Report: Philosophy of education. Medieval education and philosophy. medieval universities

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Views of the world are expanding.

Read the material on p. 208 and answer the question: “Thanks to what people's ideas about the world expanded”

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Views of the world are expanding:

Bright story about countries Far East left by the Venetian merchant and traveler Marco Polo, who lived in China for more than 25 years. Upon returning to his homeland, he wrote "The Book of Marco Polo"

Marco Polo

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Translations from Greek and Arabic.

The inhabitants of Western Europe in the 5th - 10th centuries almost forgot Greek language and did not at all strive to know oriental languages.

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Translations from Greek and Arabic

In the 11th-12th centuries, a large number of translations into Latin of the books of Greek and Arabic scholars appeared. The circle of knowledge of Europeans expanded and enriched.

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Medieval Universities:

Medieval society was corporate, i.e. Each person had his own, clearly defined "niche", was a member of a particular corporation.

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Let's write the definition:

A corporation is a separate group of people who are engaged in a certain common business, live in an appropriate way, and are subject to special rules and regulations.

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medieval universities

Universities were corporations of people intellectual labor- professors and students.

medieval university

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Let's write down the definitions:

• Professor - teacher at the university
• Student (from lat. studere - "work hard") - a person who receives knowledge at the university.

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• Faculty - association by subject
• Dean - head of the faculty
• Rector - head of the university

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Medieval Universities:

Usually universities had three faculties: theological, legal and medical. Classes were conducted by masters who read books, and students memorized.

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medieval universities

Lectures were supplemented by disputes - verbal fights. These were competitions in knowledge and eloquence on a pre-set question.

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Scholasticism

In XI- XIII centuries in cathedral schools and universities a new religion flourished - scholasticism (from the Greek "schole" - school).

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Pierre Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux

One of the famous scholastic philosophers was the Frenchman Pierre Abelard. From 1117, he began teaching at the Paris Cathedral School.

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In 1119, his love for Eloise began, which ended in tragedy: the people who attacked him mutilated him, and Eloise went to the monastery.

Pierre Abelard and Eloise

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Abelard was attacked by his ideological opponents, one of whom was the famous mystic, founder of the Knights Templar order, Bernard of Clairvaux.

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“You need to believe, not reason. Faith must be simple and sincere, come from the heart, not from the mind ...

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The enemies of Abelard have achieved that on church cathedral 1121 he personally threw his book into the fire.

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"Angelic Doctor"

The pinnacle of medieval scholasticism was the work of the 13th-century scientist Thomas Aquinas. His most famous book is The Sum of Theology.

Since in the Middle Ages any development of thought took place within the framework of the Christian worldview, such a traditionally free sphere of intellectual activity as philosophy fell under its influence. This fundamentally distinguishes medieval philosophy from the previous ancient and subsequent philosophy of the Renaissance.

Already in the period of late antiquity, there is a tendency to convergence of philosophy with religion. Religious mysticism, and not a system of rational proof (Neo-Pythagoreanism, the teachings of Philo of Alexandria, Neoplatonism) becomes the source of truth. The nascent Christianity fought for its “place under the sun” with ancient pagan philosophy. Therefore, the philosophical elements of Christian thinking developed in confrontation with ancient wisdom (Tertullian, Gnostics, apologists and "fathers of the church").

The process of rejection and acceptance of ancient philosophy in the history of medieval thought passes through various stages and forms. The next phase in the development of religious philosophy was the works of Augustine the Blessed (4th-5th centuries), in which the foundations of Christian dogmas were laid. The teachings of Augustine became the defining spiritual factor in the medieval thinking of Western Europe, proclaiming the knowledge of God and divine love as the only goal and the only value of the human spirit, asserting the superiority of the soul over the body, will and feelings over the mind. Augustine made God the center of philosophical thought and the focus of the emerging theocentric worldview. The Augustinian tradition has long been considered the only type of orthodox philosophy (its echoes can be found in the theoretical thought of the Reformation, Jansenism and Cartesianism of the 17th century, in modern Protestant and Catholic theology).

Unity of religion and philosophy, mutual language Latin and the theological uniformity of Catholicism led to the fact that philosophy was taught only in monastic schools for future priests. Finally ceasing to be free already in the period of the early Middle Ages, philosophy focused its efforts not on the study general patterns reality, but on the search for rational evidence of what faith proclaimed.

The church's monopoly on all forms of spiritual life affected not only intellectual knowledge, but also the education system. The first known schools of the early Middle Ages were created at monasteries to train the clergy, monastic schools borrowed subjects studied in antiquity, the so-called “seven liberal arts”, which were now interpreted in accordance with new religious thinking. Rhetoric was seen as the art of composing sermons; dialectics - as the ability to conduct conversations, argue and prove the validity of one or another provision of religious texts with the help of formal logic; arithmetic - as knowledge of the rules of counting, as well as the ability to interpret symbolic meaning numbers; geometry, which included geography, provided elementary information about measuring spaces and drawing up drawings; astronomy was reduced to the ability to use the calendar and calculate the dates of religious holidays.

The picture of the universe was also considered in the light of the provisions of the Holy Scriptures. Ancient ideas about the eternity of the existence of the world were denied. The universe, like man, was considered a creation of God, the geocentric theory of its structure dominated (the universe was presented as a system of concentric spheres, in the center of which the Earth was motionless, around which the Sun, Moon and planets revolved; then the fixed stars followed, and in the uppermost sphere were God and angels).

Experience-experimental knowledge and the rational-logical method of comprehending reality were supplanted by the authority of the Holy Scriptures and major church leaders(Augustine the Blessed, Isidore of Seville, etc.), although even the church fathers, when developing the dogmas of the Christian religion, sometimes had to turn to ancient heritage - astronomy, anatomy, Euclid's geometry, Aristotle's logic, etc.

The adoption of Christianity contributed to the spread of literacy and writing. The texts of the Holy Scriptures were required to be able to read during the worship service, as well as to distribute throughout the Christian world. For this purpose, in addition to schools, monasteries had scriptoria (special craft workshops in which monks copied sacred texts). Some revival in enlightenment was outlined in the VIII - IX centuries during the period of the so-called "Carolingian Renaissance". This was due to an objective necessity: the vast empire of Charlemagne needed an educated administrative apparatus (judges, scribes, secretaries). Eminent scientists were invited from different countries(Paul Deacon from Italy, Theodulf from Spain, Anglo-Saxon Alcuin, who was entrusted with the organization schooling). Charlemagne was a fan of ancient culture. His merit was the collection of ancient manuscripts, to which comments were made, explanations, retellings were given. A literary circle, the so-called "palace academy", was created at the court. Members of the circle read the works of ancient authors and, in imitation of them, wrote poetic and prose works themselves.

The system of religious education has also undergone significant changes. During the reign of the Anglo-Saxon King Alfred in the 9th century, schools were opened at episcopal chairs, translations of books from Latin into Anglo-Saxon were made, and a chronicle of all major state events began to be regularly kept.

In the era of the mature Middle Ages (XII - XIV centuries), the influence of the church worldview on the education process is weakening. The formation of urban culture, with its secular character and openly earthly aspirations, became the basis for the emergence of the first European universities. However, the role of the church in the organization of educational institutions remains dominant, schools are still being created either at monasteries or at episcopal departments. Universities sometimes sprang from episcopal schools if the schools had eminent professors of theology, philosophy, medicine, and Roman law. In 1200, the University of Paris was founded, and in the XIII-XIV centuries - Oxford and Cambridge in England, Salamanca in Spain, Heidelberg, Cologne and Erfurt in Germany. At the end of the 15th century, there were 65 universities in Europe, most of which were established with the sanction of the Roman Curia. Teaching was in the form of lectures Latin. The main object of study were the works of authoritative church and ancient authors. On topics of theological and philosophical nature, public debates were held, in which professors and students participated.

Medieval university science was called scholasticism (from Latin schola - school). Scholasticism was most clearly reflected in medieval theology. Its goal was not to discover something new, but to systematize what already exists. Scholasticism relied on the provisions of Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition, as well as on ancient philosophers, mainly Aristotle. From Aristotle, scholasticism took not only some ideas, but also borrowed the very form of presentation - in the form of a system of complex judgments and conclusions. Weak side This method in scholasticism was a disdainful attitude to experience and dogmatism of conclusions. Anselm of Canterbury was the founder of early scholasticism.

Positive value scholasticism consisted in the development of formal logic as a method of thinking and in the mandatory inclusion of the works of Aristotle in the university curriculum. In addition, the scholastics introduced Western Europe with the works of not only Greek, but also Arab scientists. In an effort to understand many issues of philosophy and theology, they turned not only to faith, but also to the human mind, offering to comprehend the essence of phenomena from the standpoint of study, reasoning, and understanding.

One of the central problems of scholasticism was the dispute between nominalists and realists about nature. general concepts- "universal". This dispute was a kind of continuation of the discussion that arose in the ancient period between idealists (followers of Plato) and materialists (followers of Democritus and Lucretius). The consequence of this dispute was the emergence within the framework of scholasticism of a new direction - conceptualism, a prominent representative of which was the master of the Parisian school, Pierre Abelard. His main thesis(“I understand in order to believe”) undermined the dogmas of the church, which put faith above knowledge. Since the main source of understanding of reality for Abelard was the world around us perceived and generalized by our mind, the church recognized his teaching as heretical.

Major representatives of the orthodox trend in scholasticism were Albert the Great (XII century), the author of works of theological and natural sciences, and Thomas Aquinas (XIII century), who put forward the idea of ​​​​harmony of faith and reason, but retained priority in matters of knowledge over theology. Considering issues related to the principles of the social structure of society, he proceeded from the thesis that everything created by God is perfect, asserted the priority of spiritual power over the secular state, the principle of the class organization of society, and in matters related to economic life of his time, the natural character of private property. Along with the rational principles of comprehension of the world and God, proposed by scholasticism, irrational directions, in particular mysticism, were formed during the Middle Ages. The mystics believed that religious doctrines are known through intuition, insight, prayers and vigils (bright representatives of mysticism were Bernard of Clairvaux, Johann Tauler, Thomas a Kempis and others).

Rare in the Middle Ages were attempts to justify the need for an experimental method in the study of nature. Hostile to church ideology accurate and natural Sciences perceived as dangerous freethinking. Nevertheless, supporters of experiential knowledge appeared in the church organization itself. So, the monk of the Franciscan order, Roger Bacon (XIII century), empirically established methods for obtaining many chemical substances and in his writings put forward a number of remarkable conjectures about the possibility of creating various apparatuses and mechanisms that expand the capabilities of a person and facilitate his work. Like the free-thinking ideas of P. Abelard, the works of R. Bacon Catholic Church anathematized, and he himself spent 14 years in prison.

The rise of the critical spirit philosophical thought within the framework of scholasticism led to the withering away of large theological systems at the turn of the XIV - XV centuries. The main reason for the shock was the deepening of the class differentiation of society, the flourishing of urban civilization, the growing role of the bourgeois class in the life of medieval society. Cultural life, gradually becoming more secular, also affected the spiritual realm. The church organization and theocratic ideology are going through a crisis, which is accompanied not only by a fierce struggle for power with secular rulers, but also by the strengthening of powerful heretical movements alternative to the orthodox Christian doctrine in Western and Central Europe.

heretical currents.

Heretical teachings were an important part of the spiritual culture of the Middle Ages. Their emergence dates back to the period of official recognition of Christianity as the state religion, and their diversity was a clear expression of the value priorities of different social groups- both the feudal elites and the broad masses of the people. The fact that any dissatisfaction with the existing world order in the era of the Middle Ages took on the character of theological heresy indirectly emphasized special role churches in all spheres of life of that time and, in general, the religious nature of the thinking and consciousness of the era. Heresies reflected the specifics of the religious consciousness of representatives of the third estate, including the emerging bourgeoisie.

The burgher heresies expressed the protest of the small town proprietors against the feudal order and, above all, against the ecclesiastical institutions; demanded the elimination of privileges for the clergy, offering as an ideal the early Christian "apostolic" church.

The heretical peasant-plebeian movement was of a more radical nature and contained demands for the establishment of actual equality between people in society (Lollards, Taborites). Despite significant dogmatic differences, the burgher and peasant-plebeian heresies were united by one thing - a sharply negative attitude towards the clergy. The heretics called the church "the harlot of Babylon", and the pope - "viceroy of Satan". They recognized as the only source of faith Holy Bible(canonical gospel texts) and completely rejected Holy Tradition (writings of the church fathers, decrees of councils, papal bulls). Apart from the ideas of “apostolic poverty”, widespread received mystical moods based on a special interpretation of biblical prophecies - primarily the Apocalypse. At the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries, Western European society expected the end of the world, doomsday and the second coming of Christ. The heresiarchs Joachim of Florus and Dolcino predicted an inevitable upheaval and the establishment of a “thousand-year Kingdom of God” on earth. These ideas were reflected in the currents of "chiliasm" and "millennialism". Another direction in mysticism claimed that the "divine truth" is contained in man himself, and thereby denied the need for the church. Heretical movements were especially widespread in the most economically developed countries medieval Europe- Italy and France, pouring out into the currents of "Qatari" and "Waldensianism". At the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, in their most radical forms, they became the ideology of revolutionary uprisings, and also created theoretical basis early reform movements that developed during the Renaissance.