rise above secular power, which the Russian princes feared. The Eastern Church, on the other hand, built its religion on the interaction of religious and secular power, supporting secular power with its authority.
Christianity was spread in Russia long before its official adoption. The first Orthodox were Princess Olga and Prince Yaropolk. However, the process of Christianization was long, as the population was reluctant to part with paganism. Even the son of Princess Olga refused to accept Christianity. Pagan beliefs and customs persisted among the Eastern Slavs for a long time, they were intertwined with Christian holidays for many centuries.
The adoption of Orthodoxy determined the new historical fate of the Russian state, put an end to pagan barbarism and allowed Russian society to enter the family of Christian peoples in Europe on an equal footing. This event was of epochal importance for the development of culture, the consolidation of the state and the development of international relations of Ancient Rus.
- Old Russian culture 10-13 centuries
Culture is a set of material and spiritual values created by a person in the process of his social and historical labor practice.
The culture of Kievan Rus is based on the Slavic pre-Christian culture, which, with the adoption of Christianity, was influenced by Byzantium, Bulgaria, and through them ancient and Middle Eastern cultural traditions.
One of the main indicators of the cultural level is the presence of writing. The first evidence of writing among the Slavs was found near Smolensk and speaks of its presence as early as the 10th century. (before the adoption of Christianity).
There is evidence of the adoption in Russia of the Glagolitic alphabet in the second half of the 9th century, attempts to write in the Greek alphabet. Missionaries Cyril and Methodius in the 60s of the 9th century saw the Gospel written in Slavic script.
Examples of the presence of writing and the spread of literacy in Russia are birch bark letters discovered during archaeological excavations of ancient Russian cities.
In the second half of the 9th century. the monk brothers Cyril and Methodius created the Glagolic alphabet, which was later transformed into the Cyrillic alphabet.
The years of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) became the time of the political and cultural flourishing of Kievan Rus.
In 1036, at the walls of Kiev, Yaroslav finally defeated the Pechenegs, and this event became the beginning of the prosperity of the great city. In honor of the victory, the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia was erected, which in beauty and grandeur was not inferior to a similar cathedral in Constantinople.
Kiev during the time of Yaroslav turned into one of the largest urban centers in the entire Christian world. “There were 400 churches in the city, the entrance to it was decorated with golden gates, there were eight markets. In order to strengthen the power of Russia, Yaroslav, without the permission of Constantinople, appointed the head of the church by his authority. The first Russian metropolitan was Ilarion Berestov.
During the reign of Yaroslav, great attention was paid to education. Schools for clergy were opened in Kiev and Novgorod. Under Yaroslav in Kiev, the beginning of the Russian chronicle was laid.
The first compilation of chronicles, dating back to the end of the 11th century, reached contemporaries as part of the Novgorod Chronicle.
Yaroslav's associate, Metropolitan Hilarion, created a monument to Russian theology, philosophy and history - "The Word of Law and Grace."
Russia owes its success to the enlightenment of this period to the personal merits of Yaroslav. A convinced Christian and an enlightened person, he gathered translators and book-writers in Kiev and began publishing Greek books brought to Russia from Byzantium.
This is how the process of familiarizing with the culture of the ancient world and Byzantium went on. During this period, a national epic epic developed, in which the events of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise ("Nightingale Budimirovich") and Vladimir Monomakh (epics about Alyosha Popovich, "Stavr I odinovich") were reflected.
An outstanding cultural achievement was the compilation of a set of written laws, which was named "Russian Pravda" or "Yaroslav's Pravda". The document included criminal and civil laws, established legal proceedings, determined punishments for misdemeanors or crimes.
On the basis of this, it was possible to judge the social structure, manners and customs of Russian society at that time.
In civil cases, Russkaya Pravda established a court of twelve electives (torture and the death penalty were absent).
Under Yaroslav, the foreign policy ties of Russia developed successfully. The powerful monarchs of the Christian world were honored to become related with the Rurik family.
Yaroslav's son Vsevolod became the son-in-law of the emperor of Byzantium, his daughters Anna, Anastasia and Elizabeth married the kings of France, Hungary and Norway.
Vyatichi is a union of East Slavic tribes who lived in the second half of the first millennium AD. e. in the upper and middle course of the Oka. The name Vyatichi presumably comes from the name of the ancestor of the tribe, Vyatko. However, some associate this name by its origin with the morpheme "veins" and the Wends (or Venets / Vents) (the name "Vyatichi" was pronounced as "Venets").
In the middle of the 10th century, Svyatoslav annexed the lands of the Vyatichi to Kievan Rus, but until the end of the 11th century, these tribes retained a certain political independence; the campaigns against the Vyatichi princes of this time are mentioned.
Since the XII century, the territory of the Vyatichi was included in the Chernigov, Rostov-Suzdal and Ryazan principalities. Until the end of the XIII century, many Vyatichi preserved pagan rites and traditions, in particular, cremated the dead by erecting small mounds over the burial place. After rooting Christianity among the Vyatichi, the rite of cremation gradually disappeared from use.
Vyatichi retained their tribal name longer than other Slavs. They lived without princes, the social system was characterized by self-government and democracy. The last time the Vyatichi were mentioned in the chronicle under such a tribal name was in 1197.
Buzhany (Volynians) - a tribe of the Eastern Slavs that lived in the basin of the upper reaches of the Western Bug (from which they got their name); from the end of the 11th century Buzhanians were called Volynians (from the Volyn area).
Volhynians are an East Slavic tribe or tribal union mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years and in the Bavarian annals. According to the latter, the Volhynians owned seventy fortresses at the end of the 10th century. Some historians believe that the Volhynians and Buzhanians are the descendants of the Dulebs. Their main cities were Volyn and Vladimir-Volynsky. Archaeological research indicates that the Volhynians had developed agriculture and numerous crafts, including forging, casting and pottery.
In 981 the Volynians were subordinated to the Kiev prince Vladimir I and became part of the Kievan Rus. Later, the Galicia-Volyn principality was formed on the territory of the Volynians.
Drevlyans - one of the tribes of the Russian Slavs, lived along Pripyat, Goryn, Sluch and Teterev.
The name of the Drevlyans, according to the chronicler's explanation, was given to them because they lived in the forests.
From archaeological excavations in the country of the Drevlyans, it can be concluded that they possessed a well-known culture. The well-established burial ceremony testifies to the existence of certain religious ideas about the afterlife: the absence of weapons in the graves testifies to the peaceful nature of the tribe; the finds of serps, shards and vessels, iron products, remains of tissues and leather indicate the existence of arable farming, pottery, blacksmithing, weaving and leatherworking among the Drevlyans; many bones of domestic animals and spurs indicate cattle and horse breeding; many articles of silver, bronze, glass and carnelian, of foreign origin, indicate the existence of trade, and the absence of coins suggests that trade was barter.
The political center of the Drevlyans in the era of their independence was the city of Iskorosten; at a later time, this center, apparently, moved to the city of Vruchiy (Ovruch)
Dregovichi - East Slavic tribal union that lived between Pripyat and Western Dvina.
Most likely the name comes from the Old Russian word dregva or dryagva, which means "swamp".
Under the name of Drugovites (Greek δρονγονβίται), the Dregovichi are already known to Constantine Porfirodny as a tribe subordinate to Rus. Being on the sidelines of the "Way from the Varangians to the Greeks", the Dregovichi did not play a prominent role in the history of Ancient Rus. The chronicle only mentions that the Dregovichi once had their reign. The capital of the principality was the city of Turov. The subordination of the Dregovichi to the Kiev princes happened, probably, very early. On the territory of the Dregovichi, the Turov principality was subsequently formed, and the northwestern lands became part of the principality of Polotsk.
Duleby (not duleby) - a union of East Slavic tribes on the territory of Western Volhynia in the 6th and early 10th centuries. In the 7th century they were subjected to the Avar invasion (obry). In 907 they took part in Oleg's campaign against Constantinople. They broke up into tribes of Volhynians and Buzhans and in the middle of the 10th century they finally lost their independence, becoming part of Kievan Rus.
Krivichi - a large East Slavic tribe (tribal union), occupying in the VI-X centuries the upper reaches of the Volga, Dnieper and Western Dvina, the southern part of the basin Lake Peipsi and part of the Nemunas basin. Sometimes the Ilmen Slavs are also ranked among the Krivichs.
The Krivichi were probably the first Slavic tribe to move from the Carpathian region to the northeast. Limited in their distribution to the northwest and west, where they met stable Lithuanian and Finnish tribes, the Krivichi spread to the northeast, assimilating with the living Tamphins.
Settling on the great waterway from Scandinavia to Byzantium (the route from the Varangians to the Greeks), the Krivichi took part in trade with Greece; Konstantin Porphyrogenitus says that the Krivichi make boats on which the Rus go to Constantinople. They took part in the campaigns of Oleg and Igor against the Greeks as a tribe subordinate to the Kiev prince; Oleg's contract mentions their city of Polotsk.
Already in the era of the formation of the Russian state, the Krivichi had political centers: Izborsk, Polotsk and Smolensk.
It is believed that the last tribal prince of the Krivichi, Rogvolod, together with his sons, was killed in 980 by the Novgorod prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich. In the Ipatiev list, the Krivichi are mentioned for the last time under 1128, and the Polotsk princes are called Krivichi under 1140 and 1162. After that, the Krivichi are no longer mentioned in the East Slavic chronicles. However, the tribal name Krivichi was used in foreign sources for quite a long time (up to the end of the 17th century). In the Latvian language, the word krievs entered to designate Russians in general, and the word Krievija to designate Russia.
The southwestern, Polotsk branch of the Krivichi is also called the Polotsk people. Together with the Dregovichi, Radimichi and some Baltic tribes, this branch of the Krivichi formed the basis of the Belarusian ethnos.
The northeastern branch of the Krivichi, settled mainly on the territory of modern Tver, Yaroslavl and Kostroma regions, was in close contact with the Finno-Ugric tribes.
The border between the territory of settlement of the Krivichi and Novgorod Slovenes is determined archaeologically by the types of burials: long mounds near the Krivichi and hills near the Slovenes.
The Polochans are an East Slavic tribe that in the 9th century inhabited the lands in the middle reaches of the Western Dvina in today's Belarus.
The Polotsk people are mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years, which explains their name as living by the Polota River, one of the tributaries of the Western Dvina. In addition, the chronicle claims that the Krivichi were descendants of the Polotsk people. The Polotsk lands stretched from the Svisloch along the Berezina to the Dregovichi lands. The Polochans were one of the tribes from which the Polotsk principality was later formed. They are one of the founders of the modern Belarusian people.
Polyane (poly) is the name of a Slavic tribe, in the era of settlement of the Eastern Slavs, who settled along the middle reaches of the Dnieper, on its right bank.
Judging by the chronicles and the latest archaeological research, the territory of the land of the meadows before the Christian era was limited by the course of the Dnieper, Ros and Irpen; in the northeast it adjoined the village land, in the west - to the southern settlements of the Dregovichi, in the southwest - to the Tivertsy, in the south - to the streets.
Calling the Slavs who settled here glades, the chronicler adds: “I’m getting sick in the field.” The glades differed sharply from the neighboring Slavic tribes both in moral properties and in the forms of social life: “The meadows are for their fathers, myahu is quiet and meek, and they are ashamed of their daughters-in-law and to their sisters and to their mothers .... marriage customs I have. "
History finds the glades already at a rather late stage of political development: the social system is composed of two elements - the communal and the princely-druzhina, and the former is strongly suppressed by the latter. During the usual and most ancient occupations of the Slavs - hunting, fishing and beekeeping - among the meadows more than other Slavs, cattle breeding, agriculture, "tree breeding" and trade were widespread. The latter was quite extensive not only with Slavic neighbors, but also with foreigners in the West and East: from the coin hoards it can be seen that trade with the East began in the 8th century — it stopped during the strife of the appanage princes.
At first, about half of the 8th century, the glades, which paid tribute to the Khazars, due to their cultural and economic superiority, from a defensive position in relation to their neighbors, soon turned into an offensive; Drevlyans, Dregovichi, northerners and others by the end of the 9th century were already subject to the glades. Christianity was established among them earlier than others. The center of the Polyanian ("Polish") land was Kiev; its other settlements are Vyshgorod, Belgorod on the Irpen River (now the village of Belogorodka), Zvenigorod, Trepol (now the village of Tripolye), Vasilev (now Vasilkov) and others.
Zemlyapolyan with the city of Kiev became the center of the Rurik's possessions since 882. For the last time in the annals the name of the Polyans is mentioned under 944, on the occasion of Igor's campaign against the Greeks, and is replaced, probably already at the end of the Χ century, with the name Rus (Ros) and Kiyane. The chronicler also calls the Glades the Slavic tribe on the Vistula, mentioned for the last time in the Ipatiev Chronicle under 1208.
Radimichi is the name of the population that was part of the union of East Slavic tribes who lived in the interfluve of the upper reaches of the Dnieper and Desna.
About 885 Radimichi became part of the Old Russian state, and in the XII century they mastered most of the Chernigov and southern Smolensk lands. The name comes from the name of the ancestor of the Radim tribe.
The northerners (more correctly, the North) are a tribe or tribal union of the Eastern Slavs who inhabited the territories east of the middle reaches of the Dnieper, along the Desna and Seimi Sula rivers.
The origin of the name of the north is not fully understood; most authors associate it with the name of the Savir tribe, which was part of the Hunnic union. According to another version, the name goes back to the obsolete Old Slavic word meaning "relative". The explanation from the Slavic siver, the north, despite the similarity of sound, is recognized as extremely controversial, since the north has never been the most northern of the Slavic tribes.
Slovenes (Ilmen Slavs) are an East Slavic tribe that lived in the second half of the first millennium in the basin of Lake Ilmen and the upper reaches of the Mologa River and constituted the bulk of the population of Novgorod land.
The Tivertsy are an East Slavic tribe that lived between the Dniester and the Danube along the Black Sea coast. They are first mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years along with other eastern Slavic tribes IX century. The main occupation of the Tivertsy was agriculture. The Tivertsy took part in Oleg's campaigns against Constantinople in 907 and Igor in 944. In the middle of the 10th century, the lands of the Tivertsy became part of Kievan Rus.
The descendants of the Tivertsi became part of the Ukrainian people, and their western part underwent Romanization.
The streets are an East Slavic tribe that inhabited the lands along the lower reaches of the Dnieper, the Southern Bug and the Black Sea coast during the VIII-X centuries.
The capital of the street was the city of Peresechen. In the first half of the 10th century, the ulcers fought for independence from Kievan Rus, but they were nevertheless forced to recognize its supremacy and become part of it. Later, the Uchiha and neighboring Tivertsy were driven to the north by the arriving Pechenezh nomads, where they merged with the Volhynians. The last mention of the streets dates back to the annals of the 970s.
Croats are an East Slavic tribe that lived in the vicinity of the city of Przemysl on the San River. They called themselves White Croats, in contrast to the tribe of the same name who lived in the Balkans. The name of the tribe is derived from the ancient Iranian theologian "shepherd, guardian of cattle", which may indicate his main occupation - cattle breeding.
Bodrichi (cheered, rarogi) —Polab Slavs (lower course of the Elbe) in the 8th-12th centuries. - the union of wagrs, polabs, clay, smolyan. Rarog (among the Danes Rerik) is the main city of the vigorous people. Land of Mecklenburg in East Germany.
According to one version, Rurik is a Slav from the Bodrich tribe, the grandson of Gostomysl, the son of his daughter Umila and the bouncy prince Godoslav (Godlav).
The Wislans are a West Slavic tribe that has lived in Lesser Poland since at least the 7th century. In the 9th century, the Wislians formed a tribal state with centers in Krakow, Sandomierz and Straduv. At the end of the century they were conquered by the king of Great Moravia Svyatopolk I and were forced to be baptized. In the X century, the lands of the Vislans were conquered by the glades and included in Poland.
Zlicane (Czech Zličane, Polish Zliczanie) - one of the ancient Bohemian tribes. Inhabited the territory adjacent to the modern city of Kouřim (Czech Republic). Served as the center of formation of the Zlican principality, which covered at the beginning of the 10th century. East and South Bohemia and the region of the Duleb tribe. The main city of the principality was Libice. The Libyck princes Slavniki competed with Prague in the struggle for the unification of the Czech Republic. In 995, the Zlichans were subordinated to the Přemyslids.
Luzhitsa residents, Luzhitsk Serbs, Sorbs (German Sorben), Vendians - the indigenous Slavic population living in the Lower and Upper Lusatia - regions that are part of modern Germany. The first settlements of the Lusatian Serbs in these places were recorded in the 6th century AD. e.
The Luzhitsky language is divided into Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian.
The Brockhaus and Euphron dictionary gives the definition: "Sorbs are the name of the Wends and, in general, the Polabian Slavs." Slavic people, inhabiting a number of areas in Germany, in the federal states of Brandenburg and Saxony.
Luzhitsky Serbs are one of the four officially recognized national minorities in Germany (along with Roma, Frisians and Danes). It is believed that about 60 thousand German citizens now have Serbolic roots, of whom 20,000 live in Lower Lusatia (Brandenburg) and 40 thousand in Upper Lusatia (Saxony).
Lyutichi (Viltsy, Velety) - the union of West Slavic tribes who lived in early middle ages in what is now eastern Germany. The center of the Lyutichi union was the Radogost sanctuary, where the god Svarozhich was worshiped. All decisions were made at a large tribal meeting, and there was no central authority.
Lyutichi led the Slavic uprising of 983 against the German colonization of lands east of the Elbe, as a result of which colonization was suspended for almost two hundred years. Even before that, they were ardent opponents of the German king Otto I. About his heir, Henry II, it is known that he did not try to enslave them, but rather lured them with money and gifts to his side in the fight against Poland by Boleslav the Brave.
Military and political successes strengthened the adherence to paganism and pagan customs in the lyutichs, which also applied to kindred vigorous people. However, in the 1050s, an internecine war broke out among the Lutichs and changed their position. The union quickly lost power and influence, and after the central sanctuary was destroyed by the Saxon Duke Lothar in 1125, the union finally collapsed. Over the next decades, the Saxon dukes gradually expanded their holdings to the east and conquered the lands of the Lutichi.
Pomorians, Pomeranians are West Slavic tribes that have lived since the 6th century in the lower reaches of the Odryn on the Baltic Sea coast. It remains unclear whether there was a residual Germanic population that they assimilated before their arrival. In 900 the border of the Pomorian area passed along the Audra in the west, the Vistula in the east and Notech in the south. They gave the name of the historical area of Pomerania.
In the X century Polish prince Mieszko I included the Pomor lands in the Polish state. In the 11th century, the Pomorians revolted and regained their independence from Poland. During this period, their territory expanded west of the Odra into the lands of the lutichi. On the initiative of Prince Vartislav I, the Pomorians adopted Christianity.
From the 1180s, German influence began to increase and German settlers began to arrive in the lands of the Pomorians. Because of the devastating wars with the Danes, the Pomorian feudal lords welcomed the settlement of the devastated lands by the Germans. Over time, the process of Germanization of the Pomorian population began.
The remnants of the ancient Pomorians that escaped assimilation today are the Kashubians, numbering 300 thousand people.
The origin and settlement of the Slavs. In modern science, there are several points of view on the origin of the Eastern Slavs. According to the first, the Slavs are the indigenous population of Eastern Europe. They come from the creators of the Zarubinets and Chernyakhovsk archaeological cultures who lived here in the early Iron Age. According to the second point of view (now more widespread), the Slavs moved to the East European Plain from Central Europe, and more specifically from the upper reaches of the Vistula, Oder, Elbe and Danube. From this territory, which was the most ancient ancestral home of the Slavs, they settled in Europe. The Eastern Slavs crossed from the Danube to the Carpathians, from there to the Dnieper.
The first written evidence of the Slavs dates back to the 1st-2nd centuries. AD They were reported by Roman, Arab, Byzantine sources. Ancient authors (the Roman writer and statesman Pliny the Elder, the historian Tacitus, the geographer Ptolemy) mention the Slavs under the name of the Wends.
The first information about political history Slavs belong to the IV century. AD From the Baltic coast, the Germanic tribes of the Goths made their way to the Northern Black Sea region. The Gothic leader Germanarich was defeated by the Slavs. His successor Vinitar deceived 70 Slavic elders led by Bus and crucified them (after 8 centuries, an unknown author "Words about Igor's regiment" mentioned "Busovo time").
A special place in the life of the Slavs was occupied by relations with the nomadic peoples of the steppe. At the end of the IV century. the Gothic tribal union was defeated by the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Huns who came from Central Asia. In their advance to the west, the Huns also carried away a part of the Slavs.
In the sources of the VI century. Slavs for the first time act under own name... According to the Gothic historian Jordan and the Byzantine writer-historian Procopius of Caesarea, the Wends at that time were divided into two main groups: (eastern) and Slavins (western). It was in the VI century. the Slavs declared themselves as a strong and warlike people. They fought with Byzantium and played a major role in breaking down the Danube border of the Byzantine Empire, settling in the VI-VIII centuries. the entire Balkan Peninsula. In the course of settling, the Slavs mixed with the local population (Baltic, Finno-Ugric, later Sarmatian and other tribes), as a result of assimilation, they developed linguistic and cultural characteristics.
- the ancestors of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians - occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper Don in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Middle Dnieper in the south. In the VI-IX centuries. the Slavs united in communities that had not only clan, but also a territorial and political character. Tribal unions are a stage on the path of formation. In the chronicle story, one and a half dozen associations of the Eastern Slavs are named (glade, northerners, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Vyatichi, Krivichi, etc.). These alliances included 120-150 separate tribes, the names of which have already been lost. Each tribe, in turn, consisted of many clans. The Slavs were forced to unite in unions because of the need to protect themselves from the raids of nomadic tribes and to establish trade ties.
Household activities of the Eastern Slavs.
The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. However, it was not plowed, but slash-and-burn and shifting.
Slash-and-burn agriculture was widespread in the forest belt. Trees were cut down, they dried up on the vine, and they were burned. After that, the stumps were uprooted, the soil was fertilized with ash, loosened (without plowing) and used until exhaustion. The plot was under steam for 25-30 years.
Alternate farming was practiced in the forest-steppe zone. The grass was burned, the resulting ash was fertilized the ground, then loosened and also used until exhaustion. Since the burning of the grass cover produced less ash than the burning of the forest, the plots had to be changed after 6-8 years.
The Slavs were also engaged in animal husbandry, beekeeping (collecting honey from wild bees), and fishing, which were of secondary importance. An important role was played by hunting for squirrels, martens, sables, and its purpose was to hunt for furs. Furs, honey, wax were exchanged for fabrics, jewelry mainly in Byzantium. The main trade route of Ancient Rus became the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”: Neva - Ladoga Lake - Volkhov - Lake Ilmen - Lovat - Dnieper - Black Sea.
State of the Eastern Slavs in the 6-8 century
The social structure of the Eastern Slavs. In the VII-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of decomposition of the tribal system: the transition from the tribal community to the neighboring one. The community members lived in semi-dugouts designed for one family. Private property already existed, but land, forests and livestock remained in common ownership.
At this time, the tribal nobility stood out - leaders and elders. They surrounded themselves with squads, i.e. armed force, independent of the will of the national assembly (veche) and capable of forcing ordinary members of the community to obey. Each tribe had its own prince. Word "Prince" comes from the common Slavic "Knez" meaning "leader"... (V century), reigning in the tribe of Polyans. The Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" called him the founder of Kiev. Thus, the first signs of statehood were already appearing in Slavic society.
Artist Vasnetsov. "Prince's yard".
Religion, life and customs of the Eastern Slavs. The ancient Slavs were pagans. They believed in good and evil spirits. A pantheon has taken shape Slavic gods, each of which personified various forces of nature or reflected the social relations of that time. The most important gods of the Slavs were Perun - the god of thunder, lightning, war, Svarog - the god of fire, Veles - the patron saint of cattle breeding, Mokosh - the goddess who protected the female part of the tribe. The sun god was especially revered, which was called differently among different tribes: Dazhd-god, Yarilo, Horos, which indicates the absence of a stable Slavic inter-tribal unity.
Unknown artist. "The Slavs are guessing before the battle."
The Slavs lived in small villages along the banks of the rivers. In some places, for protection from the enemy, the villages were fenced off with a wall around which a ditch was dug. Such a place was called a city.
Eastern Slavs in antiquity
The Slavs were hospitable and good-natured. Every wanderer was considered a dear guest. According to the Slavic order, it was possible to have several wives, but only the rich had more than one, because for each wife a ransom had to be paid to the bride's parents. Often, when a husband was dying, a wife, proving her loyalty, killed herself. The custom of burning the dead and erecting large earthen mounds - barrows - over the funeral pyres, was widespread everywhere. The more noble the deceased, the higher the hill was poured. After the burial, a “funeral feast” was celebrated, that is, organized feasts, fighting games and horse stadiums in honor of the deceased.
Birth, wedding, death - all these events in a person's life were accompanied by incantatory rites. The Slavs had an annual cycle of agricultural holidays in honor of the sun and different seasons. The purpose of all the ceremonies was to ensure the harvest and health of people, as well as livestock. In the villages there were idols depicting deities to whom sacrifices were made "with the whole world" (that is, the whole community). Groves, rivers, lakes were considered sacred. Each tribe had a common sanctuary, where members of the tribe gathered on especially solemn holidays and to decide important matters.
Artist Ivanov S. V. - "Housing of the Eastern Slavs".
Religion, life and social and economic structure of the Eastern Slavs (diagram-table):
East Slavic tribes
BUZHA? NOT - an East Slavic tribe that lived on the river. Boog.
Most researchers believe that Buzhan is another name for the Volhynians. On the territory inhabited by Buzhany and Volhynians, a single archaeological culture was discovered. "The Tale of Bygone Years" says: "The Buzhanians who were sitting on the Bug, afterwards began to be called Volhynians." According to the archaeologist V.V.Sedov, part of the Dulebs who lived in the Bug basin were first called Buzhans, then Volynians. Perhaps the Buzhanians are the name of only a part of the Volynian tribal union. E. G.
VOLYNYA? NO, Velynians - an East Slavic union of tribes that inhabited the territory on both banks of the Western Bug and at the source of the river. Pripyat.
The ancestors of the Volynians, presumably, were the Dulebs, and their earlier name was Buzhan. According to another point of view, "Volynians" and "Buzhanians" are the names of two different tribes or tribal unions. The anonymous author of the "Bavarian Geographer" (1st half of the 9th century) counts 70 towns among the Volhynians, and 231 towns among the Buzhanians. Arab geographer of the 10th century al-Masoudi distinguishes between Volhynians and Dulebs, although, perhaps, his information refers to an earlier period.
In Russian chronicles, the Volhynians are first mentioned under 907: they participated in Prince Oleg's campaign against Byzantium as "interpretations" - translators. In 981, the Kiev prince Vladimir I Svyatoslavich subdued the Peremyshl and Cherven lands, where the Volhynians lived. Volynsky
Since then, the town of Cherven began to be called Vladimir-Volynsky. In the 2nd floor. 10 c. on the lands of the Volynians, the Vladimir-Volyn principality was formed. E. G.
VYA? TICHI - East Slavic union of tribes that lived in the basin of the upper and middle reaches of the Oka and along the river. Moscow.
According to the "Tale of Bygone Years", the ancestor of the Vyatichi was Vyatko, who came "from the Poles" (Poles) together with his brother Radim - the ancestor of the Radimichi tribe. Modern archaeologists do not find confirmation of the West Slavic origin of the Vyatichi.
In the 2nd floor. 9-10 centuries Vyatichi paid tribute to the Khazar Kaganate. For a long time they retained their independence from the Kiev princes. As allies, the Vyatichi participated in the campaign of the Kiev prince Oleg against Byzantium in 911. In 968, the Vyatichi were defeated by the Kiev prince Svyatoslav. In the beginning. 12th century Vladimir Monomakh fought with the Vyatichi prince Khodota. In the end. 11– early. 12th century Christianity was spread among the Vyatichi. Despite this, they retained pagan beliefs for a long time. The Tale of Bygone Years describes the funeral rite of the Vyatichi (the Radimichi had a similar rite): “When someone died, they arranged a funeral feast for him, and then they made a big fire, laid the deceased on it and burned it, after which, collecting the bones, they put them in a small vessel and put them on the pillars by the roads. " This rite was preserved until the end. 13 century, and the "pillars" themselves in some areas of Russia met up to the beginning. 20th century
By the 12th century. the territory of the Vyatichi was in the Chernigov, Rostov-Suzdal and Ryazan principalities. E. G.
DREVLYA? NOT - the East Slavic tribal union, which occupied in the 6-10th centuries. the territory of Polesie, the right bank of the Dnieper, west of the meadows, along the course of the Teterev, Uzh, Ubort, Stviga rivers.
According to The Tale of Bygone Years, the Drevlyans "descended from the same Slavs" as the glade. But unlike the Glades, "the Drevlyans lived in a bestial manner, lived like a bestial, killed each other, ate everything unclean, and they never got married, but they abducted the girls by the water."
In the west, the Drevlyans bordered on the Volynians and Buzhanians, in the north - on the Dregovichi. Archaeologists have discovered burials with cremations in urns in burial grounds without burials on the lands of the Drevlyans. In the 6-8 centuries. burials in barrows spread, in the 8-10th centuries. - burials without burials, and in the 10-13th centuries. - corpses in the mounds.
In 883, the Kiev prince Oleg "began to fight against the Drevlyans and, having subdued them, imposed a tribute on them for the black marten (sable)", and in 911, the Drevlyans took part in Oleg's campaign against Byzantium. In 945, Prince Igor, on the advice of his squad, went “to the Drevlyans for a tribute and added a new one to the old tribute, and his men did violence against them,” but he was not satisfied with what he had gathered and decided to “collect more”. The Drevlyans, after consulting with their prince Mal, decided to kill Igor: "if we do not kill him, then he will destroy us all." Igor's widow, Olga, in 946 severely took revenge on the Drevlyans by setting fire to their capital, Iskorosten; the land of the Drevlyans was annexed to the Kiev inheritance with the center in the city of Vruchiy (Ovruch). Yu.K.
DREGO? VIVI - tribal union of the Eastern Slavs.
The exact boundaries of the Dregovichi habitat have not yet been established. According to a number of researchers (V. V. Sedov and others), in the 6-9 centuries. Dregovichi occupied the territory in the middle part of the river basin. Pripyat, in the 11-12 centuries. the southern border of their settlement was south of Pripyat, the north-western border was in the watershed of the Drut and Berezina rivers, the western border was in the upper reaches of the river. Neman. Dregovichi's neighbors were Drevlyans, Radimichi and Krivichi. "The Tale of Bygone Years" mentions the Dregovichi up to the middle. 12th century According to archaeological research, the Dregovichi are characterized by agricultural settlements and burial mounds. In the 10th century. the lands inhabited by the Dregovichi became part of Kievan Rus, and later became part of the Turov and Polotsk principalities. Vl. TO.
DULE? BY - a tribal union of the Eastern Slavs.
Lived in the basin of the Bug and the right tributaries of the Pripyat from the 6th century. Researchers attribute the dulebov to one of the earliest ethnic groups Eastern Slavs, from which some other tribal unions were later formed, including Volynians (Buzhanians) and Drevlyans. The archaeological monuments of the Dulebs are represented by the remains of agricultural settlements and burial mounds with cremations.
According to the chronicle data, in the 7th century. the Dulebs were invaded by the Avars. In 907 the squad of the Dulebs took part in the campaign of Prince Oleg to Constantinople. According to historians, in the 10th century. the union of the Dulebs disintegrated, and their lands became part of Kievan Rus. Vl. TO.
KRI? HIVI - a tribal union of the Eastern Slavs of the 6-11th centuries.
They occupied the territory in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga, Western Dvina, as well as in the region of the Peipsi, Pskov lakes and lake. Ilmen. "The Tale of Bygone Years" reports that the cities of Krivichi were Smolensk and Polotsk. According to the same chronicle, in 859 the Krivichi paid tribute to the Varangians "from overseas", and in 862, together with the Ilmen Slovenes and Chudyu, they invited Rurik to reign with the brothers Sineus and Truvor. Under 882 in the "Tale of Bygone Years" there is a story about how Oleg went to Smolensk, to the Krivichi, and, having taken the city, "put his husband in it." Like other Slavic tribes, the Krivichi paid tribute to the Varangians, went with Oleg and Igor on campaigns against Byzantium. In the 11-12 centuries. Polotsk and Smolensk princedoms arose on the lands of the Krivichs.
Probably, the remnants of the local Finno-Ugric and Baltic (Estonians, Livs, Latgalians) tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Krivichi, which mixed with the numerous newcomer Slavic population.
Archaeological excavations have shown that initially the specific burials of the Krivichi were long mounds: low rampart embankments from 12-15 m to 40 m long. According to the nature of the burial grounds, archaeologists distinguish two ethnographic groups of Krivichi - Smolensk-Polotsk and Pskov Krivichi. In the 9th century. long mounds were replaced by round (hemispherical) ones. The dead were burned on the side, and most of the things were burned on the funeral pyre together with the deceased, and only heavily damaged things and jewelry fell into the burials: beads (blue, green, yellow), buckles, pendants. In the 10-11 centuries. among the Krivichs, corpses appear, although up to the 12th century. the features of the previous rite are preserved - a ritual bonfire under the burial and a mound. The inventory of burials of this period is quite diverse: women's jewelry - bracelet-like knotted rings, necklaces made of beads, pendants to necklaces in the form of skates. There are items of clothing - buckles, belt rings (they were worn by men). Often in the mounds of the Krivichi there are decorations of the Baltic types, as well as the actual Baltic burials, which indicates a close connection between the Krivichi and the Baltic tribes. Yu.K.
POLOCHA? NOT - Slavic tribe, part of the tribal union of the Krivichi; lived along the banks of the river. Dvina and its tributary Polota, from which they got their name.
Polotsk was the center of the land of Polotsk. In the "Tale of Bygone Years," the Polotsk citizens are mentioned several times along with such large tribal unions as the Slovenian Ilmen, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Polyana.
However, a number of historians question the existence of the Polotsk people as a separate tribe. Arguing their point of view, they draw attention to the fact that the "Tale of Bygone Years" does not in any way connect the Polotsk people with the Krivichi, whose possessions included their lands. The historian AG Kuzmin suggested that a fragment about the Polotsk tribe appeared in the "Tale" approx. 1068, when the people of Kiev expelled Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich and put the Polotsk prince Vseslav on the princely table.
All R. 10 - early. 11th century on the territory of Polotsk, the Principality of Polotsk was formed. E. G.
FIELDS? NOT - a tribal union of the Eastern Slavs that lived on the Dnieper, in the area of modern Kiev.
One of the versions of the origin of Russia, mentioned in the "Tale of Bygone Years", is associated with the glades. Scientists consider the "Polyano-Russian" version to be more ancient than the "Varangian legend", and attribute it to the end. 10 c.
The Old Russian author of this version considered the Glades to be Slavs who came from Norik (the territory on the Danube), who were the first to be called by the name “Rus”: “Glades are now calling Russia”. The chronicles sharply contrast the customs of the Polyans and other East Slavic tribes, united under the name of the Drevlyans.
In the Middle Dnieper region near Kiev, archaeologists discovered the culture of the 2nd quarter. 10 c. with a characteristic Slavic funeral rite: for the kurgans, clay grease was characteristic, on which a fire was kindled and the dead were burned. The boundaries of culture extended in the west to the river. Teterev, in the north - to the town of Lyubech, in the south - to the river. Ros. This was, obviously, the Slavic tribe of the Polyans.
On the 2nd Thursday. 10 c. on the same lands another people appears. A number of scientists consider the Middle Danube to be the place of its initial settlement. Others identify him with the Rugam Rus from Great Moravia. These people were familiar with the potter's wheel. The dead were buried according to the rite of corpses in pits under the mounds. In the mounds were often found pectoral crosses... Glades and Russes mixed over time, the Rus began to speak the Slavic language, and the tribal union received a double name - Glade-Rus. E. G.
RADI? MICHI - East Slavic union of tribes, which lived in the eastern part of the Upper Dnieper, along the river. Sozh and its tributaries in the 8-9th centuries.
Convenient river routes ran through the lands of the Radimichs, connecting them with Kiev. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the ancestor of the tribe was Radim, who came from the Poles, that is, of Polish origin, together with his brother Vyatko. The Radimichi and Vyatichi had a similar burial rite - the ashes were buried in a log house - and similar female temporal ornaments (temporal rings) were seven-rayed (Vyatichi had seven-lobed). Archaeologists and linguists suggest that the Baltic tribes living in the upper reaches of the Dnieper also participated in the creation of the material culture of the Radimichs. In the 9th century. Radimichi paid tribute to the Khazar Kaganate. In 885, these tribes were subordinated to the Kiev prince Oleg the Prophet. In 984, the army of the Radimichs was defeated on the river. Pischane voivode of the Kiev prince Vladimir
Svyatoslavich. The last time they are mentioned in the annals was in 1169. Then the territory of the Radimichi entered the Chernigov and Smolensk principalities. E. G.
RU? SY - in sources of the 8-10th centuries. the name of the people who participated in the formation of the Old Russian state.
In historical science, discussions about the ethnic origin of the Russians are still ongoing. According to the testimony of Arab geographers in the 9-10th centuries. and the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (10th century), the Rus were the social elite of Kievan Rus and dominated the Slavs.
The German historian G.Z.Bayer, invited to Russia in 1725 to work at the Academy of Sciences, believed that the Rus and the Varangians were one Norman (i.e., Scandinavian) tribe that brought statehood to the Slavic peoples. By the followers of Bayer in the 18th century. were G. Miller and L. Schletser. This is how the Norman theory of the origin of the Rus arose, which is still shared by many historians.
Based on the data of the "Tale of Bygone Years", some historians believe that the chronicler identified the "Rus" with the tribe of the Polyans and brought them together with other Slavs from the upper Danube, from Norik. Others believe that the Rus are a Varangian tribe "called up" to reign in Novgorod under Prince Oleg Veshche, who gave the name "Rus" to the Kiev land. Still others prove that the author of "The Lay of Igor's Host" linked the origin of the Rus with the Northern Black Sea region and the Don basin.
Scientists note that in ancient documents the name of the people "Rus" was different - rugi, horns, ruthenes, rui, ruyans, wounds, renas, rus, rus, dew. This word is translated as “red”, “red” (from the Celtic languages), “light” (from the Iranian languages), “rots” (from Swedish - “rowers on oared boats”).
Some researchers consider the Rus as Slavs. Those historians who consider the Rus as Baltic Slavs argue that the word “Rus” is close to the names “Rügen”, “Ruyan”, “Rugi”. Scientists who consider the Russians to be inhabitants of the Middle Dnieper region notice that the word “ros” (river Ros) is found in the Dnieper region, and the name “Russian land” in the annals originally denoted the territory of meadows and northerners (Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl).
There is a point of view according to which the Rus are the Sarmatian-Alanian people, the descendants of the Roksolans. The word "rus" ("rukhs") in Iranian languages means "light", "white", "regal".
Another group of historians suggests that the Rus are Rugs who lived in the 3-5th centuries. on the river Danube of the Roman province of Noricum and approx. 7 c. resettled together with the Slavs in the Dnieper region. The mystery of the origin of the "Rus" people has not yet been resolved. E.G., S.P.
NORTH? NOT - the East Slavic union of tribes that lived in the 9-10th centuries. on pp. Desna, Seim, Sula.
Glade and Dregovichi were the western neighbors of the northerners, the radimichi and vyatichi - to the northern ones.
The origin of the name "northerners" has not been clarified. Some researchers associate it with the Iranian sev, sew - "black". In the annals, the northerners are also referred to as "north", "north". The territory near the Desna and the Seim has been preserved in the Russian chronicle of the 16-17 centuries. and Ukrainian sources of the 17th century. the name "North".
Archaeologists correlate the northerners with the carriers of the Volyntsev archaeological culture, who lived on the left bank of the Dnieper, along the Desna and the Seim in the 7-9 centuries. The Volyntsev tribes were Slavic, but their territory was in contact with the lands inhabited by the carriers of the Saltov-Mayatsk archaeological culture.
The main occupation of the northerners was agriculture. In the end. 8 c. they came under the rule of the Khazar Kaganate. In the end. 9 c. the territories of the northerners became part of Kievan Rus. According to the "Tale of Bygone Years", the Kiev prince Oleg the Prophet freed them from tribute to the Khazars and imposed an easy tribute on them, saying: "I am their [Khazars] enemy, but you don't need it."
The centers of the craft and trade of the northerners were Novgorod-Seversky, Chernigov, Putivl, which later became the centers of the principalities. With the accession to the Russian state, these lands were still called "Severskaya land" or "Severskaya Ukrainian". E. G.
WORD? NOT ILME? NSKIE - a tribal union of the Eastern Slavs on the territory of the Novgorod land, mainly in the lands near the lake. Ilmen, next to the Krivichi.
According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the Slovenian Ilmenites, along with the Krivichs, Chudyu and Merei, participated in the vocation of the Varangians, who were related to the Slovenes who came from the Baltic Pomerania. Slovenian soldiers were part of the squad of Prince Oleg, participated in the campaign of Vladimir I Svyatoslavich against the Polotsk prince Rogvold in 980.
A number of historians consider the Dnieper region to be the "ancestral home" of the Slovenes, others deduce the ancestors of the Ilmenian Slovenes from the Baltic Pomerania, since the legends, beliefs and customs, the type of dwellings of the Novgorodians and the Polabian Slavs are very close. E. G.
TI? VERTSY - East Slavic union of tribes that lived in 9 - early. 12th century on the river Dniester and at the mouth of the Danube. The name of the tribal association, possibly, comes from the ancient Greek name of the Dniester - "Tiras", which, in turn, goes back to the Iranian word turas - fast.
In 885, Prince Oleg the Prophet, who conquered the tribes of the Polyans, Drevlyans, and Northerners, tried to subjugate the Tivertsy to his power. Later, the Tivertsy participated in Oleg's campaign against Constantinople (Constantinople) as "interpreters" - that is, translators, since they knew the languages and customs of the peoples who lived near the Black Sea. In 944, the Tivertsy, as part of the army of the Kiev prince Igor, again besieged Constantinople, and in the middle. 10 c. became part of Kievan Rus. In the beginning. 12th century under the blows of the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, the Tivertsy retreated to the north, where they mixed with other Slavic tribes. Remains of settlements and settlements, which, according to archaeologists, belonged to the Tivertsy, have been preserved in the interfluve of the Dniester and the Prut. Discovered burial mounds with cremations in urns; among the archaeological finds in the territories occupied by the Tivertsi, there are no female temporal rings. E. G.
U? LICHI - East Slavic union of tribes, which existed in 9 - mid. 10th century
According to the "Tale of Bygone Years", the uchits lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper, Bug and on the Black Sea coast. The center of the tribal union was Peresechen. According to the assumption of the 18th century historian. VN Tatishcheva, the ethnonym "uchih" comes from the old Russian word "corner". The modern historian B. A. Rybakov drew attention to the evidence of the first Novgorod chronicle: “Previously, the detectives sat in the lower reaches of the Dnieper, but then moved to the Bug and Dniester” - and concluded that Peresechen was located on the Dnieper south of Kiev. A city on the Dnieper with this name is mentioned in the Laurentian Chronicle under 1154 and in the "List of Russian Cities" (14th century). In the 1960s. archaeologists have discovered settlements in the streets in the area of the river. Tyasmin (a tributary of the Dnieper), which confirms Rybakov's conclusion.
For a long time the tribes resisted the attempts of the Kiev princes to subjugate them to their power. In 885, Oleg the Prophet fought with the streets, already collecting tribute from the glades, Drevlyans, northerners and Tivertsy. Unlike most of the East Slavic tribes, the Ulchi did not participate in Prince Oleg's campaign against Constantinople in 907. At the turn of the 40s. 10 c. Kiev voivode Sveneld held the city of Peresechen under siege for three years. All R. 10 c. under the onslaught of the nomadic tribes, the uliches withdrew to the north and were incorporated into Kievan Rus. E. G.
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The origin and settlement of the Eastern Slavs
The difficulty of studying the issues of the origin of the Eastern Slavs and their settlement on the territory of Russia is closely related to the problem of the lack of reliable information, since more or less accurate sources date back to the 5th-6th centuries. AD
There are two most common points of view on the origin of the Slavs:
- Slavs - indigenous population of Eastern Europe... They come from the creators of the Zarubin and Chernyakhovsk archaeological cultures who lived here in the early Iron Age.
- the oldest the ancestral home of the Slavs is Central Europe, and more specifically, the area of the upper reaches of the Vistula, Oder, Elbe and Danube. From this territory they settled in Europe. Currently, this point of view is more common in science.
Thus, scientists believe that the ancestors of the Slavs (Proto-Slavs) separated from the Indo-European group by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. and lived in Central and Eastern Europe.
Perhaps Herodotus speaks of the ancestors of the Slavs when he describes the tribes of the middle Dnieper region.
Data on the East Slavic tribes are available in the "Tale of Bygone Years" by the monk Nestor ( early XII c.), who writes about the ancestral home of the Slavs in the Danube basin. He attributed the arrival of the Slavs to the Dnieper from the Danube by an attack on them by their warlike neighbors - the "Volokhs", who ousted the Slavs from their ancestral homeland.
The name "Slavs" appeared in sources only in the 6th century. AD At this time, the Slavic ethnos is actively involved in the process of the Great Migration of Peoples - a major migration movement that swept the European continent in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. and almost completely redrawn its ethnic and political map.
Resettlement of the Eastern Slavs
In the VI century. from a single Slavic community, the East Slavic branch stands out (future Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian peoples). The chronicle preserved the legend about the reign of the brothers Kyi, Shchek, Khoriv and their sister Lybid in the Middle Dnieper region, and the founding of Kiev.
The chronicler noted the uneven development of individual East Slavic associations. He calls the most developed and cultural fields.
The land of the glades was called " Rus"One of the explanations for the origin of the term" Rus "put forward by scientists is associated with the name of the Ros River, a tributary of the Dnieper, which gave the name of the tribe on whose territory the meadow lived.
Information about the location of Slavic tribal unions is confirmed by archaeological materials (for example, data on various forms of women's jewelry obtained as a result of archaeological excavations coincide with the indications of the chronicle about the location of Slavic tribal unions).
Economy of the Eastern Slavs
The main occupation of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture.
Crops were grown:
- cereals (rye, barley, millet);
- garden crops (turnips, cabbage, carrots, beets, radishes);
- technical (flax, hemp).
The southern lands of the Slavs overtook the northern ones in their development, which was explained by climatic conditions and soil fertility.
Farming systems of Slavic tribes:
- Perelog is the leading farming system in the southern regions. Plots of land were sown for several years, and after the depletion of the soil, people moved to new plots. The main implements were a ral, and later a wooden plow with an iron ploughshare. Of course, plow farming was more efficient as it gave higher and more stable yields.
- Slash-and-burn- was used in the north, in the area of dense taiga. In the first year, trees were cut down on the selected site, as a result of which they dried up. On the next year felled trees and stumps were burned, and grain was sown in the ashes. Subsequently, the site fertilized with ash gave a high yield for several years, then the land was depleted, and a new site had to be developed. The main implements of labor in the forest belt were an ax, a hoe, a spade and a knotted harrow. Harvested with sickles, and grinded grain with stone graters and millstones.
It is necessary to understand that cattle breeding was closely connected with agriculture, however livestock for the Slavs was of secondary importance... The Slavs bred pigs, cows, sheep, goats. Horses were also used as labor.
Hunting, fishing and beekeeping played an important role in the economy of the Eastern Slavs. Honey, wax, furs were the main items of foreign trade.
Eastern Slavic cities
Around the 7th-8th centuries the craft is separated from agriculture, specialists are allocated (blacksmiths, foundry workers, potters). Craftsmen usually concentrated in tribal centers - grads, as well as on settlements - graveyards, which gradually turned from military fortifications into centers of craft and trade - cities that gradually became the residences of the bearers of power.
Cities, as a rule, arose near the confluence of rivers, since this arrangement provided more reliable protection. The city center, surrounded by a rampart and a fortress wall, was called the Kremlin. On all sides the Kremlin was surrounded by water, which provided reliable protection from the attackers. Settlements of artisans - settlements - adjoined the Kremlin. This part of the city was called posad.
The most ancient cities were located on the main trade routes. One of these trade routes was the route from the "Varangians to the Greeks", which was finally formed by the 9th century. Through the Neva or the Western Dvina and the Volkhov with its tributaries, the ships reached the Dnieper, along which they reached the Black Sea, and therefore to Byzantium. Another trade route was the Volga route, which connected Russia with the countries of the East.
The social system of the Eastern Slavs
In the VII-IX centuries. the eastern Slavs experienced the disintegration of the tribal system. The community changed from clan to neighbor... The community members lived in separate houses - semi-dwellings, designed for one family. already existed, but livestock remained in common possession, property inequality within the communities did not yet exist.
The clan community was also destroyed in the course of the development of new lands and the incorporation of slaves into the community.
The disintegration of primitive communal relations was facilitated by the military campaigns of the Slavs. The tribal nobility stood out - princes and elders. They surrounded themselves with squads, that is, an armed force that did not depend on the will of the national assembly and was capable of forcing ordinary members of the community to obey. In this way, Slavic society has already approached the emergence of statehood.More details
Each tribe had its own prince (from the common Slavic "knez" - "leader"). One of such tribal leaders of the VI (VII) century. there was Kiy, who reigned in the tribe-no Glades. The Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" calls him the founder of Kiev. Some historians even believe that Kiy became the ancestor of the most ancient tribal princely dynasty, but this opinion is not shared by other authors. Many researchers consider Kiy a legendary figure.
The disintegration of primitive communal relations was facilitated by any military campaigns of the Slavs; it is worth highlighting the campaigns against Byzantium. The participants in these campaigns received most of the military booty. Particularly significant was the share of military leaders - princes and tribal nobility. Gradually, a special organization of soldiers was formed around the prince - a squad, whose members differed from their fellow tribesmen. The squad was divided into the older one, from which the princely rulers emerged, and the younger, who lived under the prince and served his court and household. In addition to the professional squad, there was also a tribal militia (regiment, one thousand).
The large role of the neighboring community in the life of the Slavic tribes, first of all, is explained by the collective performance of labor-intensive work that is beyond the strength of one person. Those who came from the tribal community were no longer doomed to death, as they could develop new lands and become members of the territorial community. The main issues in the life of the community were resolved at popular assemblies- veche gatherings.
Any community had at its disposal certain territories in which families lived.
Types of community holdings:
- public (arable land, meadows, forests, fishing grounds, water bodies);
- personal (house, household land, livestock, inventory).
Culture of the Eastern Slavs
Very few examples of the art of the ancient Slavs have survived to this day: silver figurines of horses with golden manes and hooves, images of men in Slavic clothes with embroidery on a shirt. Products from the southern Russian regions are characterized by complex compositions of human figures, animals, birds and snakes.
Deifying various forces of nature, the Eastern Slavs were pagans. At an early stage of their development, they believed in good and evil spirits.
The main deities of the Eastern Slavs (there are options):
- deity of the Universe - Rod;
- deity of the sun and fertility - Yes, God;
- the god of cattle and wealth - Veles;
- the god of fire - Svarog;
- god of storm and war - Perun;
- the goddess of fate and crafts - Mokosh.
Sacred groves and springs served as places of worship. In addition, each tribe had common sanctuaries, where all members of the tribe gathered for especially solemn holidays and for solving important matters.
An important place in the religion of the ancient Slavs was occupied by the cult of ancestors. The custom of burning the dead was widespread. Belief in the afterlife was manifested in the fact that various kinds of things were put into the funeral pyre together with the dead. When the prince was buried, they burned a horse and one of his wives or a slave with him. In honor of the deceased, a feast was held - a feast and military competitions.