Christians all over the world are arguing about which of the beliefs is more correct and more important. Regarding Catholics and Orthodox: what is the difference (and is there any) today are the most interesting questions.
It would seem that everything is so clear and simple that everyone can clearly answer briefly. But there are those who simply do not even know what the relationship between these confessions is.
The history of the existence of two currents
So, first you need to deal with Christianity in general. It is known that it is divided into three branches: Orthodox, Catholics, Protestants. Protestantism has several thousand churches and they are distributed in all corners of the planet.
Back in the 11th century, Christianity was divided into Orthodoxy and Catholicism. There were a number of reasons for this, from the conduct of church rites to the dates of the holidays. There are not so many differences between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox. First of all, the way of management. Orthodoxy consists of numerous churches ruled by archbishops, bishops, metropolitans. The Catholic Churches all over the world are subordinate to the Pope. They are considered the Universal Church. In all countries, the churches of Catholics are in close and simple relationship.
Similarities between Orthodoxy and Catholicism
Orthodoxy and Catholicism have similarities and differences in approximately equal proportions. It is worth noting that both religions have not only a number of differences. Both Orthodoxy and Catholicism are very similar to each other. Here are the main points:
In addition, both confessions are united in the veneration of icons, the Mother of God, the Holy Trinity, saints, their relics. Also, the churches are united by some saints of the first millennium, the Holy Letter, Church Sacraments.
Differences between faiths
Distinctive features between these confessions also exist. It was because of these factors that the church once split. It is worth noting:
- Cross sign. Today, probably, everyone is aware of how Catholics and Orthodox are baptized. Catholics are baptized from left to right, we are vice versa. According to the symbolism, when we are baptized first from the left, then to the right, then we are turned to God, if on the contrary, God is directed to his servants and blesses them.
Unity of the Church. Catholics have one faith, sacraments and head - the Pope. In Orthodoxy there is no one leader of the Church, therefore there are several patriarchates (Moscow, Kyiv, Serbian, etc.).- Features of the conclusion church marriage. Divorce is taboo in Catholicism. Our church, unlike Catholicism, allows divorce.
- Heaven and Hell. According to Catholic dogma, the soul of the deceased goes through purgatory. In Orthodoxy, they believe that the human soul goes through so-called ordeals.
- The Sinless Conception of the Mother of God. According to the accepted Catholic dogma, the Mother of God was immaculately conceived. Our clergy believe that the Mother of God had an ancestral sin, although her holiness is glorified in prayers.
- Decision making (number of councils). Orthodox Churches make decisions in 7 Ecumenical Councils, Catholic - 21.
- Disagreement in positions. Our clergy do not recognize the dogmas of Catholics that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son, believing that only from the Father.
- The essence of love. The Holy Spirit among Catholics is signified as love between the Father and the Son, God, believers. Orthodox see love as triune: Father - Son - Holy Spirit.
Infallibility of the Pope. Orthodoxy denies the primacy of the Pope over all Christianity and his infallibility.- Mystery of Baptism. We must confess before the procedure. The child is immersed in the font, and after the Latin rite, water is poured over the head. Confession is considered a voluntary act.
- Priests. Catholic priests are called pastors, priests (among the Poles) and priests (a priest in everyday life) among the Orthodox. Pastors don't wear beards, but priests and monks wear beards.
- Fast. Catholic canons regarding fasting are less strict than those of the Orthodox. The minimum retention from food is 1 hour. In contrast, our minimum food retention is 6 hours.
- Prayers before icons. There is an opinion that Catholics do not pray in front of icons. Actually it is not. They have icons, but they have a number of features that differ from the Orthodox ones. For example, the left hand of the saint lies on the right (for the Orthodox, on the contrary), and all the words are written in Latin.
- Liturgy. According to tradition, church services are performed on Host (unleavened bread) in the Western rite and Prosphora (leavened bread) among the Orthodox.
- Celibacy. All Catholic ministers of the church take a vow of celibacy, but our priests get married.
- Holy water. Church ministers sanctify, and Catholics bless the water.
- Memorial Days. These denominations also have different days of commemoration of the dead. Catholics have the third, seventh and thirtieth day. For the Orthodox - the third, ninth, fortieth.
church hierarchy
It is also worth noting the difference in hierarchical categories. According to the grade table, the highest step among the Orthodox is occupied by the patriarch. Next step - metropolitan, archbishop, bishop. Next come the ranks of priests and deacons.
The Catholic Church has the following ranks:
- the Pope;
- archbishops,
- Cardinals;
- Bishops;
- priests;
- Deacons.
The Orthodox have two opinions about the Catholics. First, Catholics are heretics who have distorted the creed. Second: Catholics are schismatics, because it was precisely because of them that the split from the One Holy Apostolic Church occurred. Catholicism, however, considers us schismatics, without classifying us as heretics.
Christianity is the dominant religious denomination on the planet. The number of its followers is estimated in billions of people, and the geography covers most of the developed countries of the world. Today it is represented by many branches, the most significant of which are Catholics and Orthodox. What is the difference between them? To find out, you need to plunge into the depths of centuries.
Historical roots of schism
The great schism of the Christian church or schism took place in 1054. The key points that formed the basis of the fatal gap:
- Nuances of worship. First of all, the most acute question was whether to celebrate the liturgy on unleavened or leavened bread;
- Non-recognition of the concept of Pentarchy by the See of Rome. It assumed equal participation in the solution of questions of theology of five departments located in Rome, Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria and Constantinople. The Latins traditionally acted from a position of papal primacy, which strongly alienated the other four sees;
- Serious theological controversy. In particular, regarding the essence of the Triune God.
The formal reason for the break was the closure of Greek churches in southern Italy, subjected to the Norman conquest. This was followed by a mirror response in the form of the closing of the Latin churches in Constantinople. The last action was accompanied by mockery of the shrines: the Holy Gifts, prepared for the liturgy, were trampled on.
In June-July 1054, a mutual exchange of anathemas took place, which meant split which is still ongoing.
What is the difference between Catholics and Orthodox?
Separate existence two main branches of Christianity has been going on for almost a thousand years. During this time, a large array of significant differences in views has accumulated that relate to any aspect of church life.
Orthodox have the following views, which their Western counterparts do not accept in any way:
- One of the hypostases of the triune God, the Holy Spirit, originates only from the Father (the creator of the world and man, the basis of all things), but not from the Son (Jesus Christ, the Old Testament messiah, who sacrificed himself for human sins);
- Grace is the act of the Lord, and not something taken for granted from the act of creation;
- There is their own view of the cleansing of sins after death. Catholic sinners are doomed to torment in purgatory. The Orthodox, on the other hand, face ordeals await them - the path to unity with the Lord, which does not necessarily involve torture;
- In the Eastern branch, the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Mother of God (mother of Jesus Christ) is also not revered at all. Catholics believe that she became a mother, avoiding vicious sexual intercourse.
Ritual differentiation
Differences in the field of worship are not rigid, but quantitatively they are much more:
- The person of the priest. The Roman Catholic Church attaches great importance to it in the liturgy. He has the right to pronounce symbolic words in his own name when performing rituals. The Constantinopolitan tradition assigns the priest the role of "God's servant" and no more;
- The number of permitted services per day also differs. The Byzantine rite allows you to do this only once on one throne (temple on the altar);
- Baptism of a child only among Eastern Christians takes place by obligatory immersion in a font. In the rest of the world, it is enough to sprinkle the child with holy water;
- In the Latin rite, specially designated rooms, called confessionals, are used for confession;
- Altar (altar) only in the East is separated from the rest of the church by a partition (iconostasis). The Catholic presbytery, in contrast, is designed as an architecturally open space.
Are Armenians Catholics or Orthodox?
The Armenian Church is considered one of the most distinctive in Eastern Christianity. It has a number of features that make it absolutely unique:
- Jesus Christ is recognized as a superhuman being who does not have a body and does not experience any needs inherent in all other people (even food and drink);
- Traditions of icon painting are practically not developed. It is not customary to worship artistic images of saints. That is why the interior of Armenian churches is so different from all others;
- Following the Latins, holidays are tied to the Gregorian calendar;
- There is a unique and unlike anything religious “table of ranks”, which includes five steps (as opposed to three in the ROC);
- In addition to Lent, there is an additional period of abstinence called arachawork;
- In prayers, it is customary to praise only one of the hypostases of the Trinity.
The official attitude of the Russian Orthodox Church towards the Armenian confession is emphatically respectful. However, her followers are not recognized as Orthodox, which is why even a visit to an Armenian church can be a sufficient reason for excommunication.
Therefore, believing Armenians are Catholics.
Features of honoring the holidays
It is not at all surprising that differences exist in the celebration of holidays:
- The most important post in all Christian churches, called Great, in the Latin Rite begins on Wednesday of the seventh week before Easter. With us, abstinence begins two days earlier, on Monday;
- The methods for calculating the date of Easter differ significantly. They coincide quite rarely (as a rule, in 1/3 of cases). In both cases, the starting point is the day of the vernal equinox (March 21) according to the Gregorian (in Rome) or Julian calendar;
- The set of red days of the church calendar in the West includes holidays unknown in Russia to honor the Body and Blood of Christ (60 days after Easter), the Sacred Heart of Jesus (8 days after the previous one), the Feast of the Heart of Mary (the next day);
- And vice versa, we celebrate such holidays that are completely unknown to the adherents of the Latin rite. Among them - the worship of some relics (the relics of Nicholas the Wonderworker and the chains of the Apostle Peter);
- If Catholics completely deny the celebration of the Sabbath, then the Orthodox consider it one of the Lord's days.
Rapprochement of Orthodox and Catholics
Christians around the world today have much more in common than even a hundred years ago. Both in Russia and in the West, the church is under deep siege by secular society. The number of parishioners among young people is decreasing year by year. New cultural challenges are emerging in the form of sectarianism, pseudo-religious movements and Islamization.
All this makes former enemies and competitors forget old grievances and try to find a common language in a post-industrial society:
- As stated at the Second Vatican Council, the differences between Eastern and Western theologies are complementary rather than conflicting. The decree "Unitatis Redintegratio" states that in this way the fullest vision of Christian truth is achieved;
- Pope John Paul II, who wore the papal tiara from 1978-2005, noted that the Christian church needs to "breathe with both lungs." He emphasized the synergy of the rational Latin and the mystical-intuitive Byzantine traditions;
- He was echoed by his successor, Benedict XVI, who declared that the Eastern churches were not separated from Rome;
- Since 1980, regular plenums of the Commission for Theological Dialogue between the two churches have been held. The last meeting devoted to issues of catholicity was held in 2016 in Italy.
A few hundred years ago, religious contradictions caused serious conflicts even in prosperous European countries Oh. However, secularization has done its job: who are Catholics and Orthodox, what is the difference between them - this is of little concern. modern layman. Omnipotent agnosticism and atheism have reduced to ashes a millennium-old Christian conflict, leaving it at the mercy of gray-haired elders in clothes creeping on the floor.
Video: the story of the split between Catholics and Orthodox
In this video, the historian Arkady Matrosov will tell you why Christianity split into two religious movements, which preceded this:
Until 1054 the Christian Church was one and indivisible. The split occurred due to disagreements between Pope Leo IX and the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cirularius. The conflict began due to the last closing of several Latin churches in 1053. For this, the papal legates excommunicated Cirularius from the Church. In response, the patriarch anathematized the papal envoys. In 1965 mutual curses were lifted. However, the schism of the Churches has not yet been overcome. Christianity is divided into three main areas: Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism.
Eastern Church
The difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, since both of these religions are Christian, is not very significant. However, there are still some differences in doctrine, the performance of the sacraments, etc. About which ones, we'll talk a little later. First, let's make a small overview of the main directions of Christianity.
Orthodoxy, called in the West an orthodox religion, is currently practiced by about 200 million people. Approximately 5,000 people are baptized every day. This direction of Christianity was spread mainly in Russia, as well as in some countries of the CIS and Eastern Europe.
The Baptism of Russia took place at the end of the 9th century on the initiative of Prince Vladimir. The ruler of a huge pagan state expressed a desire to marry the daughter of the Byzantine emperor Basil II, Anna. But for this he had to accept Christianity. An alliance with Byzantium was essential to strengthen the authority of Russia. At the end of the summer of 988, a huge number of Kievans were christened in the waters of the Dnieper.
Catholic Church
As a result of the split in 1054, a separate confession arose in Western Europe. Representatives of the Eastern Church called her "Catholicos". In Greek it means "universal". The difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism lies not only in the approach of these two Churches to some of the dogmas of Christianity, but also in the very history of development. The Western confession, compared to the Eastern one, is considered much more rigid and fanatical.
One of the most important milestones in the history of Catholicism was, for example, the Crusades, which brought much grief to the common population. The first of these was organized at the call of Pope Urban II in 1095. The last - the eighth - ended in 1270. The official goal of all crusades was the liberation of the "holy land" of Palestine and the "Holy Sepulcher" from the infidels. The actual one is the conquest of lands that belonged to Muslims.
In 1229, Pope George IX issued a decree establishing the Inquisition - an ecclesiastical court for cases of apostates from the faith. Torture and burning at the stake - this is how extreme Catholic fanaticism was expressed in the Middle Ages. In total, during the existence of the Inquisition, more than 500 thousand people were tortured.
Of course, the difference between Catholicism and Orthodoxy (this will be briefly discussed in the article) is a very large and deep topic. However, with regard to the attitude of the Church towards the population, in general terms, its traditions and basic concept can be understood. The Western denomination has always been considered more dynamic, but at the same time aggressive, in contrast to the "calm" orthodox one.
Currently, Catholicism is the state religion in most European and Latin American countries. More than half of all (1.2 billion people) modern Christians profess this particular religion.
Protestantism
The difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism also lies in the fact that the former has remained united and indivisible for almost a millennium. In the Catholic Church in the XIV century. a split occurred. This was connected with the Reformation - a revolutionary movement that arose at that time in Europe. In 1526, at the request of the German Lutherans, the Swiss Reichstag issued a decree on the right of free choice of religion by citizens. In 1529, however, it was abolished. As a result, a protest followed from a number of cities and princes. This is where the word “Protestantism” comes from. This Christian direction is subdivided into two more branches: early and late.
At the moment, Protestantism is spread mostly in the Scandinavian countries: Canada, USA, England, Switzerland, the Netherlands. In 1948 the World Council of Churches was created. The total number of Protestants is about 470 million people. There are several denominations of this Christian direction: Baptists, Anglicans, Lutherans, Methodists, Calvinists.
In our time, the World Council of Protestant Churches is pursuing an active peacemaking policy. Representatives of this religion are in favor of detente international tension, support the efforts of states in defense of peace, etc.
The difference between Orthodoxy from Catholicism and Protestantism
Of course, during the centuries of schism, significant differences arose in the traditions of the churches. The basic principle of Christianity - the acceptance of Jesus as the Savior and the Son of God - they did not touch. However, in relation to certain events of the New and Old Testaments, there are often even mutually exclusive differences. In some cases, the methods of conducting various kinds of rites and sacraments do not converge.
Orthodoxy | Catholicism | Protestantism |
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Control | Patriarch, Cathedral | World Council of Churches, Councils of Bishops |
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Organization | Bishops do not depend much on the Patriarch, they are mainly subordinate to the Council | There is a rigid hierarchy with subordination to the Pope, hence the name "Universal Church" | There are many denominations that have created the World Council of Churches. Holy Scripture is placed above the authority of the Pope |
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Holy Spirit | It is believed that it comes only from the Father | There is a dogma that the Holy Spirit proceeds both from the Father and from the Son. This is the main difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism and Protestantism. |
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The statement is accepted that man himself is responsible for his sins, and God the Father is a completely impassive and abstract being. | It is believed that God suffers because of human sins. |
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Dogma of Salvation | By crucifixion, all the sins of mankind were atoned for. Only the original remains. That is, when committing a new sin, a person again becomes the object of God's wrath. | The man was, as it were, “ransomed” by Christ through the crucifixion. As a result, God the Father changed his anger to mercy regarding original sin. That is, a person is holy by the holiness of Christ himself. |
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Sometimes allowed | Forbidden | Allowed but frowned upon |
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Immaculate Conception of the Virgin | It is believed that the Mother of God is not spared from original sin, but her holiness is recognized | The complete sinlessness of the Virgin Mary is preached. Catholics believe that she was conceived immaculately, like Christ himself. With regard to the original sin of the Mother of God, therefore, there are also quite significant differences between Orthodoxy and Catholicism. | |||
Taking the Virgin to Heaven | It is unofficially believed that this event may have taken place, but it is not enshrined in dogmas. | The taking of the Mother of God to heaven in a physical body is a dogma | The cult of the Virgin Mary is denied |
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Only liturgy is held | Both a mass and a Byzantine-like Orthodox liturgy can be held | The Mass was rejected. Divine services are held in modest churches or even in stadiums, concert halls, etc. Only two rites are practiced: baptism and communion |
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Marriage of clergy | Allowed | Only allowed in the Byzantine Rite | Allowed |
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Ecumenical Councils | Based on the decisions of the first seven | Guided by decisions 21 (last passed in 1962-1965) | Recognize the decisions of all Ecumenical Councils, if they do not contradict each other and Holy Scripture |
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Eight-pointed with crossbeams at the bottom and at the top | A simple four-pointed Latin cross is used | Not used in worship. Worn by representatives of not all faiths |
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Used in large quantities and are equated with the Holy Scriptures. Created in strict accordance with church canons | They are considered only decoration of the temple. They are ordinary paintings on a religious theme. | Not used |
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Old Testament | Recognized as Hebrew and Greek | Greek only | Only Jewish canonical |
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Absolution | The ceremony is performed by a priest | Not allowed |
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Science and religion | Based on scientists' assertion, dogmas never change. | Dogmas can be adjusted in accordance with the point of view of official science | |||
Christian cross: differences
Disagreements regarding the descent of the Holy Spirit are the main difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism. The table also shows many other, albeit not too significant, but still discrepancies. They arose long ago, and, apparently, none of the churches expresses a special desire to resolve these contradictions.
There are differences in the attributes of different areas of Christianity. For example, the Catholic cross has a simple quadrangular shape. The Orthodox have eight-pointed. The orthodox Eastern Church believes that this type of crucifix most accurately conveys the shape of the cross described in the New Testament. In addition to the main horizontal bar, it contains two more. The upper one personifies a tablet nailed to the cross and containing the inscription "Jesus of Nazarene, King of the Jews." The lower slanting crossbar - a prop for the feet of Christ - symbolizes the "righteous measure".
Table of differences of crosses
The image of the Savior on the crucifix used in the Sacraments is also something that can be attributed to the topic "the difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism." The western cross is a little different from the eastern one.
As you can see, in relation to the cross there is also a quite noticeable difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism. The table shows this clearly.
As for the Protestants, they consider the cross to be a symbol of the Pope, and therefore they practically do not use it.
Icons in different Christian directions
So, the difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism and Protestantism (the table of comparisons of crosses confirms this) in relation to paraphernalia is quite noticeable. There are even greater discrepancies in these directions in icons. The rules for depicting Christ, the Mother of God, saints, etc. may differ.
Below are the main differences.
The main difference between an Orthodox icon and a Catholic one is that it is written in strict accordance with the canons established back in Byzantium. Western images of saints, Christ, etc., strictly speaking, have nothing to do with the icon. Usually such paintings have a very broad plot and are painted by ordinary, non-church artists.
Protestants consider icons to be a pagan attribute and do not use them at all.
Monasticism
With regard to leaving worldly life and devoting oneself to the service of God, there is also a significant difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism and Protestantism. comparison table, presented above, shows only the main discrepancies. But there are other differences, also quite noticeable.
For example, in our country, each monastery is practically autonomous and is subordinate only to its own bishop. Catholics have a different organization in this regard. Monasteries are united in the so-called Orders, each of which has its own head and its charter. These associations may be scattered throughout the world, but nevertheless they always have a common leadership.
Protestants, unlike Orthodox and Catholics, reject monasticism altogether. One of the inspirers of this teaching - Luther - even married a nun.
Church Sacraments
There is a difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism in relation to the rules for conducting various kinds of rituals. In both of these Churches, 7 sacraments are accepted. The difference is primarily in the meaning attached to the main Christian rites. Catholics believe that the sacraments are valid whether a person is in tune with them or not. According to the Orthodox Church, baptism, chrismation, etc., will be effective only for believers who are completely disposed towards them. Orthodox priests even often compare Catholic rites with some kind of pagan magical ritual that operates regardless of whether a person believes in God or not.
The Protestant Church practices only two sacraments: baptism and communion. Everything else is considered superficial and rejected by representatives of this trend.
Baptism
This main Christian sacrament is recognized by all churches: Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism. Differences are only in the ways of performing the ceremony.
In Catholicism, it is customary for babies to be sprinkled or doused. According to the dogmas of the Orthodox Church, children are completely immersed in water. IN Lately there has been some deviation from this rule. However, now the ROC is again returning in this rite to the ancient traditions established by the Byzantine priests.
The difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism (the crosses worn on the body, like large ones, may contain the image of an “orthodox” or “Western” Christ) in relation to the performance of this sacrament, therefore, is not very significant, but it still exists.
Protestants usually perform the rite of baptism also with water. But in some denominations it is not used. The main difference between Protestant baptism and Orthodox and Catholic baptism is that it is performed exclusively for adults.
Differences in the sacrament of the Eucharist
We have considered the main differences between Orthodoxy and Catholicism. This is an attitude to the descent of the Holy Spirit and to the virginity of the birth of the Virgin Mary. Such significant divergences have emerged over the centuries of schism. Of course, they are also present in the celebration of one of the main Christian sacraments - the Eucharist. Catholic priests take communion only with bread, and unleavened. This church product is called wafers. In Orthodoxy, the sacrament of the Eucharist is celebrated with wine and ordinary yeast bread.
In Protestantism, not only members of the Church, but also anyone who wishes is allowed to receive communion. Representatives of this branch of Christianity celebrate the Eucharist in the same way as the Orthodox - with wine and bread.
Contemporary Church Relations
The split of Christianity occurred almost a thousand years ago. And during this time, the churches of different directions failed to agree on unification. Disagreements regarding the interpretation of Holy Scripture, paraphernalia and rituals, as you see, have survived to this day and have even intensified over the centuries.
Relations between the two main confessions, Orthodox and Catholic, are also rather ambiguous in our time. Until the middle of the last century, serious tensions remained between these two churches. The key concept in the relationship was the word "heresy".
Recently, this situation has changed a little. If earlier the Catholic Church considered Orthodox Christians almost a bunch of heretics and schismatics, then after the Second Vatican Council it recognized the orthodox Sacraments as valid.
Orthodox priests did not officially establish such an attitude towards Catholicism. But the completely loyal acceptance of Western Christianity has always been traditional for our church. However, of course, some tension between Christian denominations still persists. For example, our Russian theologian A. I. Osipov does not have a very good attitude towards Catholicism.
In his opinion, there is a more than noteworthy and serious difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism. Osipov considers many saints of the Western Church almost crazy. He also warns the Russian Orthodox Church that, for example, cooperation with the Catholics threatens the Orthodox with complete submission. However, he repeatedly mentioned that among Western Christians there are wonderful people.
Thus, the main difference between Orthodoxy and Catholicism is the attitude towards the Trinity. The Eastern Church believes that the Holy Spirit proceeds only from the Father. Western - both from the Father and from the Son. There are other differences between these denominations. However, in any case, both churches are Christian and accept Jesus as the Savior of mankind, whose coming, and therefore Eternal life for the righteous, is inevitable.
This year, the entire Christian world simultaneously celebrates the main holiday of the Church - the Resurrection of Christ. This again reminds us of the common root from which the main Christian denominations originate, of the once existing unity of all Christians. However, for almost a thousand years this unity has been broken between Eastern and Western Christianity. If many people are familiar with the date 1054 as the year officially recognized by historians as the year of the separation of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches, then perhaps not everyone knows that it was preceded by a long process of gradual divergence.
In this publication, the reader is offered an abbreviated version of the article by Archimandrite Plakida (Dezey) "The History of a Schism". This is a brief study of the causes and history of the gap between Western and Eastern Christianity. Without examining dogmatic subtleties in detail, dwelling only on the sources of theological disagreements in the teachings of Blessed Augustine of Hippo, Father Plakida gives a historical and cultural overview of the events that preceded the mentioned date of 1054 and followed it. He shows that the division did not happen overnight or suddenly, but was the result of "a long historical process, which was influenced by both doctrinal differences and political and cultural factors."
The main translation work from the French original was carried out by students of the Sretensky Theological Seminary under the guidance of T.A. Shutova. Editorial correction and preparation of the text was carried out by V.G. Massalitina. The full text of the article is published on the website “Orthodox France. View from Russia".
Harbingers of a split
The teaching of the bishops and church writers whose works were written in Latin—St. Hilary of Pictavia (315-367), Ambrose of Milan (340-397), St. John Cassian the Roman (360-435) and many others—was completely in tune with the teaching Greek holy fathers: Saints Basil the Great (329-379), Gregory the Theologian (330-390), John Chrysostom (344-407) and others. The Western Fathers sometimes differed from the Eastern ones only in that they emphasized more on the moralizing component than on a deep theological analysis.
The first attempt on this doctrinal harmony occurred with the appearance of the teachings of Blessed Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (354-430). Here we meet with one of the most disturbing mysteries of Christian history. In Blessed Augustine, to whom the feeling of the unity of the Church and love for it were inherent in the highest degree, there was nothing of a heresiarch. And yet, in many ways, Augustine opened up new paths for Christian thought, which left a deep imprint on the history of the West, but at the same time turned out to be almost completely alien to the non-Latin Churches.
On the one hand, Augustine, the most "philosophizing" of the Fathers of the Church, is inclined to exalt the abilities of the human mind in the field of knowledge of God. He developed the theological doctrine of the Holy Trinity, which formed the basis of the Latin doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father. and Son(in Latin - filioque). According to more ancient tradition The Holy Spirit originates, just like the Son, only from the Father. The Eastern Fathers always adhered to this formula contained in the Holy Scriptures of the New Testament (see: John 15, 26), and saw in filioque distortion of the apostolic faith. They noted that as a result of this teaching in the Western Church there was a certain belittling of the Hypostasis Itself and the role of the Holy Spirit, which, in their opinion, led to a certain strengthening of the institutional and legal aspects in the life of the Church. From the 5th century filioque was universally allowed in the West, almost without the knowledge of the non-Latin Churches, but it was added to the Creed later.
As far as the inner life is concerned, Augustine emphasized human weakness and the omnipotence of Divine grace to such an extent that it appeared that he diminished human freedom in the face of Divine predestination.
Augustine's brilliant and highly attractive personality, even during his lifetime, was admired in the West, where he was soon considered the greatest of the Fathers of the Church and almost completely focused only on his school. To a large extent, Roman Catholicism and the Jansenism and Protestantism that splintered from it will differ from Orthodoxy in that which they owe to St. Augustine. Medieval conflicts between the priesthood and the empire, the introduction of the scholastic method in medieval universities, clericalism and anti-clericalism in Western society are, in varying degrees and in various forms, either a legacy or a consequence of Augustinism.
In the IV-V centuries. there is another disagreement between Rome and other Churches. For all the Churches of East and West, the primacy recognized for the Roman Church stemmed, on the one hand, from the fact that it was the Church of the former capital of the empire, and, on the other hand, from the fact that it was glorified by the preaching and martyrdom of the two supreme apostles Peter and Paul . But it's superior inter pares("between equals") did not mean that the Church of Rome was the seat of central government for the Universal Church.
However, starting from the second half of the 4th century, a different understanding was emerging in Rome. The Roman Church and its bishop demand for themselves a dominant authority that would make it the governing organ of the universal Church. According to Roman doctrine, this primacy is based on the clearly expressed will of Christ, who, in their opinion, gave this authority to Peter, saying to him: “You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16, 18). The Pope of Rome considered himself not just the successor of Peter, who has since been recognized as the first bishop of Rome, but also his vicar, in whom, as it were, the supreme apostle continues to live and through him to rule the Universal Church.
Despite some resistance, this position of primacy was gradually accepted by the whole West. The rest of the Churches generally adhered to the ancient understanding of primacy, often allowing some ambiguity in their relationship with the See of Rome.
Crisis in the Late Middle Ages
7th century witnessed the birth of Islam, which began to spread at lightning speed, which was facilitated by jihad- a holy war that allowed the Arabs to conquer the Persian Empire, long time the former formidable rival of the Roman Empire, as well as the territories of the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. Starting from this period, the patriarchs of the cities mentioned were often forced to entrust the management of the remaining Christian flock to their representatives, who stayed on the ground, while they themselves had to live in Constantinople. As a result, there was a relative decrease in the importance of these patriarchs, and the patriarch of the capital of the empire, whose see already at the time of the Council of Chalcedon (451) was placed in second place after Rome, thus became, to some extent, the highest judge of the Churches of the East.
With the advent of the Isaurian dynasty (717), an iconoclastic crisis broke out (726). Emperors Leo III (717-741), Constantine V (741-775) and their successors forbade the depiction of Christ and the saints and the veneration of icons. Opponents of the imperial doctrine, mostly monks, were thrown into prison, tortured, and killed, as in the time of pagan emperors.
The popes supported the opponents of iconoclasm and broke off communication with the iconoclast emperors. And they, in response to this, annexed Calabria, Sicily and Illyria (the western part of the Balkans and northern Greece), which until that time were under the jurisdiction of the Pope of Rome, to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
At the same time, in order to more successfully resist the offensive of the Arabs, the iconoclast emperors proclaimed themselves adherents of Greek patriotism, very far from the universalist "Roman" idea that had prevailed before, and lost interest in non-Greek areas of the empire, in particular, in northern and central Italy, claimed by the Lombards.
The legality of the veneration of icons was restored at the VII Ecumenical Council in Nicaea (787). After a new round of iconoclasm, which began in 813, Orthodox teaching finally triumphed in Constantinople in 843.
Communication between Rome and the empire was thus restored. But the fact that the iconoclast emperors limited their foreign policy interests to the Greek part of the empire led the popes to look for other patrons for themselves. Previously, the popes, who had no territorial sovereignty, were loyal subjects of the empire. Now, stung by the annexation of Illyria to Constantinople and left unprotected in the face of the invasion of the Lombards, they turned to the Franks and, to the detriment of the Merovingians, who had always maintained relations with Constantinople, began to contribute to the arrival of a new dynasty of Carolingians, bearers of other ambitions.
In 739, Pope Gregory III, seeking to prevent the Lombard king Luitprand from uniting Italy under his rule, turned to Major Charles Martel, who tried to use the death of Theodoric IV in order to eliminate the Merovingians. In exchange for his help, he promised to renounce all loyalty to the Emperor of Constantinople and take advantage of the patronage exclusively of the King of the Franks. Gregory III was the last pope to ask the emperor for approval of his election. His successors will already be approved by the Frankish court.
Karl Martel could not justify the hopes of Gregory III. However, in 754, Pope Stephen II personally went to France to meet Pepin the Short. In 756, he conquered Ravenna from the Lombards, but instead of returning Constantinople, he handed it over to the pope, laying the foundation for the soon formed Papal States, which turned the popes into independent secular rulers. In order to give a legal justification for the current situation, a famous forgery was developed in Rome - the Gift of Constantine, according to which Emperor Constantine allegedly transferred imperial powers over the West to Pope Sylvester (314-335).
On September 25, 800, Pope Leo III, without any participation of Constantinople, laid the imperial crown on the head of Charlemagne and named him emperor. Neither Charlemagne nor later other German emperors, who to some extent restored the empire he had created, became co-rulers of the Emperor of Constantinople, in accordance with the code adopted shortly after the death of Emperor Theodosius (395). Constantinople repeatedly proposed a compromise solution of this kind that would preserve the unity of Romagna. But the Carolingian Empire wanted to be the only legitimate Christian empire and sought to take the place of the Constantinopolitan Empire, considering it obsolete. That is why the theologians from Charlemagne's entourage took the liberty of condemning the decrees of the 7th Ecumenical Council on the veneration of icons as tainted with idolatry and introducing filioque in the Nicene-Tsaregrad Creed. However, the popes soberly opposed these careless measures aimed at belittling the Greek faith.
However, the political break between the Frankish world and the papacy on the one hand and the ancient Roman Empire of Constantinople on the other was sealed. And such a break could not but lead to a proper religious schism, if we take into account the special theological significance that Christian thought attached to the unity of the empire, considering it as an expression of the unity of the people of God.
In the second half of the ninth century The antagonism between Rome and Constantinople manifested itself on a new basis: the question arose of what jurisdiction to include the Slavic peoples, who at that time were embarking on the path of Christianity. This new conflict also left a deep mark on the history of Europe.
At that time, Nicholas I (858-867) became pope, an energetic man who sought to establish the Roman concept of the dominance of the pope in the Universal Church, limit the interference of secular authorities in church affairs, and also fought against the centrifugal tendencies that manifested themselves in part of the Western episcopate. He backed up his actions with counterfeit decretals circulating shortly before, allegedly issued by previous popes.
In Constantinople, Photius (858-867 and 877-886) became patriarch. As modern historians have convincingly established, the personality of St. Photius and the events of the time of his reign were strongly vilified by his opponents. He was a very educated man, deeply devoted to the Orthodox faith, a zealous servant of the Church. He was well aware of the great importance of the enlightenment of the Slavs. It was on his initiative that Saints Cyril and Methodius went to enlighten the Great Moravian lands. Their mission in Moravia was eventually stifled and driven out by the intrigues of the German preachers. However, they managed to translate into Slavic liturgical and most important biblical texts, creating an alphabet for this, and thus laid the foundation for the culture of the Slavic lands. Photius was also involved in the education of the peoples of the Balkans and Russia. In 864 he baptized Boris, Prince of Bulgaria.
But Boris, disappointed that he did not receive from Constantinople an autonomous church hierarchy for his people, turned for a while to Rome, receiving Latin missionaries. It became known to Photius that they preach the Latin doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit and seem to use the Creed with the addition filioque.
At the same time, Pope Nicholas I intervened in the internal affairs of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, seeking the removal of Photius, in order to restore the former Patriarch Ignatius, who was deposed in 861, to the throne with the help of church intrigues. In response to this, Emperor Michael III and Saint Photius convened a council in Constantinople (867) , whose regulations were subsequently destroyed. This council, apparently, recognized the doctrine of filioque heretical, declared unlawful the intervention of the pope in the affairs of the Church of Constantinople and severed liturgical communion with him. And since Western bishops complained to Constantinople about the "tyranny" of Nicholas I, the council proposed to Emperor Louis the German to depose the pope.
As a result of a palace coup, Photius was deposed, and a new council (869-870), convened in Constantinople, condemned him. This cathedral is still considered in the West the VIII Ecumenical Council. Then, under Emperor Basil I, Saint Photius was returned from disgrace. In 879, a council was again convened in Constantinople, which, in the presence of the legates of the new pope John VIII (872-882), restored Photius to the throne. At the same time, concessions were made regarding Bulgaria, which returned to the jurisdiction of Rome, while retaining the Greek clergy. However, Bulgaria soon achieved ecclesiastical independence and remained in the orbit of Constantinople's interests. Pope John VIII wrote a letter to Patriarch Photius condemning the addition filioque into the Creed, without condemning the doctrine itself. Photius, probably not noticing this subtlety, decided that he had won. Contrary to persistent misconceptions, it can be argued that there was no so-called second Photius schism, and liturgical communion between Rome and Constantinople continued for more than a century.
Gap in the 11th century
11th century for Byzantine Empire was truly golden. The power of the Arabs was finally undermined, Antioch returned to the empire, a little more - and Jerusalem would have been liberated. crushed Bulgarian king Simeon (893-927), who tried to create a Romano-Bulgarian empire that was beneficial to him, the same fate befell Samuel, who raised an uprising to form a Macedonian state, after which Bulgaria returned to the empire. Kievan Rus, having adopted Christianity, quickly became part of the Byzantine civilization. The rapid cultural and spiritual upsurge that began immediately after the triumph of Orthodoxy in 843 was accompanied by the political and economic flourishing of the empire.
Oddly enough, the victories of Byzantium, including over Islam, were also beneficial to the West, creating favorable conditions for the emergence of Western Europe in the form in which it would exist for many centuries. And the starting point of this process can be considered the formation in 962 of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and in 987 - France of the Capetians. Nevertheless, it was precisely in the 11th century, which seemed so promising, that a spiritual rupture occurred between the new Western world and the Roman Empire of Constantinople, an irreparable split, the consequences of which were tragic for Europe.
From the beginning of the XI century. the name of the pope was no longer mentioned in the diptychs of Constantinople, which meant that communication with him was interrupted. This is the completion of the long process we are studying. It is not known exactly what was the immediate cause of this gap. Perhaps the reason was the inclusion filioque in the confession of faith sent by Pope Sergius IV to Constantinople in 1009 along with the notice of his accession to the throne of Rome. Be that as it may, but during the coronation of the German emperor Henry II (1014), the Creed was sung in Rome with filioque.
In addition to the introduction filioque there were also a number of Latin customs that revolted the Byzantines and increased the occasion for disagreement. Among them, the use of unleavened bread for the celebration of the Eucharist was especially serious. If in the first centuries leavened bread was used everywhere, then from the 7th-8th centuries the Eucharist began to be celebrated in the West using wafers of unleavened bread, that is, without leaven, as the ancient Jews did on their Passover. Symbolic language was of great importance at that time, which is why the use of unleavened bread by the Greeks was perceived as a return to Judaism. They saw in this a denial of that novelty and that spiritual nature of the Savior's sacrifice, which were offered by Him instead of the Old Testament rites. In their eyes, the use of "dead" bread meant that the Savior in incarnation took only a human body, but not a soul...
In the XI century. the strengthening of papal power continued with greater force, which began as early as the time of Pope Nicholas I. The fact is that in the 10th century. the power of the papacy was weakened as never before, being the victim of the actions of various factions of the Roman aristocracy or being pressured by the German emperors. Various abuses spread in the Roman Church: the sale of church positions and the award of them by the laity, marriages or cohabitation among the priesthood ... But during the pontificate of Leo XI (1047-1054), a real reform of the Western Church began. The new pope surrounded himself with worthy people, mostly natives of Lorraine, among whom stood out Cardinal Humbert, Bishop of White Silva. The reformers saw no other means to remedy the disastrous state of Latin Christianity than to increase the power and authority of the pope. In their view, the papal power, as they understood it, should extend to the universal Church, both Latin and Greek.
In 1054, an event occurred that could have remained insignificant, but served as an occasion for a dramatic clash between church tradition Constantinople and the Western reformist movement.
In an effort to get help from the pope in the face of the threat of the Normans, who encroached on the Byzantine possessions of southern Italy, Emperor Constantine Monomachus, at the instigation of the Latin Argyrus, who was appointed by him as the ruler of these possessions, took a conciliatory position towards Rome and wished to restore unity, interrupted, as we have seen, at the beginning of the century . But the actions of the Latin reformers in southern Italy, infringing on Byzantine religious customs, worried the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cirularius. The papal legates, among whom was the adamant Bishop of White Silva, Cardinal Humbert, who arrived in Constantinople for negotiations on unification, planned to remove the intractable patriarch by the hands of the emperor. The matter ended with the legates placing a bull on the throne of Hagia Sophia excommunicating Michael Cirularius and his supporters. And a few days later, in response to this, the patriarch and the council he convened excommunicated the legates themselves from the Church.
Two circumstances gave the hasty and thoughtless act of the legates a significance that they could not appreciate at that time. First, they again raised the issue of filioque, wrongfully reproaching the Greeks for excluding it from the Creed, although non-Latin Christianity has always regarded this teaching as contrary to the apostolic tradition. In addition, the Byzantines became clear about the plans of the reformers to extend the absolute and direct authority of the pope to all bishops and believers, even in Constantinople itself. Presented in this form, ecclesiology seemed completely new to them and also could not but contradict the apostolic tradition in their eyes. Having familiarized themselves with the situation, the rest of the eastern patriarchs joined the position of Constantinople.
1054 should be seen less as the date of the split than as the year of the first failed attempt at reunification. No one then could have imagined that the division that occurred between those Churches that would soon be called Orthodox and Roman Catholic would last for centuries.
After the split
The schism was based mainly on doctrinal factors relating to different ideas about the mystery of the Holy Trinity and about the structure of the Church. Differences were also added to them in less important matters relating to church customs and rituals.
During the Middle Ages, the Latin West continued to develop in a direction that further removed it from the Orthodox world and its spirit.<…>
On the other hand, there were serious events that further complicated the understanding between the Orthodox peoples and the Latin West. Probably the most tragic of them was the IV Crusade, which deviated from the main path and ended with the ruin of Constantinople, the proclamation of the Latin emperor and the establishment of the rule of the Frankish lords, who arbitrarily cut the land holdings of the former Roman Empire. Many Orthodox monks were expelled from their monasteries and replaced by Latin monks. All this probably happened unintentionally, nevertheless, this turn of events was a logical consequence of the creation western empire and the evolution of the Latin Church since the beginning of the Middle Ages.<…>
Catholicism as one of the main trends in Christianity was finally formed as a result of the first major schism (separation of churches) in Christianity in 1054. It is distributed mainly in Western (France, Belgium, Italy, Portugal) and Eastern (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania , partly Latvia and western regions of Ukraine) Europe, in most countries of South America; it is practiced by almost half of the believers in North America. There are also Catholics in Asia and Africa, but the influence of Catholicism is insignificant here.
It has much in common with Orthodoxy (belief in two sources of dogma - Holy Bible, Sacred Tradition, into the divine Trinity, the saving mission of the Church, into the immortality of the soul, afterlife) and at the same time differs from other directions in Christianity by the system of dogma, cult, a kind of adaptation to the rapid change in social activity and a new religious consciousness. He supplemented the Creed with new dogmas that the Orthodox Church does not know.
The main tenets of Catholicism, which distinguish it from other currents in Christianity, are the dogma of the descent of the Holy Spirit not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son, as well as the infallibility of the Pope. The papacy achieved the adoption of this dogma only in 1870 by the Ecumenical Council in the Vatican. In the struggle for spiritual and secular power, the popes entered into numerous alliances with the kings, enjoyed the tutelage of powerful feudal lords, and strengthened the political outflow.
Another dogma of Catholicism about "purgatory" - adopted in 1439 at the Council of Florence. Its essence lies in the fact that the soul of a person after death enters "purgatory" - a place between hell and paradise, has the opportunity to be cleansed of sins, after which it goes to hell or paradise. Dates are cleared through various tests. Relatives and friends of the deceased, with the help of prayers and donations to the church, can facilitate the test of the soul that is in "purgatory", speed up its exit from there. So, the fate of the soul was determined not only by the behavior of a person in earthly life, but also by the material possibilities of the relatives of the deceased.
Very important in Catholicism is the provision on the special role of the clergy, according to which a person cannot earn God's mercy on his own, without the help of the clergy, which has significant advantages over the laity and should have special rights and privileges. In particular, Catholic doctrine forbids believers to read the Bible, since this is the exclusive right of the clergy. Catholicism considers only the Bible written in Latin canonical, which is not possessed by most believers. The clergy have special rights to receive the sacrament. If the laity partake only of the "body of God" (bread), then the clergy partake of its blood (wine), which emphasizes their special merits before God. Celibacy (celibacy) is obligatory for all clergy.
Catholic dogma establishes the need for a systematic confession of believers before the clergy. Every Catholic must have his confessor and regularly report to him about his thoughts and actions; without systematic confession, salvation is impossible. Thanks to this requirement, the Catholic clergy penetrate the private lives of believers, whose every step is under the control of a priest or a monk. Systematic confession allows the Catholic Church to influence society, especially women.
The doctrine asserts that Christ, the Mother of God and the saints have so many rewards that they will be enough to provide otherworldly bliss to all existing and future humanity. All this potential God has placed at the disposal of the Catholic Church; she can delegate at her own discretion certain part these works to believers for the atonement of sins and personal salvation, but for this believers must pay the church. The sale of Divine grace was in charge of a special tribunal under the pope. There, for money, you could get an indulgence - a papal letter that gave believers absolution or determined the time during which it was possible to sin.
There are many peculiar things in the Catholic cult, which is characterized by pomp and solemnity. The service is accompanied by organ music, solo and choral chants. It happens in Latin. It is believed that during the liturgy (mass) there is a transformation of bread and wine into the body and blood of Jesus Christ. That is why outside the sacrament of the Eucharist (communion), and therefore - outside the church, salvation is impossible.
The cult of the Virgin, or Madonna, plays a very important role. Christianity borrowed it from ancient religions, the Mother of God was revered as the Mother Goddess. Goddess of fertility. In the Christian religion, the Mother of God is represented by the immaculate virgin Mary, who gave birth from the Holy Spirit to the child Jesus, the Son of God. In Catholicism, the veneration of the Mother of God is raised to a dogma, and her cult to some extent even pushed the cult of God the Father and Christ himself into the background. The Catholic Church claims that in the Virgin Mary women have their intercessor before God, that she can help them in all life situations. At the third Ecumenical Council (Ephesus, 431), Mary was recognized as the Theotokos, and in 1854, evidence was accepted of her immaculate conception and bodily ascension to heaven. Catholics believe that Mary ascended to heaven not only in her soul, but also in her body. Even a special theological direction was formed - Mariology.
The cult of saints, the worship of relics and relics, was widely spread. During the existence of the Catholic Church, up to 20 thousand Saints and almost 200 thousand Blessed were proclaimed. This process has intensified in recent decades. Pope Pius XI proclaimed 34 saints and 496 blessed during the 17 years of his pontificate, while Pius XII proclaimed an average of 5 saints and 40 blessed each year.
Catholic ideology is extremely mobile. This is clearly seen in the decisions of the Second Vatican Council, which revised many ideas, ceased to correspond to the task of preserving religion, and adopted 16 documents that reveal the essence of modern Catholic modernism.
The conciliar constitution on the liturgy allows for the simplification of many rites and their adaptation to conditions. In particular, it is allowed to hold part of the mass not in Latin, but in the local language using national music; it is recommended to devote more time to sermons, and to hold worship services several times a day, so that people employed in production can attend them at a convenient time.
The council made recommendations on the inclusion of elements of local religions in the Catholic cult, rapprochement with other Christian churches, recognition of the sacraments and rites performed over Catholics in other Christian denominations. In particular, the baptism of Catholics in Orthodox churches, and Orthodox - in Catholic ones, was recognized as valid. The Catholics of China were allowed to worship Confucius, honor their ancestors according to the Chinese custom, and the like.
Unlike other directions in Christianity, Catholicism has an international control center - the Vatican and the head of the church - the Pope, who is elected for life. Back in 756, on a small territory of modern Italy, an ecclesiastical state arose - the Papal States. It lasted until 1870. In the process of Italian unification, it was included in the Italian state. After the First World War, the papacy entered into an alliance with the existing regime in Italy. In 1929, Pius XI concluded the Lateran Agreements with Mussolini's government, according to which the papal state, the Vatican, was revived. Its area is 44 hectares. It has all state attributes (coat of arms, flag, anthem, armed forces, money, prison), diplomatic relations with 100 countries of the world. Under the pope, there is a government (Roman, curia), which is headed by a cardinal - secretary of state (he is also the minister of foreign affairs), as well as an advisory body - a synod. The Vatican directs 34 international political non-church associations, coordinates the activities of many newspapers and magazines, and educational institutions.
Enemy Catholicism religious teachings were called heresies, and their supporters - heretics. The Church waged an extremely cruel struggle with them. For this, a special church court was introduced - the Inquisition. Those who were accused of apostasy from the teachings of the church were thrown into prison, tortured, sentenced to be burned at the stake. With particular cruelty, the Inquisition acted in Spain. The list of "religious criminals" approved by her was so large that few people did not fall under its action (not only heretics, but also those who protected and hid them).
The hierarchy of the Catholic Church relies on strict centralization and unconditional subordination of the lower ecclesiastical bodies above. The Sacred College of Cardinals heads the Catholic hierarchy. Cardinal - the highest, spiritual person after the pope. Some of them permanently live in Rome and head the Vatican institutions, others are in different countries where, on behalf of the Vata Kanu, they lead local organizations. The pope appoints cardinals. The Secretariat of State is a permanent institution of the Vatican. He knows diplomatic affairs with countries with which the Vatican has relations. The permanent ambassadors are papal nuncios. Italy and the Vatican also exchange ambassadors. In the absence of permanent diplomatic relations, the Vatican sends temporary representatives - legates.
Orders of monks operate according to special charters, have a strictly centralized structure. They are headed by generals, masters general, to whom provincials (provincial priors), masters are subordinate, and abbots and conventual priors are subordinate to masters. All of them are dominated by the general chapter - a meeting of leaders of different ranks, which takes place every few years. Orders are directly subordinate to the Pope, in whatever country they are located. One of the first among them is the Benedictine Order, founded in Italy in the 6th century. Benedict Nuriysky. He enjoyed particular influence in the X-XI centuries. Now the Benedictines exist in the countries of Europe and America, they have their own schools and universities, periodicals.
In the XI-XIII centuries. many monastic orders arose. Among them, an important place belongs to the so-called beggarly orders; Franciscan, founded in the 18th century. Saint Francis - 27 thousand people; Dominican - 10 thousand people. In order to join the Carmelite and Augustinian orders, one had to give up personal property and live on alms. The Franciscan order received certain privileges from the pope - the right to preach and perform the sacraments, free teaching at universities. The Inquisition was in his hands. The Order of the Dominicans (brothers-preachers), founded in 1215 by Dominic, was called upon to launch a struggle against medieval heresy, primarily against the Albigensians, participants in the heretical movement of the 12th-13th centuries. in France, directed against the dominant position of the Catholic Church in the economic and spiritual life of the medieval city.
In 1534, the Jesuit order (Society of Jesus) arose, founded by Ignatius sebaceous (1491-1556) to fight the Reformation. Being one of the militant organizations of the Catholic Church, it persecuted scientists, suppressed free thought, compiled an index of banned books, and contributed to the consolidation of unlimited papal power. The Jesuits, in addition to the three monastic vows (celibacy, obedience, poverty), swear absolute obedience to the Pope, even mentally they cannot question his vimogi1. The charter of the order says: in order not to make a mistake in life, it is necessary to call white black, if the church requires it. Based on this position, the Jesuit order developed moral standards. The Jesuit order differs from others in that it does not require its members to live in monasteries and wear monastic clothes. They may also be secret members of the order. Therefore, data on its numbers are approximate (up to 90 thousand people).
Now there are about 180 monastic orders. Uniting almost one and a half million monks, they play an important role in the implementation of the policy of the Vatican and missionary activities.
The entire territory of the spread of Catholicism is divided into regions (archdioceses). Currently, thanks to the countries of Africa and Asia, their number is growing. Major dioceses have vicar bishops (assistant bishops). In countries with a large number of dioceses and with the autonomy of the national church, the elder over all bishops is the reserve. In the absence of such autonomy, each bishop is directly subordinate to Rome.
The institutions of the Vatican unite 9 congregations, with tribunals and several secretariats. Congregations - original ministries, headed by a group of cardinals (3-4 people) and the head - the prefect. The most important of them; Congregation of the Holy Office and Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (carries out missionary activities mainly in Asia and Africa). This is the richest congregation that receives various grants from Catholic businessmen, even representatives of other religious denominations (Baptists) to create a network of seminaries, universities, schools that educate the local population in the spirit of the Catholic faith. The congregation has its own publishing house, almshouses and schools.
Catholicism has successfully "fitted" into industrial and post-industrial societies. The adaptation of the church to the conditions of mature capitalism was founded by Pope Leo XIII in the encyclical "On new things", which was, in fact, the first social encyclical. It formulated the attitude of the Catholic Church to the new realities of industrial society in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. It condemned the class struggle, proclaimed the inviolability of private property, patronage of wage laborers, and the like.
The new social realities that emerged in the middle of the 20th century influenced the activities of Pope John XXIII. In attempts to avert the threat of the death of mankind in a nuclear war, the Catholic Church's support for the principle of peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems played an important role. The Pope advocated the prohibition of nuclear weapons, supported the joint actions of believers and non-believers in defense of peace. The Vatican began to take a more far-sighted and realistic position on the problems of Africa, Latin America, Asia. The timely delimitation from classical colonialism had a beneficial effect on the spread of Catholicism in the countries of Africa and Latin America.
Adaptation of Catholicism to the realities of post-industrial society, taking into account social processes; unfolding in the last quarter of the 20th century, associated with the name of Pope John Paul II, in whose activities three directions are clearly traced: the first concerns domestic policy churches; the second - social issues; the third - foreign policy. In internal church politics, he adheres to traditional positions: he categorically condemns divorces, abortions, attempts to equalize the rights of female nuns with priests, the participation of church leaders in political activity etc. The Pope sharply condemned the pluralistic tendencies that were manifesting in the Jesuit order. According to his instructions, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (formerly the Inquisition) condemned individual Jesuits from the USA, Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands. At the same time, at the meetings of the Pontifical Academy in the Vatican, at the celebration of the centenary of the birth of the outstanding scientist Albert Einstein, John Paul II himself made a speech, recognizing the condemnation of his time as erroneous and unfair. Galileo Galilei by the Inquisition.
The family is not left without the attention of the Catholic Church. A wide range of her problems is considered by the program "Family and Faith", designed for spouses, parents and children. They formulated the view of the Catholic Church on the causes of crisis phenomena in the family, the alienation of children from their parents.
At the end of the 1950s, the reorientation of the European policy of the Vatican began: the idea of a "small Europe" was changed by the desire to expand a "united Europe". With the accession to the throne of John Paul II, this understanding was based on the thesis of common Christian roots of European nations. To propagate the concept of "neo-Europeanism" the UNESCO rostrum and international cultural forums are used.
Europe, according to the statements of the Pope, is a complex of nations that have become such through evangelization. The internal unity of Europe is not only a cultural but also a social necessity. Europe also has a leading role in the global context, thanks to its specific cultural tradition and inexhaustibility of forces. In real Europe, there are no contradictions between East and West, it is the only family of peoples with various complementary features. The rapprochement and integration of the European nations must develop simultaneously both in religious and cultural aspects.
To justify neo-Europeanism, John Paul II created his own concept of the nation. In the foreground in it are the people, then the fatherland, religion, art, national culture. Europe, united by a common origin, cultural history and traditions, values and fundamental principles of the organization of life, can be saved from internal dangers and apocalyptic conflicts.
European: the culture is based on a great heritage - Jewish, Greek, Roman, Christian. But this legacy is in deep crisis. Therefore, the creation of a "new Europe" is connected with the hope of a religious revival. According to John Paul II, "rebirth in the Christian spirit is one means of saving Europe." In 1985, the Pope issued an encyclical "Apostles of the Slavs", the main idea of which is the need to unite European countries on the basis of Christian culture. The path to unity between East and West, says the Vatican, is in the unification of the Christian Churches in universal church and general evangelism, the essence of which is the establishment, above all, of the moral superiority of the Catholic Church. This clearly shows political goals. Promoting the unity of Europe, John Paul II emphasizes the advantage of the Roman Catholic Church, since the "apostles of the Slavs" allegedly Worked with the blessing and under the control of Popes Nicholas I, Andrian II and John VIII, being subjects of the Great Empire. Historical documents testify, however, that Cyril and Methodius turned to Rome on diplomatic matters.
80s of XX century became a milestone for Catholicism. At the Extraordinary Synod of Bishops, dedicated to the 20th anniversary of the Second Vatican Council, church affairs in the 20 years after the Council were analyzed in the context of the evolution of modern society. Among the problems were named complications in the relationship of the church with the world. Rich countries have learned secularism, atheism, practical materialism. This caused a deep crisis of fundamental moral values. IN developing countries, poverty, hunger, poverty reign. The synod came to the conclusion that the desire to renovate only the external structures led to the oblivion of the church of Christ. In the declaration "God's call to all people," the synod calls on everyone (not just Catholics) to participate in the creation of a "civilization of solidarity and love," because only through a religious revival can the apocalyptic state of modern culture be overcome.
The Catholic theologian Karl Rahner assesses the current state of the Catholic Church as follows: “Today, many statements can be heard from the church on behalf of the “spirit” of the Second Vatican Council, which have nothing to do with this spirit. modern church too much conservatism reigns. The ecclesiastical authorities of Rome seem more inclined to return to the good old days than to really understand the situation. modern world and humanity. We have not yet reached a synthesis between true spirituality and real responsibility to a world that is in danger of catastrophe. On the threshold of the third millennium, there is a growing desire among Catholics to create a broad platform for uniting all people of good will on the basis of universal values for the salvation and enrichment of the spiritual culture of mankind."
After the declaration of state independence, a revival of Catholic communities and churches began in Ukraine, relations with the Vatican somewhat revived.
Questions and tasks to consolidate knowledge
1. Describe the main dogmatic and canonical differences between
Catholicism and Orthodoxy.
2. What were the features of the struggle of the Catholic Church against heresies?
3. What is the difference between the attitude of the Catholic and Orthodox churches to the trends in the development of mankind?
4. To what extent, in your opinion, does the structure and management system of the Catholic Church correspond to the requirements of centralization and freedom of national religious formations?
5. What were the positions of the Catholic communities at different stages of the history of Ukraine?
Essay topics
1. Socio-political orientations in Catholicism.
2. Catholic monastic orders: history and modernity.
3. The social doctrine of Catholicism, the stages of its development.
4. Kariology as a branch of Catholic theology.
5. History of the papacy.
6. Pontificate of Pope John Paul II.
7. Catholicism in Ukraine.
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