Russian principalities- a period in the history of Russia (from the 12th to the 16th centuries), when the territory was divided into destinies headed by the princes of the Rurik dynasty. Within the framework of Marxist theory, it is described as a period of feudal fragmentation.
Overview
From its very beginning, Kievan Rus was not a unitary state. The first division was made between the sons of Svyatoslav Igorevich in 972, the second - between the sons of Vladimir Svyatoslavich in 1015 and 1023, and the descendants of Izyaslav of Polotsk, having become outcasts for Kiev, stood out in a special dynasty already at the beginning of the 11th century, as a result of which the Polotsk principality was earlier others separated from Kievan Rus. However, the beginning of the division into principalities proper is considered to be the division of Russia by Yaroslav the Wise in 1054. The next important step was the decision of the Lubech Congress of Princes “everyone keeps his fatherland” in 1097, but Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest son and heir Mstislav the Great, through seizures and dynastic marriages, were able to once again put all the principalities under the control of Kiev.
The death of Mstislav in 1132 is considered to be the beginning of a period of feudal fragmentation, but Kiev remained not only a formal center, but also a powerful principality for several more decades, its influence on the periphery did not disappear, but only weakened in comparison with the first third of the XII century. The Kiev prince continued to dispose of the Turov, Pereyaslav and Vladimir-Volyn principalities and to have both opponents and supporters in each region of Russia until the middle of the century. The Chernigov-Seversk, Smolensk, Rostov-Suzdal, Muromo-Ryazan, Przemysl and Terebovl principalities and the Novgorod land separated themselves from Kiev. Chroniclers began to use the name for the principalities land, which previously designated only Russia as a whole (“Russian land”) or other countries (“Greek land”). The lands acted as independent subjects of international relations and were ruled by their own Rurik dynasties, with some exceptions: Kiev principality and Novgorod land did not have their own dynasty and were objects of struggle between princes from other lands (at the same time, in Novgorod, the rights of the prince were severely limited in favor of the local boyar aristocracy), and for Galicia-Volyn principality after the death of Roman Mstislavich, for about 40 years there was a war between all the South Russian princes, ending in the victory of Daniil Romanovich Volynsky. At the same time, the unity of the princely family and church unity were preserved, as well as the idea of Kiev as formally the most important Russian table and Kiev land as the common property of all princes. By the beginning of the Mongol invasion (1237), the total number of principalities, including appanages, reached 50. The process of formation of new appanages continued everywhere (in the XIV century the total number of principalities was estimated at 250), but in the XIV-XV centuries the reverse process began to gain strength, as a result of which was the unification of Russian lands around two great principalities: Moscow and Lithuania.
In historiography, when considering the period of the XII-XVI centuries, special attention, as a rule, is paid to several principalities.
Novgorod Republic
In 1136, Novgorod got out of the control of the Kievan princes. Unlike other Russian lands, the Novgorod land became a feudal republic, its head was not a prince, but a posadnik. The posadnik and the tysyatsky were elected by the veche, while in the rest of the Russian lands the tysyatsky was appointed by the prince. The Novgorodians entered into an alliance with some Russian principalities to protect their independence from others, and from the beginning of the 13th century, to fight external enemies: Lithuania and Catholic orders that settled in the Baltic states.
Releasing the eldest son Konstantin to the throne of Novgorod in 1206, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Vsevolod the Big Nest made a speech: “ my son, Konstantin, on you, God has put eldership in all your brothers, and Novgorod the Great has eldership in all the Russian land».
Since 1333, Novgorod for the first time invited a representative of the Lithuanian princely house to reign. In 1449, under an agreement with Moscow, the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV renounced claims to Novgorod, in 1456 Vasily II the Dark concluded an unequal peace treaty with Novgorod, and in 1478 Ivan III completely annexed Novgorod to his possessions, abolishing the Veche . In 1494, the Hanseatic trading yard was closed in Novgorod.
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, Grand Duchy of Vladimir
In the annals until the 13th century, it was usually called "Suzdal land", with con. XIII century - "Great Prince of Vladimir". In historiography it is designated by the term "North-Eastern Russia".
Soon after the Rostov-Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky, as a result of many years of struggle, established himself in the Kiev principality, his son Andrei left for the north, taking with him the icon of the Mother of God from Vyshgorod (1155). Andrey moved the capital Rostov- Suzdal Principality to Vladimir and became the first Grand Duke of Vladimir. In 1169, he organized the capture of Kiev, and, in the words of V. O. Klyuchevsky, “separated seniority from place”, placing his younger brother on the Kiev reign, and remaining to reign in Vladimir himself. The seniority of Andrei Bogolyubsky was recognized by all Russian princes, except for those of Galicia and Chernigov. The winner in the struggle for power after the death of Andrei was his younger brother Vsevolod the Big Nest, supported by the inhabitants of the new cities of the southwestern part of the principality (“serfs-masons”) against the henchmen of the old Rostov-Suzdal boyars. By the end of the 1190s, he achieved recognition of his seniority by all the princes, except for Chernigov and Polotsk. Shortly before his death, Vsevolod convened a congress of representatives of various social strata on the issue of succession to the throne (1211): The great prince Vsevolod called all his boyars from the cities and volosts and Bishop John, and abbots, and priests, and merchants, and nobles, and all people.
The Pereyaslav principality was under the control of the Vladimir princes from 1154 (with the exception of a short period of 1206-1213). They also used the dependence of the Novgorod Republic on the supply of food from the agricultural Opole through Torzhok in order to extend their influence to it. Also, the princes of Vladimir used their military capabilities to protect Novgorod from invasions from the west, and from 1231 to 1333 they invariably reigned in Novgorod.
In 1237-1238, the principality was devastated by the Mongols. In 1243 Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Vladimir was summoned to Batu and recognized as the oldest prince in Russia. In the late 1250s, a census was carried out and systematic exploitation of the principality by the Mongols began. After the death of Alexander Nevsky (1263), Vladimir ceased to be the residence of the Grand Dukes. During the 13th century, specific principalities were formed with their own dynasties: Belozersk, Galicia-Dmitrov, Gorodetsk, Kostroma, Moscow, Pereyaslav, Rostov, Starodub, Suzdal, Tver, Uglitsk, Yuriev, Yaroslavl (up to 13 principalities in total), and in the 14th century Tver , Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal princes began to be titled "great". Actually, the great reign of Vladimir, which included the city of Vladimir with a vast territory in the zone of the Suzdal opolye and the right to collect tribute for the Horde from all the principalities of North-Eastern Russia, except for the great ones, was received by a label from the Horde Khan one of the princes.
In 1299, the Metropolitan of All Russia moved from Kiev to Vladimir, and in 1327 to Moscow. Since 1331, the reign of Vladimir was assigned to the Moscow princely house, since 1389 it appeared in the wills of Moscow princes along with the Moscow domain. In 1428, the final merger of the Vladimir principality with Moscow took place.
Galicia-Volyn principality
After the suppression of the first Galician dynasty, Roman Mstislavich Volynsky seized the Galician throne, thereby uniting the two principalities in his hands. In 1201, he was invited to reign by the Kiev boyars, but left his younger relative to reign in Kiev, turning Kiev into an outpost of his possessions in the east.
Roman hosted the Byzantine emperor Alexios III Angel, expelled by the crusaders during the fourth crusade. Received an offer of the royal crown from Pope Innocent III. According to the version of the “first Russian historian” Tatishchev V.N., Roman was the author of the project of the political structure of all Russian lands, in which the Kiev prince would be elected by six princes, and their principalities would be inherited by the eldest son. In the annals, Roman is called "the autocrat of all Russia."
After the death of Roman in 1205, a long struggle for power took place, the winner of which was the eldest son and heir of Roman Daniel, who restored his control over all his father's possessions by 1240 - the year the last phase of the western campaign of the Mongols began - a campaign against Kiev, the Galicia-Volyn principality and to Central Europe. In the 1250s, Daniel fought against the Mongol-Tatars, but he still had to admit dependence on them. The Galician-Volyn princes paid tribute and participated as forced allies in the Horde campaigns against Lithuania, Poland and Hungary, but retained the procedure for the transfer of the throne.
The Galician princes also extended their influence to the Turov-Pinsk principality. Since 1254, Daniel and his descendants bore the title of "Kings of Russia". After the transfer of the residence of the Metropolitan of All Russia from Kiev to Vladimir in 1299, Yuri Lvovich Galitsky founded a separate Galician metropolis, which existed (intermittently) until the capture of Galicia by Poland in 1349. Finally, the Galician-Volynian lands were divided between Lithuania and Poland in 1392 following the war for the Galician-Volynian inheritance.
Smolensk principality
Separated under the grandson of Vladimir Monomokh - Rostislav Mstislavich. The Smolensk princes were distinguished by their desire to occupy tables outside their principality, thanks to which it was almost not subjected to fragmentation into appanages and had interests in all regions of Russia. The Rostislavichs were constant contenders for Kiev and firmly entrenched themselves in a number of its suburban tables. From 1181 to 1194, a duumvirate was established in the Kiev land, when the city was owned by Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, and the rest of the principality by Rurik Rostislavich. After the death of Svyatoslav, Rurik gained and lost Kiev several times, and in 1203 he repeated the act of Andrei Bogolyubsky, for the second time in the history of civil strife, subjecting the capital of Russia to defeat.
The pinnacle of Smolensk power was the reign of Mstislav Romanovich, who occupied the Kiev table from 1214 to 1223. During this period, Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Galich were under the control of the Rostislavichs. It was under the auspices of Mstislav Romanovich as the prince of Kiev that an essentially all-Russian campaign against the Mongols was organized, ending in a rout on the river. Kalka.
The Mongol invasion touched only the eastern outskirts of the principality and did not affect Smolensk itself. The princes of Smolensk recognized their dependence on the Horde, and in 1275 a Mongolian census was conducted in the principality. The position of Smolensk was more favorable in comparison with other lands. It was almost never subjected to Tatar raids, the destinies that arose in its composition were not assigned to individual princely branches and remained under the control of the Smolensk prince. In the 90s. In the 13th century, the territory of the principality expanded due to the annexation of the Bryansk principality from the Chernigov land, at the same time, the Smolensk princes established themselves in the Yaroslavl principality through dynastic marriage. In the 1st floor. XIV century, under Prince Ivan Alexandrovich, the Smolensk princes began to be called great. However, by this time, the principality turned out to be a buffer zone between Lithuania and the Moscow principality, whose rulers sought to make the Smolensk princes dependent on themselves and gradually captured their volosts. In 1395 Smolensk was conquered by Vitovt. In 1401, Prince Yuri Svyatoslavich of Smolensk, with the support of Ryazan, regained his throne, but in 1404 Vitovt again captured the city and finally included it in Lithuania.
Chernihiv Principality
Separated in 1097 under the rule of the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, their rights to the principality were recognized by other Russian princes at the Lyubech Congress. After the youngest of the Svyatoslavichs was deprived of his reign in 1127 and, under the rule of his descendants, the lands on the lower Oka separated from Chernigov, and in 1167 the line of descendants of Davyd Svyatoslavich was cut short, the Olgovichi dynasty established itself on all the princely tables of the Chernigov land: the northern and upper Oka lands the descendants of Vsevolod Olgovich owned (they were also constant contenders for Kiev), Novgorod-Seversky principality - the descendants of Svyatoslav Olgovich. Representatives of both branches reigned in Chernigov (until 1226).
In addition to Kiev and Vyshgorod, at the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, the Olgoviches managed to briefly extend their influence to Galich and Volyn, Pereyaslavl and Novgorod.
In 1223, the princes of Chernigov took part in the first campaign against the Mongols. In the spring of 1238, during the Mongol invasion, the northeastern lands of the principality were devastated, and in the autumn of 1239, the southwestern ones. After the death of the Chernigov prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich in the Horde in 1246, the lands of the principality were divided between his sons, and the eldest of them, Roman, became the prince in Bryansk. In 1263, he liberated Chernigov from the Lithuanians and annexed it to his possessions. Beginning with Roman, the Bryansk princes were usually titled as the Grand Dukes of Chernigov.
At the beginning of the XIV century, Smolensk princes established themselves in Bryansk, presumably through dynastic marriage. The struggle for Bryansk lasted for several decades, until in 1357 the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd Gediminovich installed one of the contenders, Roman Mikhailovich, to reign. In the second half of the XIV century, in parallel with him, the sons of Olgerd Dmitry and Dmitry-Koribut also reigned in the Bryansk lands. After the Ostrovsky agreement, the autonomy of the Bryansk principality was liquidated, Roman Mikhailovich became the Lithuanian governor in Smolensk, where he was killed in 1401.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
It arose in the XIII century as a result of the unification of the Lithuanian tribes by Prince Mindovg. In 1320-1323, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Gedimin conducted successful campaigns against Volhynia and Kiev (the battle on the Irpin River). After Olgerd Gediminovich established control over Southern Russia in 1362, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became a state in which, in the presence of a foreign ethnic core, the majority of the population were Russians, and Orthodoxy was the predominant religion. The principality acted as a rival to another towering center of the Russian lands at that time - the Moscow principality, but Olgerd's campaigns against Moscow turned out to be fruitless.
The Teutonic Order intervened in the struggle for power in Lithuania after the death of Olgerd, and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello was forced to abandon the plan for concluding a dynastic union with Moscow and recognize (1384) the condition of baptism in catholic faith over the next 4 years. Already in 1385, the first Polish-Lithuanian union was concluded. In 1392, Vitovt became the Lithuanian prince, who finally included Smolensk and Bryansk in the principality, and after the death of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily I (1425), married to his daughter, extended his influence to Tver, Ryazan and Pronsk for several years.
The Polish-Lithuanian union of 1413 granted privileges to the Catholic nobility in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but during the struggle for power after the death of Vitovt, they were canceled (the equality of rights of the Catholic and Orthodox nobility was confirmed by the privilege of 1563).
In 1458, on the Russian lands subject to Lithuania and Poland, the Kiev metropolis was formed, independent of the Moscow metropolis of "All Russia".
After the entry of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Livonian War and the fall of Polotsk, the principality united with Poland into the confederation of the Commonwealth (1569), while the Kiev, Podolsk and Volyn lands that had previously been part of the principality became part of Poland.
Grand Duchy of Moscow
It stood out from the Vladimir Grand Duchy at the end of the 13th century as the inheritance of the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky - Daniel. In the first years of the XIV century, it annexed a number of adjacent territories and began to compete with the Tver principality. In 1328, together with the Horde and Suzdal, Tver was defeated, and soon the Moscow prince Ivan I Kalita became the Grand Duke of Vladimir. Subsequently, the title, with rare exceptions, was retained by his offspring. After the victory at the Kulikovo field, Moscow secured the importance of the center of the unification of Russian lands. In 1389, Dmitry Donskoy bequeathed the great reign to his son Vasily I, which was recognized by all the neighbors of Moscow and the Horde.
In 1439, the Moscow metropolis of "All Russia" did not recognize the Florentine Union of the Greek and Roman churches and became, in fact, autocephalous.
After the reign of Ivan III (1462), the process of unification of the Russian principalities under the rule of Moscow entered a decisive phase. By the end of the reign Basil III(1533) Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state, adding, in addition to all of North-Eastern Russia and Novgorod, also Smolensk and Chernigov lands, conquered from Lithuania. In 1547, the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan IV was crowned king. In 1549 the first Zemsky Sobor. In 1589, the Moscow metropolis was transformed into a patriarchate. In 1591, the last lot was liquidated in the kingdom.
Economy
As a result of the capture of the city of Sarkel and the Tmutarakan principality by the Polovtsy, as well as the success of the first crusade, the significance of trade routes changed. The path “From the Varangians to the Greeks”, on which Kiev was located, gave way to the Volga trade route and the route connecting the Black Sea with Western Europe through the Dniester. In particular, the campaign against the Polovtsy in 1168 under the leadership of Mstislav Izyaslavich was aimed at ensuring the passage of goods along the lower Dnieper.
The “Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich”, issued by Vladimir Monomakh after the Kiev uprising in 1113, introduced an upper limit on the amount of interest on debts, which saved the poor from the threat of long and eternal bondage. In the 12th century, although the work of craftsmen to order remained predominant, many signs indicate the beginning of more progressive work for the market.
Large craft centers became the targets of the Mongol invasion of Russia in 1237-1240. Their ruin, the capture of masters and the subsequent need to pay tribute caused the decline of crafts and trade.
At the end of the 15th century, in the Moscow principality, the distribution of land into the possession of the nobles under the condition of service (estate) began. In 1497, the Sudebnik was adopted, one of the provisions of which limited the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another on St. George's autumn day.
Warfare
In the XII century, the regiment became the main fighting force instead of the squad. The senior and junior squads are transformed into the militia of the boyars-landowners and the court of the prince.
In 1185, for the first time in Russian history, the division of the battle order was noted not only along the front into three tactical units (regiments), but also in depth up to four regiments, the total number of tactical units reached six, including the first mention of a separate rifle regiment, which is also mentioned on Lake Peipsi in 1242 (Battle on the Ice).
The blow inflicted on the economy by the Mongol invasion was also reflected in the state of military affairs. The process of differentiation of functions between detachments of heavy cavalry, which delivered a direct blow with melee weapons, and detachments of shooters, broke off, a reunification took place, and the combatants again began to use a spear and sword and shoot from a bow. Separate rifle units, moreover, on a semi-regular basis, reappeared only at the end of the 15th-beginning of the 16th century in Novgorod and Moscow (pishchalniks, archers).
Outer Wars
Polovtsy
After a series of offensive campaigns at the beginning of the 12th century, the Polovtsy were forced to migrate to the southeast, up to the foothills of the Caucasus. The resumption of internecine struggle in Russia in the 1130s allowed the Polovtsy to again ruin Russia, including as allies of one of the opposing princely groups. The first offensive movement of the allied forces against the Polovtsy in 1168 was organized by Mstislav Izyaslavich in 1168, then Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich in 1183 organized a general campaign of the forces of almost all the southern Russian principalities and defeated the large Polovtsian association of the southern Russian steppes, led by Khan Kobyak. And although the Polovtsy managed to defeat Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185, in subsequent years the Polovtsy did not undertake large-scale invasions of Russia outside of princely strife, and the Russian princes undertook a number of powerful offensive campaigns (1198, 1202, 1203). By the beginning of the 13th century, there was a noticeable Christianization of the Polovtsian nobility. Of the four Polovtsian khans mentioned in the annals in connection with the first Mongol invasion of Europe, two had Orthodox names, and the third was baptized before a joint Russian-Polovtsian campaign against the Mongols (battle on the Kalka River). The Polovtsy, like Russia, became victims of the western campaign of the Mongols in 1236-1242.
Catholic orders, Sweden and Denmark
The first appearance of Catholic preachers on the lands of the Livs dependent on the Polotsk princes occurred in 1184. By 1202, the foundation of the city of Riga and the Order of the Sword. The first campaigns of the Russian princes were undertaken in 1217-1223 in support of the Estonians, but gradually the order not only subjugated the local tribes, but also deprived the Russians of their possessions in Livonia (Kukeinos, Gersik, Viljandi and Yuryev).
In 1234, the crusaders were defeated by Yaroslav Vsevolodovich of Novgorod in the battle of Omovzha, in 1236 by Lithuanians and Semigallians in the battle of Saul, after which the remnants of the Order of the Swordsmen became part of the Teutonic Order, founded in 1198 in Palestine and seized the lands of the Prussians in 1227, and northern Estonia went into the possession of Denmark. An attempt at a coordinated attack on Russian lands in 1240, immediately after the Mongol invasion of Russia, ended in failure (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice), although the crusaders managed to capture Pskov for a short time.
After the unification of the military efforts of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Teutonic Order suffered a decisive defeat in the Battle of Grunwald (1410), subsequently became dependent on Poland (1466) and lost possessions in Prussia as a result of secularization (1525). In 1480, while standing on the Ugra, the Livonian Order launched an attack on Pskov, but to no avail. In 1561, the Livonian Order was liquidated as a result of the successful actions of the Russian troops at the initial stage of the Livonian War.
Mongolian Tatars
After the victory on the Kalka in 1223 over the combined forces of the Russian principalities and the Polovtsy, the Mongols abandoned the plan to march on Kiev, which was the ultimate goal of their campaign, turned east, were defeated by the Volga Bogars at the crossing over the Volga and launched a large-scale invasion of Europe only 13 years later , but at the same time they did not meet with organized resistance. Poland and Hungary also became victims of the invasion, while Smolensk, Turov-Pinsk, Polotsk principalities and the Novgorod Republic managed to avoid defeat.
The Russian lands became dependent on the Golden Horde, which was expressed in the right of the Horde khans to approve the princes on their tables and the payment of an annual tribute. The rulers of the Horde were called "tsars" in Russia.
During the offensive in the Horde of the “great zamyatna” after the death of Khan Berdibek (1359), Olgerd Gediminovich defeated the Horde at Blue Waters (1362) and established control over South Russia, thereby putting an end to the Mongol-Tatar yoke in it. In the same period, the Grand Duchy of Moscow took a significant step towards liberation from the yoke (the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380).
During periods of struggle for power in the Horde, the Moscow princes suspended the payment of tribute, but were forced to resume it after the invasions of Tokhtamysh (1382) and Edigei (1408). In 1399, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, who tried to return the Horde throne to Tokhtamysh and thus establish control over the Horde, was defeated by Timur's proteges in the Battle of Vorskla, in which the Lithuanian princes participating in the Battle of Kulikovo also died.
After the disintegration of the Golden Horde into several khanates, the Moscow principality got the opportunity to pursue an independent policy in relation to each khanate. The descendants of Ulu-Mohammed received Meshchera lands from Vasily II, forming the Kasimov Khanate (1445). Starting from 1472, in alliance with the Crimean Khanate, Moscow fought against the Great Horde, which entered into an alliance with the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Casimir IV. The Crimeans repeatedly ravaged the southern Russian possessions of Casimir, primarily Kiev and Podolia. In 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (standing on the Ugra) was overthrown. After the liquidation of the Great Horde (1502), a common border arose between the Moscow principality and the Crimean Khanate, immediately after which the regular raids of the Crimeans on Moscow lands began. From the middle of the 15th century, the Kazan Khanate was increasingly under the military and political pressure of Moscow, until in 1552 it was annexed to the Moscow kingdom. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate was also annexed to it, in 1582 the conquest of the Siberian Khanate began.
2. Topic: Feudal fragmentation in Russia.
Fill in the table: Political organization of the Novgorod principality.
position
From among whom were elected
Main functions
veche
State self-government body
The population of the city gathered
Discussed issues of war and peace
prince
warlord
Called to reign by the boyars
Managed military operations
posadnik
Head of the government
Elected from the most influential boyars
Issues of mountain devices, court, conclusion of agreements with the prince, participation in military campaigns, diplomatic negotiations
thousand
Posadnik's assistant
Elected from non-Yarsk population
Control over the tax system, participated in the commercial court, dealt with foreigners
archbishop
Gl novgorod church
He was elected by the veche, only then he was approved by the metropolitan
Official representative of the republic in its foreign relations
Forms of political structure in Russia. Distribute the cities according to the forms of political structure: the Golden Horde, Suzdal, Novgorod, Byzantium, Genoa, Galich, Pskov, Vladimir, Venice, Volyn.
Galich, Volyn
Analogy: Golden Horde
Limited monarchy
Vladimir, Suzdal
Analogy: Byzantium
feudal division. Fill the table
Independence of the boyars-patrimonials in their lands
Strengthening the economic and political power of the cities-centers of the princely-boyar power
The decline of the Kiev land from the raids of the steppes, civil strife and the fall of the value of the path from the Varangians to the Greeks.
A small principality is much easier to manage, monitor and maintain in order
land crushing
The emergence of conflicts between the princes and the local boyars
Weakening of the defense capability of Russia.
Positive Aspects of Fragmentation
Negative Aspects of Fragmentation
Growth of cities, crafts, trade
Rise of urban culture
- Cult and economic development of individual lands
Weak central authority
Independence of local princes and boyars
The collapse of an integral state, vulnerability to external enemies.
What cities were part of these principalities, the prince who ruled in this principality.
Cities included in it
Princes who ruled in this principality
Vladimir-Suzdal
principality
Beloozero, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Kostroma, Galich, Nizh Novgorod, Suzdal, Tver, Moscow, Kolomna
Yuri Dolgoruky (1096-1149) - at the same time the Kiev prince.
Andrei Bogolyubsky (1111-1174) - son of Yuri Dolgoruky,
Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) - son of Yuri Dolgoruky
Yuri Vsevolodovich (1218-1238)
Galicia - Volyn
Principality
Volodymyr - Volynsky, Lutsk, Przemysl, Cherven, Buzhsk, Tikhoml.
Vladimir Yaroslavovich - Rostislav Vladimirovich
In 1199, the unification of the Galician and Vladimir principalities by Roman Mstislavovich
Daniel Romanovich (1229-1264)
Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187)
1136-1478
Novgorod, Pskov, Izborsk, Ladoga
Alexander Nevsky (1252-1263)
Chernigov, Kursk, Novgorod-Seversky, Putivl, Lyubech, Starodub, Tmutarakan, Kozelsk, Murom, Ryazan
Svyatoslav
Oleg Svyatoslavovich
Svyatoslav Olegovich
Igor Svyatoslavovich
Yuri Igorevich (1235-1237)
Vladimir-Suzdal principality:
- Yury Dolgoruky (1096-1149) - the son of Vladimir Monomakh, at the same time the Kiev prince, received his nickname as he constantly sought to expand his possessions. He founded a number of cities in 1152 - Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov. Under him, Moscow was first mentioned in the annals, where he invited Prince Svyatoslav of Novgorod-Seversky. He captured Kiev three times (1149, 1150, 1155), the people of Kiev did not like him at one of the feasts, he was poisoned.
- Andrey Bogolyubsky (1111-1174) - the son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Vladimir made the capital where, according to legend, he transferred the miraculous icon of the Mother of God from Kiev. Under him, the Assumption Cathedral, the Golden Gate, powerful stone fortifications in Vladimir were erected. Residence in Bogolyubovo, where he built the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl
- Vsevolod Big Nest (1176-1212) - son of Yuri Dolgoruky. As a child, he was expelled from the Suzdal land by his brother Andrei Bogolyubsky, lived in Byzantium from 1161-1168. Under Vsevolod, his power extended to Kiev, Chernigov, Murom, Novgorod
Yuri Vsevolodovich (1218-1238)
Galicia-Volyn principality
- Vladimir Yaroslavovich - son of Yaroslav the Wise
- Rostislav Vladimirovich - son of Vladimir Yaroslavovich
In 1199, the unification of the Galician and Vladimir principalitiesRoman Mstislavovich
- Daniel Romanovich Galitsky (1230-1264) - a talented politician and commander, won back his lands from Poland and Hungary. Recognizing himself as a vassal of the Golden Horde, he retained a certain independence. Later, he established contacts with Rome, agreed to a union with the Catholic Church (recognition of the basic tenets of Catholicism while maintaining Orthodox rites) and received a royal title, which angered the Horde. Unreliable co-workers left Daniel and he had to confront the Horde alone, which led to the decline of the principality
- Yaroslav Osmomysl (1152-1187) - fought with Dolgoruky, although he was married to his daughter Olga. In international politics, he mainly resorted to weapons. Successfully fought with the Polovtsians. Established good relations with Byzantium, Poland, Hungary. Osmomysl = eight meanings, that is, he knew 8 languages, another interpretation = sharp-minded, that is, wise. Novgorod Republic
Novgorod Republic
1136 Vsevolod Mstislavovich was expelled by the Novgorodians, and his son Vladimir was accepted
Alexander Nevsky (1252-1263)
Chernihiv-Seversk Principality
Svyatoslav
Oleg Svyatoslavovich
Svyatoslav Olegovich
Igor Svyatoslavovich
Yuri Igorevich (1235-1237)
Answer left a guest
Kiev principality in the period of feudal fragmentation. In conditions fragmentation The Kiev table continued to be considered the "oldest". Despite the loss Kiev of the all-Russian values, fight for the possession of it continued until the invasion of the Mongol- Tatars. After death in 1132 eldest son Vladimir Monomakh, Prince Mstislav the Great, the Kiev table passed to the next oldest son of Monomakh - Yaropolk (1132 -1138 ), and then to his younger brother Vyacheslav Turov(d.v. 1154 ). But the desire of the Monomashichs to consider Kiev as their own " paternal"possession met opposition from Chernihiv Olgovichi. V 1139 the eldest of them Vsevolod Olegovich seized the throne of Kiev, and before his death in 1146 he bequeathed it to his brother Igor. However, he was soon overthrown as a result of the Kiev uprising. Kiev was taken over by the grandson of Monomakh - Izyaslav Mstislavich. His uncle began to challenge his reign - the Rostov-Suzdal prince Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky. A long struggle ensued, during which Kiev changed hands more than once. V 1146 an unsuccessful campaign of the Kiev-Chernigov coalitions on the Galich. Only after the death of Izyaslav in 1154 Yuri took over city.
Panorama of ancient Kiev
V 1160 took the throne of Kiev Chernihiv and Smolensk prince Rostislav Mstislavich who ruled until his death 1167 . In the next decade, the princes on the throne of Kiev changed 12 times. Suzdal prince Andrey Bogolyubsky, who remained after the death of Rostislav the "oldest" among the descendants of Monomakh, tried to arrogate to himself the right to dispose of the Kiev reign, but failed. V 1180 in Kiev, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich Chernigov began to rule (before 1194 ). In the conditions of the all-Russian struggle for Kiev, the local boyars sought, with the help of the duumvirate, to end the strife and to political stabilization in his principality. As more and more princes were drawn into the struggle, the Kievan boyars began to resort to system princely duumvirate ( dual power), inviting two or more rival co-rulers to Kiev factions than was achieved for some time relative political balance. Invitation by the boyars 3 MY 1113 Monomakh to Kiev (bypassing the then accepted order of succession) was a precedent used later to justify their "right" to choose a strong and pleasing prince and conclude a "row" with him that protected them territorially. corporate interests. The duumvirate was finally established with 1176 when the Kiev table was occupied by the representative of the Olgovichi prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, and the rest of the territory of the principality began to be owned by a representative of the Smolensk branch of the Monomashichs - Rurik Rostislavich (d. 1212 ; v 1195-1202 rules in Kiev). In the struggle for Kiev during this period, not participated only Polotsk Izyaslavichi, Muromo-Ryazan Yaroslavichi and Turov-Pinsk Svyatopolchichi. The principality achieved temporary strengthening under Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, Roman Mstislavich Volynsky. In the XIII century. the principality falls into decay, the ebb of the population to the northwest begins. Daniel Romanovich Galitsky, in whose hands Kiev passed shortly before its capture Batu, has already limited himself to appointing his posadnik from the boyars.
After the death of the Kiev prince Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, the process of disintegration of the formerly unified state began in Russia. Similar events took place in Western Europe. This was the general trend of the feudal Middle Ages. Gradually, Russia was divided into several de facto independent principalities with common traditions, culture and the Rurik dynasty. The most important year for the country was 1132, when Mstislav the Great died. It is this date that historians consider the beginning of the final political fragmentation. In this state, Russia existed until the middle of the XIII century, when it survived the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar troops.
Kiev land
Over the years, the principalities of ancient Russia were divided, united, the ruling branches of the Rurik dynasty changed, etc. Nevertheless, despite the complexity of these events, several key destinies can be distinguished that played the most important role in the life of the country. Even after the actual collapse, de jure, it was the Kiev prince who was considered the elder.
A variety of specific rulers tried to establish control over the "mother of Russian cities". Therefore, if the specific principalities of ancient Russia had their hereditary dynasties, then Kiev most often passed from hand to hand. After the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1132, the city briefly became the property of the Chernigov Rurikids. This did not suit the other representatives of the dynasty. Due to the ensuing wars, Kiev first ceased to control the Pereyaslav, Turov and Vladimir-Volyn principalities, and then (in 1169) it was completely plundered by the army of Andrei Bogolyubsky and finally lost its political significance.
Chernihiv
Ancient Russia on Chernihiv land belonged to the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavovich. They were in conflict with Kiev for a long time. The Chernihiv dynasty for several decades was divided into two branches: the Olgovichi and the Davydovichi. With each generation, more and more new specific principalities arose that broke away from Chernigov (Novgorod-Seversk, Bryansk, Kursk, etc.).
Historians consider Svyatoslav Olgovich to be the brightest ruler of this region. He was an ally It is with their allied feast in Moscow in 1147 that the history of the capital of Russia, confirmed by chronicles, begins. When the principalities of ancient Russia united in the struggle against the Mongols that appeared in the east, the specific rulers of the Chernigov land came out together with the rest of the Rurikovichs and were defeated. The invasion of the steppes did not affect the entire principality, but only its eastern part. Nevertheless, it recognized itself as a vassal of the Golden Horde (after the painful death of Mikhail Vsevolodovich). In the XIV century, Chernihiv, along with many neighboring cities, was annexed to Lithuania.
Polotsk region
The Izyaslavichs (descendants of Izyaslav Vladimirovich) ruled in Polotsk. This branch of Rurikovich stood out earlier than others. In addition, Polotsk was the first to start an armed struggle for independence from Kiev. The earliest such war took place as early as the beginning of the 11th century.
Like other principalities of ancient Russia during the period of fragmentation, Polotsk eventually split into several small destinies (Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk, etc.). Some of these cities as a result of wars and dynastic marriages passed to the Smolensk Rurikovich. But the most dangerous opponents of Polotsk, without a doubt, were the Lithuanians. At first, these Baltic tribes staged predatory raids on Russian lands. Then they moved on to conquest. In 1307, Polotsk finally became part of the growing power of the Lithuanian state.
Volyn
In Volhynia (the south-west of modern Ukraine), two major political centers stood out - Vladimir-Volynsky and Galich. Having become independent from Kiev, these principalities began to compete with each other for leadership in the region. At the end of the XII century, Roman Mstislavovich united the two cities. His principality was named Galicia-Volyn. The influence of the monarch was so great that he sheltered the Byzantine emperor Alexei III, expelled from Constantinople by the crusaders.
Roman's son Daniel eclipsed his father's successes with his fame. He successfully fought against the Poles, Hungarians and Mongols, periodically making alliances with one of his neighbors. In 1254, Daniel even accepted the title of King of Russia from the Pope, hoping for help from Western Europe in the fight against the steppes. After his death, the Galicia-Volyn principality fell into decay. First, it broke up into several destinies, and then was captured by Poland. The fragmentation of Ancient Russia, whose principalities were constantly at enmity with each other, prevented her from fighting against external threats.
Smolensk region
The Smolensk principality was located in the geographical center of Russia. It became independent under the son of Mstislav the Great Rostislav. At the end of the XII century, the principalities of Ancient Russia again began a fierce struggle for Kiev. The main contenders for power in the ancient capital were the rulers of Smolensk and Chernigov.
The descendants of Rostislav reached the pinnacle of power under Mstislav Romanovich. In 1214-1223. he ruled not only Smolensk, but also Kiev. It was this prince who initiated the first anti-Mongolian coalition, which was defeated at Kalka. Subsequently, Smolensk suffered less than others during the invasion. Nevertheless, its rulers paid tribute to the Golden Horde. Gradually, the principality found itself sandwiched between Lithuania and Moscow, which were gaining influence. Independence under such conditions could not last long. As a result, in 1404, the Lithuanian prince Vitovt naturally annexed Smolensk to his possessions.
Outpost on the Oka
The Ryazan principality occupied lands on the Middle Oka. It stood out from the possessions of the Chernigov rulers. In the 1160s, Murom broke away from Ryazan. The Mongol invasion hit this region painfully. The inhabitants, princes, principalities of ancient Russia did not understand the threat posed by the eastern conquerors. In 1237, Ryazan was the first of the Russian cities to be destroyed by the steppes. In the future, the principality fought with Moscow, which was gaining strength. For example, the Ryazan ruler Oleg Ivanovich was an opponent of Dmitry Donskoy for a long time. Ryazan was gradually losing ground. It was annexed to Moscow in 1521.
Novgorod Republic
The historical description of the principalities of Ancient Russia cannot be complete without mentioning the Novgorod Republic. This state lived according to its special political and social order. An aristocratic republic was established here with a strong influence of the national council. The princes were elected military leaders (they were invited from other Russian lands).
A similar political system developed in Pskov, which was called "the younger brother of Novgorod." These two cities were centers of international trade. Compared to other Russian political centers, they had the most contacts with Western Europe. After the Baltic states were captured by the Catholic military, serious friction began between the knights and Novgorod. This struggle reached its apogee in the 1240s. It was then that the Swedes and Germans were defeated in turn by Prince Alexander Nevsky. When it's almost over historical path from Ancient Russia to the Great, the republic was left face to face with Ivan III. He conquered Novgorod in 1478.
Northeast Russia
The first political centers of North-Eastern Russia in the XI-XII centuries. were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. The descendants of Monomakh and his younger son Yuri Dolgoruky ruled here. Father's successors Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest strengthened the authority of the Vladimir principality, making it the largest and strongest in fragmented Russia.
Under the children of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a large-scale development began. The first specific principalities began to appear. However, real disasters came to North-Eastern Russia along with the Mongols. Nomads ravaged this region, burned many of its cities. During the reign of the Horde, the khans were recognized as the elders in all of Russia. Those who received a special label were put in charge there.
In the struggle for Vladimir, two new opponents emerged: Tver and Moscow. The peak of their confrontation came at the beginning of the XIV century. In this rivalry, Moscow turned out to be the winner. Gradually, its princes united North-Eastern Russia, overthrew the Mongol-Tatar yoke and eventually created a single Russian state(Ivan the Terrible became its first tsar in 1547).
Introduction
3..Vladimir - Suzdal land
4..Galicia - Volyn principality
5..Novgorod land
6..Principality of Kiev
7. Significance of the period of fragmentation in Russian history
Conclusion
Introduction
The theme of the history of Ancient Russia considered in the work is not only interesting, but also very relevant. Recent years have passed under the sign of changes in many areas of Russian life. The way of life of many people has changed, the system has changed life values. Knowledge of the history of Russia, the spiritual traditions of the Russian people, is very important for raising the national consciousness of Russians. A sign of the revival of the nation is the ever-increasing interest in the historical past of the Russian people, in its spiritual values.
Time from the beginning of the XII to the end of the XV century. traditionally called the specific period. Indeed, about 15 principalities and lands formed on the basis of Kievan Rus by the middle of the 12th century, about 50 principalities by the beginning of the 13th century, approximately 250-14th centuries.
The territory of the Kievan state was concentrated around several political centers that were once tribal. In the second half of the XI - the beginning of the XII century. fairly stable principalities began to form within Kievan Rus. As a result of the merger of the East Slavic tribes during the period of Kievan Rus, the Old Russian nationality gradually formed, which was characterized by a certain commonality of language, territory and mental warehouse, manifested in the commonality of culture.
The ancient Russian state was one of the largest European states. The struggle of Russia against the raids of nomads was of great importance for the security of the countries of both Western Asia and Europe. Trade relations of Russia were wide. Russia maintained political, trade and cultural relations with the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Bulgaria, had diplomatic ties with Byzantium, Germany, Norway and Sweden, and also established ties with France and England. The international significance of Russia is evidenced by dynastic marriages concluded by Russian princes. Treaties with Byzantium keep valuable evidence of social relations in Kievan Rus and its international significance.
However, already in the XII century. separated from the ancient Russian state whole line principalities.
The main purpose of this work is to consider the causes and factors of the fragmentation of Ancient Russia, which led to the creation of the formation of new state centers, to consider the largest of these centers and analyze the significance of this period in the history of Russia.
1. Causes and factors of fragmentation
By the middle of the XI century. The ancient Russian state reached its peak. Sometimes Kievan Rus is even called an early feudal monarchy. Over time, a single state, united by the power of the Kiev prince, no longer existed.
According to the generally accepted point of view, from the middle of the XI - the beginning of the XII century. The Old Russian state entered a new stage in its history - the era of political and feudal fragmentation.
Political fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of statehood and feudal relations. Not a single early feudal state of Europe escaped it. Throughout this era, the power of the monarch was weak, and the functions of the state were insignificant. The trend towards rallying and centralization of states began to appear only in the 13th-15th centuries.
The political fragmentation of the state had many objective reasons. The economic reason for political fragmentation was, according to historians, the dominance of subsistence farming. Trade relations in the XI-XII centuries. were developed rather poorly, and could not ensure the economic unity of the Russian lands. By this time the once mighty Byzantine Empire started to decline. Byzantium ceased to be a world trade center, and consequently, the main ancient way"from the Varangians to the Greeks", which for many centuries allowed Kievan state carry out trade relations.
another reason political collapse there were traces of tribal relations. After all, Kievan Rus united several dozen large tribal unions. The constant raids of nomads on the Dnieper lands also played a significant role. Fleeing from raids, people went to live in sparsely populated lands located in the north-east of Russia. Continuous migration contributed to the expansion of the territory and the weakening of the power of the Kiev prince. The process of continuous fragmentation of the country could also be influenced by the absence of the concept of majorate in Russian feudal law. This principle, which existed in many states of Western Europe, provided that all land holdings of one or another feudal lord passed only to their eldest sons. In Russia, after the death of a prince, land holdings could be divided among all heirs.
One of critical factors that gave rise to feudal fragmentation, most modern historians consider the development of large-scale private feudal landownership. Back in the 11th century. there is a process of "settlement of combatants to the ground", the emergence of large feudal estates - boyar villages. The feudal class acquires economic and political power. The presence of a large number of large and medium-sized feudal estates became incompatible with the early feudal state, which had a vast territory and a weak state apparatus.
Kievan Rus was a vast but unstable state entity. The tribes included in its composition, for a long time retained their isolation. Separate lands under the dominance of subsistence farming could not form a single economic space. In addition, in the XI-XII centuries. new factors are emerging that contribute to the fragmentation of this unstable state.
The main force of the disunity process was the boyars. Based on his power, the local princes managed to establish their power in every land. However, later inevitable contradictions arose between the strengthened boyars and local princes, the struggle for influence and power.
The growth of the population and, accordingly, the military potential of various regions of Russia became the basis for the formation of a number of sovereign principalities. There were civil strife among the princes.
The gradual growth of cities, trade and the economic development of individual lands led to the loss of Kiev's historical role in connection with the movement of trade routes and the emergence of new centers of crafts and trade, increasingly independent of the capital of the Russian state.
There was a complication of the social structure of society, the birth of the nobility.
Finally, the absence of a serious external threat to the entire East Slavic community contributed to the collapse of the unified state. Later, this threat appeared from the Mongols, but the process of separating the principalities had already gone too far by that time.
In reality, these processes manifested themselves in the middle of the second half of the 11th century. Prince Yaroslav the Wise shortly before his death (1054) divided the lands among his five sons. But he did it in such a way that the possessions of his sons mutually divided each other; it was almost impossible to manage them independently. Yaroslav tried to solve two problems at once in this way: on the one hand, he sought to avoid bloody strife between heirs, which usually began after the death of the Kiev prince: each of the sons received lands that were supposed to ensure his existence as a sovereign prince; on the other hand, Yaroslav hoped that his children would jointly defend the all-Russian interests related primarily to the defense of the borders. The Grand Duke was not going to divide united Russia into independent, independent states; he only hoped that now it, as a whole, would be controlled not by one person, but by the entire princely family.
It is not quite clear how exactly the subordination of various lands to Kiev was ensured, how these lands were distributed among the princes. Described by historians of the XIX century. the principle of gradual (alternate) transfer of princes from one throne to another was more of an ideal scheme than a practically functioning mechanism.
CM. Solovyov, analyzing the political structure of Russia after Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), came to the conclusion that the lands subject to the Grand Duke were not divided into separate possessions, but were considered as a common property of the entire Yaroslavich family. The princes received for temporary administration any part of this common property - the better, the “older” this or that prince was considered. Seniority, according to Yaroslav's plan, was to be determined as follows: all his brothers followed the ruling Kiev Grand Duke; after their death, their eldest sons inherited their father's places in a string of princes, gradually moving from less prestigious thrones to more significant ones. At the same time, only those princes whose fathers had time to visit the capital's reign could claim the title of Grand Duke. If some prince died before it was his turn to take the throne in Kiev, then his descendants were deprived of the right to this throne and reigned somewhere in the province.
Such a system of "ladder ascent" - the "next order" of inheritance, was very far from perfect and gave rise to constant strife between the brothers and children of the princes (the eldest son of the Grand Duke could take his father's throne only after the death of all his uncles). Disputes about seniority between uncles and nephews were a frequent occurrence in Russia and in a later period, until in the XV century. there was no established procedure for the transfer of power from father to son.
At every opportunity, the Yaroslavichi strove to break the order - of course, for the benefit of themselves or their closest relatives, allies. The "ladder scheme" was not viable; the intricate order of succession was the reason for frequent strife, and the dissatisfaction of the princes, excluded from the line for power, led to the fact that they turned to the Hungarians, Poles, Polovtsians for help.
Thus, since the 1950s 11th century there was a process of determining the boundaries of future independent lands. Kiev became the first among principalities-states. Soon other lands caught up with him and even outstripped him in their development. A dozen and a half independent principalities and lands were formed, the borders of which were formed within the framework of the Kievan state as the boundaries of destinies, volosts, where local dynasties ruled.
As a result of fragmentation, the principalities stood out as independent, the names of which were given by the capital cities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Murmansk, Ryazan, Rostov-Suzdal, Smolensk, Galicia, Vladimir-Volynsk, Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk, Tmutarakan, Novgorod and Pskov lands. Each of the lands was ruled by its own dynasty - one of the branches of the Rurikovich. new shape state-political organization has become political fragmentation which replaced the early feudal monarchy.
In 1097, on the initiative of the grandson of Yaroslav Pereyaslavl Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, a congress of princes gathered in the city of Lyubech. It established a new principle of organizing power in Russia - "everyone keeps and his fatherland." Thus, the Russian land ceased to be the joint possession of a whole family. The possessions of each branch of this kind - fatherland - became her hereditary property. This decision consolidated feudal fragmentation. Only later, when Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) became the Grand Duke of Kiev, as well as under his son Mstislav (1126-1132), the state unity of Russia was temporarily restored. Russia maintained relative political unity.
The beginning of the period of fragmentation (both political and feudal) should be considered from 1132. However, Russia was ready for disintegration for a long time (it is no coincidence that V.O. Klyuchevsky determines the beginning " specific period”, i.e. the period of independence of the Russian principalities, not from 1132, but from 1054, when, according to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, Russia was divided among his children). Since 1132, the princes ceased to reckon with the Grand Duke of Kiev as the head of all Russia.
The collapse of the Old Russian state did not destroy the existing Old Russian nationality. Art critics and philologists point out that the spiritual life of various Russian lands and principalities, with all its diversity, retained common features and unity of style. Cities grew and were built - the centers of the newly emerged specific principalities. Trade developed, which led to the emergence of new means of communication. The most important trade routes passed from the lake. Ilmen and r. Western Dvina to the Dnieper, from the Neva to the Volga, the Dnieper also connected with the Volga-Oka interfluve.
Thus, the specific period should not be seen as a step backwards in Russian history. However, the ongoing process of political fragmentation of lands, numerous princely strife weakened the country's defense against external danger.
2. Formation of new state centers
Some modern historians do not use the term "feudal fragmentation" to characterize the processes that took place in the Russian lands at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. They see the main reason for the fragmentation of Russia in the formation of city-states. The superunion led by Kiev broke up into a number of cities - states, which, in turn, became the centers of lands - volosts that arose on the territory of the former tribal unions. According to these views, Russia entered the period of existence of autonomous communal unions, which took the form of city-states.
The principalities and lands of Russia of the specific period were fully established states, comparable in territory to European ones. Kiev, which suffered from the raids of nomads and princely strife, gradually lost its significance. And although for almost the entire XII century. By tradition, they continued to look at it as the main city of Russia, it actually turned into the capital of a small Kiev principality, located in the Middle Dnieper. The most important at the turn of the XII - XIII centuries. acquire Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities, as well as Novgorod land, which became the political centers of the North-Eastern, South-Western and North- Western Russia. Each of them develops a peculiar political system: a princely monarchy in Vladimir-Suzdal, a princely-boyar monarchy in Galicia-Volyn and a boyar republic in Novgorod.
Vladimiro (Rostovo) - Suzdol land
Vladimir-Suzdal land played an important role in the political life of Russia. At the turn of the XII - XIII centuries. it covered vast expanses between the Oka and Volga rivers. This territory, which is now considered the very center of Russia, was very sparsely populated a thousand years ago. Since ancient times, Finno-Ugric tribes lived here, later almost completely assimilated by the Slavs. The growth of the population of Kievan Rus necessitated the development of new territories. In the XI - XII centuries. the southern borders of the state were constantly subjected to raids by nomads. At this time, the intensive movement of Slavic settlers to the northeastern region begins. The city of Rostov becomes the center of newly developed lands.
The main factors that influenced the formation of a rich and powerful principality:
remoteness from the steppe nomads in the south;
landscape obstacles for easy penetration of the Varangians from the north;
possession of the upper reaches of the water arteries (Volga, Oka), through which wealthy Novgorod merchant caravans passed; good opportunities for economic development;
significant emigration from the south (population influx);
developed since the 11th century. a network of cities (Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, etc.);
very energetic and ambitious princes who headed the principality.
There was a direct relationship between the geographical features of North-Eastern Russia and the formation of a strong princely power. This region was developed on the initiative of the princes. The lands were regarded as the property of the prince, and the population, including the boyars, as his servants. Vassal-druzhina relations, characteristic of the period of Kievan Rus, were replaced by princely-subject relations. As a result, in North-Eastern Russia, a patrimonial system authorities. (scheme 1)
The names of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157) are associated with the formation and development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, who was distinguished by their desire to expand their territory and subjugate Kiev (for this he received the nickname Dolgoruky). He captured Kiev and became the Grand Duke of Kiev; actively influenced the policy of Novgorod the Great. Ryazan and Murom fell under the influence of the Rostov-Suzdal princes. Yuri led the extensive construction of fortified cities on the borders of his principality. Under 1147, the annals first mentioned Moscow, built on the site of the former estate of the boyar Kuchka, confiscated by Yuri Dolgorukov. Here, on April 4, 1147, Yuri negotiated with the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav, who brought Yuri a leopard skin as a gift.
The share of the son and successor of Yuri - Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), nicknamed so for a significant reliance on the church, fell to the unification of Russian lands and the transfer of the center of all Russian political life from the rich boyar Rostov, first to a small town, and then built up at an unprecedented speed, Vladimir - on the Klyazma. Impregnable white-stone gates were built, the majestic Assumption Cathedral was erected. In the suburban residence of Bogolyubovo on a dark July night in 1174, Andrei was killed as a result of a conspiracy of the boyars, headed by the Kuchkovichi boyars, the former owners of Moscow.
The policy of unification of all Russian lands under the rule of one prince was continued by Andrei's half-brother, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), so named for his large family. Under him, there was a significant strengthening of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which became the strongest in Russia and one of the largest feudal states in Europe, the core of the future Muscovy.
Vsevolod influenced the politics of Novgorod, received a rich inheritance in the Kiev region, almost completely controlled the Ryazan principality, etc. having completed the fight against the boyars, he finally established a monarchy in the principality. By this time, the nobility was increasingly becoming the backbone of princely power. It was made up of servants, military men, courtyards, servants who depended on the prince and received from him land for temporary use, payment in kind, or the right to collect princely income.
The economic rise of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued for some time under the sons of Vsevolod. However, at the beginning of the XIII century. there is its disintegration into destinies: Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslav, Yuryevsky, Murom. Principalities of North-Eastern Russia in the XIV-XV centuries. became the basis for the formation of the Moscow state.
4. Galicia - Volga principality
The Galician and Volyn principalities were formed in the southwest of Russia. They occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians and the territory between the Dniester and the Prut. (scheme 2).
Features and development conditions:
fertile lands for agriculture and vast forests for fishing activities;
significant deposits of rock salt, which was exported to neighboring countries;
convenient geographical position (neighborhood with Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic), which allowed for active foreign trade;
located in relative safety from the nomads of the land of the principality;
the presence of an influential local boyars, which fought for power not only among themselves, but also with the princes.
The Galician principality was significantly strengthened during the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl (1153-1187). His successor, Prince of Volyn Roman Mstislavovich, in 1199 managed to unite the Volyn and Galician principalities. At the beginning of the 13th century, after the death of Roman Mstislavovich in 1205, an internecine war broke out in the principality with the participation of Hungarians and Poles. The son of Roman, Daniel of Galicia (1221-1264), broke the boyar resistance and in 1240, having occupied Kiev, he managed to unite the southwestern and Kiev lands. However, in the same year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was ravaged by the Mongols-Tatars, and 100 years later these lands became part of Lithuania (Volyn) and Poland (Galych).
5. Novgorod land
Novgorod land, which occupied the northwestern territory of the former Old Russian state, was one of the first to come out of the power of the Kiev prince. At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII century. A kind of political formation developed here, which in modern historical literature is called a feudal republic. Novgorodians themselves called their state beautifully and solemnly - "Mr. Veliky Novgorod." Novgorod possessions stretched from the Gulf of Finland in the west to Ural mountains east from Arctic Ocean in the north to the borders of the modern Tver and Moscow regions to the south.
Novgorod land developed along a special path (Scheme 3):
was far from the nomads and did not experience the horror of their raids;
wealth consisted in the presence of a huge land fund that fell into the hands of the local boyars, who grew out of the local tribal nobility;
Novgorod did not have enough of its own bread, but fishing activities - hunting, fishing, salt making, iron production, beekeeping - received significant development and gave the boyars not small incomes;
the rise of Novgorod was facilitated by an exceptionally favorable geographical position: the city was at the crossroads of trade routes connecting Western Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium;
both in Novgorod and later in Pskov land (originally part of Novgorod), a socio-political system was formed - the boyar republic;
a favorable factor in the fate of Novgorod: he did not undergo a strong Mongol-Tatar plunder, although he paid tribute. In the struggle for the independence of Novgorod, Alexander Nevsky (1220-1263) became especially famous, who not only repelled the onslaught of German-Swedish aggression (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice), but also pursued a flexible policy, making concessions to the Golden Horde and organizing resistance to the offensive of Catholicism in the west;
The Novgorod Republic was close to the European type of development, similarly city-republics Hanseatic League, as well as the city-republics of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence)
As a rule, Novgorod was ruled by that of the princes who held the throne of Kiev. This allowed the eldest among the Rurik princes to control the great path and dominate Russia.
Using the dissatisfaction of the Novgorodians (the uprising of 1136), the boyars, which had significant economic power, managed to finally defeat the prince in the struggle for power. Novgorod became a boyar republic. In fact, the power belonged to the boyars, the higher clergy and eminent merchants.
All the highest executive bodies - posadniks (heads of government), thousands (heads of the city militia and judges for commercial affairs), bishop (head of the church, manager of the treasury, controlled the foreign policy of Veliky Novgorod), etc. - were replenished from the boyar nobility. However, senior officials were elected. So, for example, in the second half of the XII century. Novgorodians, like no one else in the Russian lands, began to choose their own spiritual pastor - Vladyka (Archbishop of Novgorod).
In this land, earlier than in Europe, reformist tendencies appeared in relation to the church, anticipating the European reformation, and even atheistic sentiments.
The position of the prince was peculiar. He did not have full state power, did not inherit Novgorod land, and was invited only to perform representative and military functions.
Any attempt by a prince to intervene in internal affairs inevitably ended in his expulsion (for over 200 years there were 58 princes).
The rights of the supreme authority belonged to people's assembly- a veche with broad powers:
Consideration critical issues internal and foreign policy;
Invitation of the prince and conclusion of an agreement with him;
The election of an important trade policy for Novgorod, the election of a mayor, a judge for commercial affairs, etc.
Along with the citywide veche, there were "Konchan" ones (the city was divided into five districts - ends, and the whole novgorod land into five regions - Pyatin) and "Ulichansky" (uniting the inhabitants of the streets) veche gatherings. The actual owners of the veche were 300 "golden belts" - the largest boyars of Novgorod. By the 15th century they actually usurped the rights of the people's council.
6. Kiev principality
The Kiev principality, endangered by the nomads, lost its former importance due to the outflow of the population and the decline in the role of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”; however, it still remained a major power. By tradition, the princes still competed for Kiev, although its influence on the general Russian life weakened. On the eve of the Mongol invasion, the power of the Galician-Volyn prince Daniel Romanovich was established in it. In 1299, the Russian metropolitan moved his residence to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, as if establishing a new alignment of forces within Russia. The Mongol invasion from the east, the expansion of the Catholic Church from the west, changes in the world (the weakening of Byzantium, etc.) largely determined the nature of the further development of the Russian principalities and lands - the successors of the Kievan state.
7. The value of the period of fragmentation in Russian history
Fragmentation, like any historical phenomenon, has both positive and negative sides. Let's compare Kievan Rus with the ancient Russian principalities in the XII-XIII centuries. Kievan Rus is a developed Dnieper region and Novgorod, surrounded by sparsely populated outskirts. In the XII-XIII centuries. the gap between the centers and the outskirts disappears. The outskirts are turning into independent principalities, which, in terms of economic, socio-political and cultural development surpass Kievan Rus. However, the period of fragmentation also has a number negative phenomena:
1) there was a process of land fragmentation. With the exception of Veliky Novgorod, all the principalities were divided into internal destinies, the number of which grew from century to century. If by 1132 there were about 15 isolated territories, then at the beginning of the 13th century. There were already 50 independent principalities and destinies, and at the end of the 13th century. - 250.
On the one hand, the resistance of the specific princes and boyars held back the despotic desire of many senior princes who wanted to subordinate the life of entire principalities to their personal ambitious plans. But on the other hand, often specific princes, supported by specific boyars, became defenders of civil strife, tried to take over the senior table. The local aristocracy prepared conspiracies, revolted;
2) there were endless internecine wars. Contradictions between senior and junior princes within one principality, between princes of independent principalities, were often resolved through war. According to the calculations of S.M. Solovyov, from 1055 to 1228 in Russia there were 80 peaceful years for 93 years, in which strife occurred.
It was not the battles that were terrible, but their consequences. The victors burned and plundered villages and towns, and most importantly, they captured numerous captives, turned captives into slaves, and resettled them on their lands. Thus, the grandson of Manomah, Izyaslav of Kiev, in 1149 stole 7,000 people from the Rostov land of his uncle Yuri Dolgoruky.
3) weakened the military potential of the country as a whole. Despite attempts to convene princely congresses, which maintained a certain order in fragmented Russia and softened civil strife, the country's military power was weakening.
Western Europe survived this relatively painlessly due to the absence of strong external aggression. For Russia on the eve of the Mongol Tatar invasion the fall in defense capability proved fatal.
Conclusion
On the basis of the work done, we analyzed the causes and factors of the fragmentation of Ancient Russia, saw what led to the creation of new state centers, reviewed the largest of these centers and considered the significance of this period in the history of Russia.
This period was an important prerequisite for the formation of a single and integral state.
Feudal fragmentation in Russia was a natural result of the economic and political development of early feudal society. The formation in the Old Russian state of large land ownership - estates - under the dominance of natural economy inevitably made them completely independent production complexes, the economic ties of which were limited to the nearest district.
The process of advancing feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be more firmly established in Russia. From this point of view, one can speak of the historical progressivity of this stage of Russian history, within the framework of the development of the economy and culture.
Literature
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