Russian philosophical thought. On Russian philosophy: philosophy in brief

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Introduction

2.2 Matter

2.3 Movement

2.4 Space and time

3.2 Development

3.3 The idea of the law

3.3.1 Dynamic law

3.3.2 Statistical Law

3.4 Singular, special and general

3.5 Part and whole, system

3.7 Essence and phenomenon

3.8 The idea of causality

3.9 Reason, conditions and reason

3.10 Dialectical and Mechanistic Determinism

3.11 Necessary and accidental

3.12 Possibility, reality and likelihood

3.13 Quality, quantity and measure

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Russian philosophical thought is an organic part of world philosophy and culture. Russian philosophy addresses the same problems as Western European, although the approach to them, the ways of understanding them were deeply national in nature. The famous historian of Russian philosophical thought V.V. Zenkovsky noted that philosophy found its own ways in Russia - "not alienating the West, even learning from it constantly and diligently, but still living with its inspirations, its problems ...". In the XlX century. "Russia has embarked on the path of independent philosophical thought." Further, he notes that Russian philosophy is not theocentric (although there is a strong religious principle in it) and is not cosmocentric (although it is not alien to natural-philosophical searches), but above all anthropocentric, historiosophical and committed to social problems: fate and ways, about the meaning and goals of history. " The same features of Russian philosophical thought were noted by such researchers of Russian philosophy as A.I. Vvedensky, N.A. Berdyaev and others.

Despite the fact that Russian philosophical thought is represented by a variety of directions, orientations and schools, in solving philosophical problems, a creatively active character, a pronounced moral attitude, a constant appeal to the historical fate of Russia, to the place of the Russian people in the family of European peoples dominated. Therefore, without mastering the domestic spiritual heritage, it is impossible to understand the history and soul of the Russian people, to comprehend the place and role of Russia in world civilization.

Everything that a person knows about the world around him and about himself, he knows in the form of concepts, categories. Categories are the most general, fundamental concepts of a particular science or philosophy. All categories are the essence of concepts, but not all concepts are categories. We think about the world as a whole, about the relationship of a person to the world in categories, i.e. extremely general concepts.

Each area of knowledge has its own specific categories.

1. General characteristics and main stages of development of Russian philosophy

Russian philosophical thought is an organic part of world philosophy and culture. Russian philosophy addresses the same problems as Western European, although the approach to them, the ways of understanding them were deeply national in nature. The famous historian of Russian philosophical thought V.V. Zenkovsky noted that philosophy found its own ways in Russia - "not alienating the West, even learning from it constantly and diligently, but still living with its inspirations, its problems ...". In the XIX century. “Russia has embarked on the path of independent philosophical thought” 1. He further notes that Russian philosophy is not theocentric (although there is a strong religious principle in it) and is not cosmocentric (although it is not alien to natural-philosophical searches), but above all anthropocentric, historiosophical and committed to social problems: “it is most of all occupied with the topic of man, oh his fate and ways, about the meaning and goals of history. " The same features of Russian philosophical thought were noted by such researchers of Russian philosophy as A.I. Vvedensky, N.A. Berdyaev and others.

Despite the fact that Russian philosophical thought is represented by a variety of directions, orientations and schools, in solving philosophical problems, a pronounced moral attitude, a constant appeal to the historical fate of Russia, dominated in it. Therefore, without mastering the domestic spiritual heritage, it is impossible to understand the history and soul of the Russian people, to comprehend the place and role of Russia in world civilization.

The formation of philosophical thought in Ancient Russia refers to the X-XII centuries - the time of profound socio-political and cultural changes in life Eastern Slavs caused by the formation of the ancient Russian state - Kievan Rus, the influence of Byzantine and Bulgarian cultures, the emergence of Slavic writing and the adoption of Christianity by Rus. These factors have created favorable conditions for the birth of ancient Russian philosophy.

The initial stage in the development of Russian philosophical thought is associated with the appearance of the first literary works containing original philosophical ideas and concepts. The chronicles, "teachings", "words" and other monuments of Russian literature reflected the deep interest of Russian thinkers in historiosophical, anthropological, epistemological and moral problems.

During this period, a peculiar way of philosophizing, conditioned by the type of philosophical tradition perceived together with Christianity, was formed, characterized by V.V. Zenkovsky as "mystical realism." The most significant works of this period include Hilarion's "Word of Law and Grace", Nestor's "Tale of Bygone Years", Clement Smolyatich's "Epistle to Thomas", "The Word of Wisdom" and "The Parable of the Human Soul and Body" by Kirill Turovsky, " Lecture "by Vladimir Monomakh," Epistle to Vladimir Monomakh "by Metropolitan Nicephorus," Prayer "by Daniel the Zatochnik.

The next stage in the development of ancient Russian philosophy covers the XIII-XIV centuries - the time of the most severe trials caused by Tatar-Mongol invasion... The enormous damage inflicted on Ancient Rus, however, did not interrupt the cultural tradition. The centers for the development of Russian thought remained monasteries, in which not only the traditions of the spiritual culture of Rus were preserved, but work continued on the translation and commentary of Byzantine philosophical works. Among the monuments of Russian thought of this period, the most significant in terms of ideological content are "The Word of the Death of the Russian Land", "The Legend of the City of Kitezh", "Words" by Serapion Vladimirsky, "Kiev-Pechersk Paterik". The most important for Russian thought of this period were the themes of spiritual stability and moral improvement.

A new stage in the development of Russian philosophy covers the period from the end of the 14th to the 16th century, characterized by the rise of national self-awareness, the formation of a centralized Russian state, strengthening ties with the Slavic south and the centers of Byzantine culture.

Hesychasm, a mystical trend in Orthodox theology that arose on Athos in the 13th - 14th centuries, rooted in the moral and ascetic teaching of Christian ascetics of the 4th - 7th centuries, had a significant impact on Russian philosophical thought of this period. The hesychast tradition in Russian thought is represented by the teachings and activities of Nil Sorsky, Maxim the Greek and their followers.

An important place in the spiritual life of Muscovite Rus was occupied by the polemics of the Josephites and the non-possessors. First of all, the ideological struggle of their spiritual leaders - Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky, which covered such deep moral, political, theological and philosophical problems as social service and vocation of the church, the ways of spiritual and moral transformation of the personality, attitude towards heretics, the problem of royal power and its divine nature.

One of the central places in Russian thought in the 15th - 16th centuries. occupied the problem of state, power and law. The view of the Moscow Orthodox kingdom - Holy Russia - as the successor of Byzantium, called upon to fulfill a special historical mission, was reflected in the historiosophical concept “Moscow is the third Rome” formulated by Elder Philotheus. The problems of power and law were the leading ones in the polemics of Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky, they are devoted to the works of Fyodor Karpov and Ivan Peresvetov, who defended the idea of strengthening autocratic rule.

The problems of man, moral improvement, the choice of ways of personal and social salvation were in the center of attention of the outstanding Byzantine humanist-educator Maxim the Greek, whose philosophical work became the greatest achievement of Russian medieval philosophy.

The most prominent representatives of Russian free-thinking were Fyodor Kuritsin, Matvey Bashkin, Feodosia Kosoy.

The final stage in the development of Russian medieval philosophy characterized by contradictory processes of formation of the foundations of a new world outlook, the clash of traditional spiritual culture with the growing influence of Western European science and education. The most significant figures of Russian thought of this period - Archpriest Avvakum - the successor and strict adherent of the spiritual traditions of ancient Russian culture, and opposing him Simeon Polotsky and Yuri Krizhanich - the conductors of Western European education and culture. The most important topics of their reflections were man, his spiritual essence and moral duty, knowledge and place of philosophy in him, problems of power and the role of various social strata in the political life of society.

A significant role in the dissemination of philosophical knowledge was played by the largest centers of education and culture - the Kiev-Mohyla and Slavic-Greek-Latin academies, in which a number of philosophical disciplines were taught.

The beginning of the 18th century became the final period in the history of Russian medieval philosophy and the time when the prerequisites for its secularization and professionalization were born, which laid the foundations for a new stage in the development of Russian thought.

When characterizing the features of the development of philosophy in Russia, it is necessary first of all to take into account the conditions of its existence, which were extremely unfavorable in comparison with Western European ones. At a time when I. Kant, W. Schelling, G. Hegel and other thinkers freely expounded their philosophical systems in German universities, in Russia the teaching of philosophy was under the strictest state control, which did not allow any philosophical free-thinking for purely political reasons. The attitude of the state authorities to philosophy is clearly expressed in the well-known statement of the trustee of educational institutions, Prince Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, "The benefits of philosophy have not been proven, but harm is possible."

Until the second half of the 19th century. philosophical problems were mastered in Russia mainly in philosophical and literary circles outside the official structures of education, which had two kinds of consequences.

On the one hand, the formation of Russian philosophy took place in the course of searching for answers to the questions that were posed by Russian reality itself. Therefore, it is difficult to find a thinker in the history of Russian philosophy who would engage in pure theorizing and would not respond to burning problems.

On the other hand, the same conditions led to such an abnormal state for philosophy itself, when, in the perception of philosophical teachings, political attitudes acquired a dominant significance and these teachings themselves were evaluated primarily from the point of view of their "progressiveness" or "reactionary", "usefulness" or "Uselessness" for solving social problems.

Therefore, those teachings that, although they did not differ in philosophical depth, but responded to the spite of the day, were widely known. Others, who later compiled the classics of Russian philosophy, such as the teachings of K. Leont'ev, N. Danilevsky, Vl. Solovyov, N. Fedorova and others, did not find a response from their contemporaries and were known only to a narrow circle of people.

When characterizing the features of Russian philosophy, one must also take into account the cultural and historical background on which it was formed. In Russia, in the course of its history, there was a kind of intertwining of two different types of cultures and, accordingly, types of philosophizing: rationalistic, Western European and Eastern, Byzantine with its intuitive perception of the world and lively contemplation, included in Russian self-awareness through Orthodoxy. This combination of two different types of thinking runs through the entire history of Russian philosophy.

The existence at the crossroads of different cultures largely determined the form of philosophizing and the problems of Russian philosophy. As for the form of philosophizing, its specificity has been successfully defined by A.F. Losev, who showed that Russian philosophy, in contrast to Western European philosophy, is alien to the desire for an abstract, purely rational systematics of ideas. For the most part, it "represents a purely internal, intuitive, purely mystical knowledge of things."

From the content side, Russian philosophy also has its own characteristics. It presents, to one degree or another, all the main directions of philosophical thinking: ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, philosophy of history, etc. However, there are also leading themes for her. One of them, which determined the very specificity of Russian philosophy, was the theme of Russia, comprehending the meaning of its existence in history. The formation of Russian philosophical thought began with this theme, and it remained relevant throughout its development.

Another leading theme was the theme of man, his fate and the meaning of life. The increased attention to the problem of man determined the moral and practical orientation of Russian philosophy. A feature of Russian philosophical thinking was not just a deep interest in moral issues, but the dominance of a moral attitude in the analysis of many other problems.

The original Russian philosophy in its innovative quests was closely connected with the religious world outlook, behind which stood centuries of the spiritual experience of Russia. And not just with a religious, but with an Orthodox world outlook. Speaking about this, V. V. Zenkovsky notes that “Russian thought has always (and forever) remained connected with its religious element, with its religious soil.

Currently, the invaluable spiritual experience gained by Russian philosophy acts as a necessary basis for spiritual revival.

Philosophy of Russia in the Age of Enlightenment.

The 18th century in the spiritual life of Russia became the century of secularization, i.e. various spheres of society left the influence of the church and acquired a secular character. The beginning of the process of creating a new, secular culture was laid by Peter's transformations, which are associated with the intense influence of Western ideology on Russian culture. Europeanization was not a simple transition from significantly weakened Byzantine influence to increasing Western influence. After the initial mechanical borrowing of Western European values, the triumph of national spirituality began.

An important phenomenon during this period was the creation of a circle, which received the name "The Scientific Squad of Peter I". Its prominent participants were F. Prokopovich (1681-1736), V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750), A.D. Cantemir (1708-1744). A prominent representative of this squad was V.N. Tatishchev, who laid the foundations of secular philosophy as an independent area of human creative activity. In philosophy and specific sciences, he saw an important means of renewing Russian society. Philosophy, according to Tatishchev, is the most important science, concentrating in itself the highest, aggregate knowledge, for only she is capable of answering the most complex questions of life. “True philosophy is not sinful,” but useful and necessary.

The Thinker proposed his own classification of sciences on the basis of their social significance. He singled out the sciences "necessary", "useful", "dandy" (or "amuse"), "curious" (or "futile") and "harmful". The category of necessary sciences included "speech" (language), economics, medicine, jurisprudence, logic and theology; useful - grammar and eloquence, foreign languages, physics, mathematics, botany, anatomy, history and geography. Dandy sciences, in his opinion, have only entertainment value, for example, poetry, music, dance, etc. Astrology, alchemy, palmistry belong to curious sciences, and necromancy and witchcraft are to harmful ones. In fact, Tatishchev attributed all knowledge to sciences.

Destroying the theological explanation of history, he based social development on the level of knowledge and the spread of enlightenment. Belief in the power of reason and historicism united him with Western enlighteners. Considering that Russia is facing the task of radically reforming educational institutions and creating new ones, Tatishchev proposed his rather elaborated program for the development of education.

He solved the problem of the relationship between the soul and the body from a dualistic position, declaring the bodily organization of a person to be a field of philosophy, and referring the soul to the competence of religion. At the same time, he was characterized by religious skepticism and criticism of the church. He seeks to secularize public life, free it from church control, while arguing that the church should be subordinated to the control of the state.

Being a rationalist and supporter of natural law, Tatishchev linked the development of society with such natural factors as agriculture, trade and education.

In an effort to substantiate the "new intelligentsia", he proceeded from the doctrine of "natural law", which recognizes the inviolable autonomy of the individual. For the first time in Russian literature, he develops the idea of utilitarianism, emanating from rational egoism.

The intensive development of natural science in Russia contributed to the formation of secular philosophy. The first Russian thinker of world importance was M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), who, according to A.S. Pushkin, "our first university", "the greatest mind of modern times." As a deist, Lomonosov laid the foundation for the materialist tradition in Russian philosophy. His recognition of God as the architect of the world, who does not interfere in the course of world events, led to the recognition of the theory of dual truth. According to the latter, the representative of natural science and the teacher of theology should not interfere in each other's affairs.

Engaged in natural sciences, Lomonosov attached paramount importance to experience. He believed that the law of experience must be filled with "philosophical knowledge." Striving to create a philosophy of nature, he did not reduce the knowledge of nature to a purely empirical systematization, but strove for philosophical generalizations.

Giving a definition of matter, the Russian thinker wrote: "Matter is what the body consists of and on which its essence depends." At the same time, he avoided identifying matter and matter, reducing matter to corporeality. In his opinion, no absolute space exists: the world is completely filled and is a combination of two kinds of matter - "own" and "extraneous". Matter is eternal and indestructible and always remains within the limits of existing existence.

According to Lomonosov, everything that happens in the world is associated with the processes of motion of matter. There are three forms of motion: 1) translational, 2) rotational, 3) vibrational, which pass from one to another body. Movement was understood by him from a mechanistic standpoint: "Bodies are set in motion by pushing alone." Thus, the source of the movement itself was left in the shadow.

Following Lomonosov, materialist ideas in philosophy were developed by A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802), who wrote the philosophical work "About man, about his mortality and immortality." Taking the positions of deism, he considered God "the first cause of all things", which is outside the space-time relations of nature, since "the concept and information about the necessity of the existence of God can have only God." The material world, once set in motion by the impulse of the creator, continues to move and develop independently.

Defending materialist positions, Radishchev wrote that "the existence of things, regardless of the power of knowledge about them, exists by itself." A person in the process of interacting with nature learns it through experience, which is "the basis of all natural knowledge." Sensual experience, according to Radishchev, should be supplemented by rational experience, since "the power of knowledge is one and inseparable."

Radishchev paid the main attention to social and philosophical problems, creating a unique teaching about man. Man, in his opinion, is a product of nature, it is "the most perfect of creatures", living in unity with people and the cosmos; he has intelligence and speech, as well as the ability to social life. A large role in the formation of man and his subsequent activity was played by the human hand as an instrument of activity.

The thinker believed that the human soul is immortal and is reborn after the death of the body in other bodies, which ensures the infinite perfection of the human race. The goal of life is to strive for perfect bliss.

Radishchev has repeatedly noted the effect of natural conditions on the development of "human intelligence", on the customs and mores of people. The location of people was also associated with their needs, the satisfaction of which is carried out through various inventions. At the same time, personal interest was considered the main motive of human aspirations.

Thus, the influence of Western European ideology contributed to the development of philosophy in Russia, although it was not unambiguous. By joining philosophical culture Western thinkers, as it were, shortened the path of their own ascent to the heights of philosophical thinking, on the one hand, and on the other, their own creativity was constrained by the influence of Western culture.

2. The main categories of philosophy

Categories are forms of reflection in thought of the universal laws of the objective world.

2.1 Genesis

In all philosophical systems, without exception, the reasoning of thinkers of any level of intellectual giftedness began with an analysis of what surrounds a person, what is in the center of his contemplation and thought, what lies at the foundation of the universe, what is the universe, the Cosmos, what things are made of and what are themselves occurring in their infinite variety of phenomena - i.e. that which in general constitutes the phenomenon of Being. And already much later, a person began to think about himself, about his spiritual world.

What is being?

Being in the broadest sense of the word means an extremely general concept of existence, of existence in general. Being and reality as all-encompassing concepts are synonyms. Being is all that is. These are material things, these are all processes (physical, chemical, geological, biological, social, mental, spiritual), these are their properties, connections and relationships. The fruits of the most violent fantasy, fairy tales, myths, even the delirium of a sick imagination - all this also exists as a kind of spiritual reality, as a part of being. The antithesis of being is nothing.

Even at a superficial glance, being is not static. All concrete forms of the existence of matter, for example, the strongest crystals, giant star clusters, certain plants, animals and people, seem to float out of non-existence (after all, there were no such things at one time) and become real existence. The existence of things, no matter how long it lasts, comes to an end and "floats away" into nothingness as a given qualitative determination. The transition into non-being is thought of as the destruction of a given type of being and its transformation into a different form of being. In the same way, the emerging form of being is the result of the transition of one form of being into another: it is senseless to try to imagine the self-creation of everything from nothing. So non-being is thought of as a relative concept, but in the absolute sense there is no non-being.

The Book of Genesis is the first book of Holy Scripture (the first book of Moses). In a burning, but not burning bush, a burning bush, the Lord who appeared on Mount Horeb to Moses announced His name to him: “I AM who I AM (IEHOVAH). And he said: Thus say unto the children of Israel: Jehovah has sent me to you "(Ex. 3:14).

In existentialism, for human existence, spiritual and material are merged into a single whole: this is a spiritualized being. The main thing in this being is the consciousness of temporality (existence is "being to death"), the constant fear of the last possibility - the possibility of not being, and therefore, the consciousness of the invaluableness of one's personality.

2.2 Matter

philosophy being matter determinism

The first thing that strikes a person's imagination when he observes the world around him is the amazing variety of objects, processes, properties and relationships. We are surrounded by forests, mountains, rivers, seas. We see stars and planets, admire the beauty of the northern lights, the flight of comets. The diversity of the world is incalculable. You need to have great power of thought and a rich imagination to see their community and unity behind the diversity of things and phenomena of the world.

All objects and processes of the external world have such a common feature: they exist outside and independently of consciousness, reflected directly or indirectly in our sensations. In other words, they are objective. First of all, on this basis, philosophy unites and generalizes them in one concept of matter. When it is said that matter is given to us in sensations, it means not only direct perception of objects, but also indirect. We cannot see, touch, for example, individual atoms. But we feel the action of bodies made of atoms.

Matter cannot be seen, touched, tasted. What one sees, touches is a certain kind of matter. Matter is not one of the things that exist alongside others. All existing concrete material formations are matter in its various forms, types, properties and relationships. There is no “faceless” matter. Matter is not the real possibility of all forms, but their real being. The only property that is relatively different from matter is only consciousness, spirit.

Any somewhat consistent philosophical thinking can deduce the unity of the world either from matter or from the spiritual principle. In the first case we are dealing with materialistic, and in the second - with idealistic monism (from the Greek. One, only). There are philosophical doctrines that stand on the positions of dualism (from the Latin. Dual).

Some philosophers see the unity of objects and processes in their reality, in the fact that they exist. It really is that common thing that unites everything in the world. But the principle of the material unity of the world does not mean empirical similarity or identity of specific existing systems, elements and specific properties and laws, but the commonality of matter as a substance, as a carrier of diverse properties and relationships.

The infinite universe, both in the great and in the small, both in the material and in the spiritual, relentlessly obeys universal laws connecting everything in the world into a single whole. Materialistic monism rejects the views that distinguish consciousness, reason into a special substance opposed to nature and society. Consciousness is both the knowledge of reality and its component part. Consciousness does not belong to some otherworldly, but to the material world, although it opposes it as spirituality. It is not a supernatural unique, but natural property highly organized matter.

Matter in the physical sense has a varied, discontinuous structure. It consists of parts of various sizes, qualitative definiteness: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, radicals, ions, complexes, macromolecules, colloidal particles, planets, stars and their systems, galaxies.

From "discontinuous" forms of matter, "continuous" forms are inseparable. These are different types of fields - gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear. They bind particles of matter, allow them to interact and thereby exist.

The world and everything in the world is not chaos, but a regularly organized system, a hierarchy of systems. Structurality of matter means an internally dismembered integrity, a natural order of connection of elements in the whole. The existence and movement of matter are impossible outside of its structural organization. The concept of structure is applicable not only to different levels of matter, but also to matter as a whole. The stability of the main structural forms of matter is due to the existence of its unified structural organization.

One of the attributes of matter is its indestructibility, which manifests itself in the totality of specific laws of conservation of the stability of matter in the process of its change.

2.3 Movement

Movement is a way of existence for existence. To be means to be in motion, change. There are no immutable things, properties and relationships in the world. The world is forming and decaying, it is never something complete. Movement is uncreable and indestructible. It is not brought in from the outside. The movement of beings is self-movement in the sense that the tendency, the impulse to change the state is inherent in reality itself: it is the cause of itself. Since movement is uncreable and indestructible, it is absolutely, immutable and universal, manifesting itself in the form of concrete forms of movement.

If the absoluteness of motion is due to its universality, then relativity is due to a specific form of its manifestation. The forms and types of movement are diverse. They correspond to the levels of the structural organization of existence. Each form of movement has a specific carrier - a substance.

The movement of any thing is carried out only in relation to some other thing. The concept of movement of an individual body is sheer nonsense. To study the motion of an object, you need to find a frame of reference - another object in relation to which the motion of interest to us can be considered.

In the endless stream of never-ending movement of beings, there are always moments of stability, manifested primarily in the preservation of the state of movement, as well as in the form of equilibrium of phenomena and relative rest. No matter how the object changes, as long as it exists, it retains its certainty. Finding absolute peace means ceasing to exist. Everything relatively at rest is inevitably involved in some movement and, ultimately, in the endless forms of its manifestation in the universe. Peace always has only a visible and relative character.

2.4 Space and time

Space is a form of coordination of coexisting objects, states of matter. It consists in the fact that objects are located outside each other (near, side, bottom, top, inside, back, front, etc.) and are in certain quantitative relationships. The order of coexistence of these objects and their states forms the structure of space.

Phenomena are characterized by the duration of existence, the sequence of stages of development. The processes take place either simultaneously, or one earlier or later than the other; such are, for example, the relationship between day and night, winter and spring, summer and autumn. All this means that bodies exist and move in time. Time is a form of coordination of changing objects and their states. It lies in the fact that each state is a sequential link in the process and is in certain quantitative relationships with other states. The order in which these objects and states change forms the structure of time.

Space and time are universal forms of existence, coordination of objects. The universality of these forms of being lies in the fact that they are the forms of being of all objects and processes that were, are and will be in the endless world. Not only the events of the external world, but all feelings and thoughts occur in space and time. Everything in the world extends and lasts. Space and time have their own characteristics. Space has three dimensions: length, width and height, and time is only one - the direction from the past through the present to the future.

Space and time exist objectively, their existence is independent of consciousness. Their properties and patterns are also objective, they are not always a product of the subjective thought of a person.

3. Relationship of categories

The categories are interconnected and, under certain conditions, transform into each other: the random becomes necessary, the individual becomes common, quantitative changes entail changes in quality, the effect turns into a cause, etc. This fluid relationship of categories is a generalized reflection of the relationship between the phenomena of reality. All categories are historical categories, so that there does not exist and cannot exist any one fixed system of categories, given once and for all. In connection with the development of thinking and science, new categories arise (for example, information), and the old ones are filled with new content. Any category in the real process of human cognition, in science, exists only in the system of categories and through it.

3.1 Universal communication and interaction

There is nothing in the world that stands alone. Any object is a link in an endless chain. And this universal chain is not broken anywhere: it unites all objects and processes of the world into a single whole, it is universal. In the endless web of connections - the life of the world, its history.

A connection is the dependence of one phenomenon on another in some way. The main forms of communication include: spatial, temporal, genetic, cause-and-effect, essential and insignificant, necessary and accidental, natural, direct and indirect, internal and external, dynamic and static, direct and reverse, etc. Communication is not an object , not a substance, it does not exist by itself, outside of what is connected.

The phenomena of the world are not only in mutual dependence, they interact: one object acts in a certain way on another and experiences its effect on itself. When considering interacting objects, it must be borne in mind that one of the sides of the interaction can be leading, determining, and the other - a derivative, determined.

Research of various forms of connections and interaction is the primary task of cognition. Ignoring the principle of universal communication and interaction has a detrimental effect on practical matters. Thus, deforestation leads to a decrease in the number of birds, and this is accompanied by an increase in the number of agricultural pests. Extermination of forests is accompanied by shallowing of rivers, soil erosion and thus a decrease in yields.

3.2 Development

There is nothing definitively complete in the universe. Everything is on the way to something else. Development is a certain directional, irreversible change of an object: either simply from the old to the new, or from simple to complex, from a lower level to an ever higher one.

Development is irreversible: everything goes through the same state only once. It is impossible, say, for the body to move from old age to youth, from death to birth. Development is a double process: the old is destroyed in it and in its place a new one arises, which asserts itself in life not by unhindered deployment of its potentials, but in a harsh struggle with the old. Between the new and the old there is a similarity, common (otherwise we would have only a multitude of unrelated states), and a difference (without a transition to something else, there is no development), and coexistence, and struggle, and mutual denial, and mutual transition. The new arises in the bosom of the old, then reaching a level that is incompatible with the old, and the latter is denied.

Along with the processes of ascending development, there is also degradation, disintegration of systems - the transition from higher to lower, from more perfect to less perfect, a decrease in the level of organization of the system. For example, the degradation of biological species that are dying out due to the inability to adapt to new conditions. When the system as a whole degrades, this does not mean that all of its elements are subject to decay. Regression is a contradictory process: the whole decomposes, and individual elements can progress. Further, the system as a whole can progress, and some of its elements can degrade, for example, the progressive development of biological forms as a whole is accompanied by the degradation of individual species.

3 .3 The idea of the law

Cognition of the world convinces us that the Universe has its own "code of laws", everything is entered into their framework. The law always expresses the connection between objects, elements within an object, between the properties of objects and within the framework of a given object. But not every connection is a law: a connection can be necessary and accidental. The law is the necessary, stable, repetitive, essential connections and relationships of things. It indicates a certain order, sequence, tendency of the development of phenomena.

It is necessary to distinguish between the laws of structure, functioning and development of the system. Laws can be less general, acting in a limited area (the law of natural selection), and more general (the law of conservation of energy). Some laws express a strict quantitative relationship between phenomena and are fixed in science by mathematical formulas. Others defy mathematical description, such as the law of natural selection. But both those and other laws express an objective, necessary connection between phenomena.

3 .3.1 Dynamic law

A dynamic law is a form of causality in which the initial state of a system uniquely determines its subsequent state. Dynamic laws are of varying degrees of complexity. They are applicable to all phenomena in general and to each of them separately, of course, from among those that are subject to this law; so, every stone thrown up, obeying the law of gravitation, falls down.

3 .3.2 Statistical Law

Science, unable to predict the behavior of the individual components of some systems, accurately predicts the behavior of the whole. The randomness in the behavior of the individual obeys the laws of the life of the whole. Statistical regularity characterizes the mass of phenomena as a whole, and not every part of this whole. If an accident must occur on every million kilometers of the way, then this does not apply to everyone who has passed this way: the accident can "overtake" a person in the first kilometer.

3 .4 Singular, specific and general

3.4.1 Single

An individual is an object in the totality of its inherent properties that distinguish it from all other objects and constitute its individual, qualitative and quantitative determination.

The idea of the world only as an infinite variety of individuals is one-sided and therefore wrong. Infinite diversity is only one side of being. Its other side lies in the commonality of things, their properties and relationships.

3 .4.2 Singular and general - special

The common is the one in many ways. Unity can appear in the form of similarity or commonality of properties, relations of objects, combined into a certain class, set. The general properties and relationships of things are cognized on the basis of generalization in the form of concepts and are designated by common nouns: "man", "plant", "law", "reason", etc.

Each individual contains the general as its essence. For example, the statement that a given action is a feat means the recognition of a given single action of a certain general quality. The general is, as it were, the “soul,” the essence of the individual, the law of its life and development.

Items can possess varying degrees community. The individual and the general exist in unity. Their concrete unity is special. At the same time, the general can act in a double relation: in relation to the singular, it appears as general, and in relation to a greater degree of generality, as special. For example, the concept of "Russian" appears as a singular one in relation to the concept of "Slav"; the latter appears as general in relation to the concept of "Russian" and as special to the concept of "man". So, the singular, the particular and the general are correlative categories that express the mutual transitions of the reflected objects and processes.

The action of a general regularity is expressed in a single and through a single, and any new regularity at first appears in reality in the form of a single exception from the general rule. The potential common in the form of a single, being at first random, gradually increases in number and gains the force of law, acquiring the status and power of the common. At the same time, such individual "exceptions" that correspond to the development trend arising from the entire set of conditions turn into the general. The general does not exist before the singular and outside of it; the singular cannot always be generalized. Their unity is special. This category overcomes the one-sidedness, abstractness of both and takes them in a concrete unity.

The correct accounting of the singular, the particular and the general plays a huge cognitive and practical role. Science deals with generalizations and operates with general concepts, which makes it possible to establish laws and thereby equip practice with foresight. This is the strength of science, but this is also its weakness. The singular and the particular are richer than the general. Only through a rigorous analysis and account of the individual, special by observation, experiment, is the deepening, concretization of the laws of science achieved. The general is revealed in the concept only through the reflection of the individual and the particular. Thanks to this, the scientific concept embodies the richness of the special and individual.

3 .5 Part and whole, system

A system is an integral set of elements, in which all elements are so closely related to each other that they appear in relation to the surrounding conditions and other systems of the same level as a single whole. An element is the minimum unit in a given whole that performs in it specific function... Systems can be simple or complex. A complex system is one whose elements are themselves regarded as systems.

Any system is something whole, which is a unity of parts. The categories of the whole and the part are relative categories. No matter how small a particle of existence we take (for example, an atom), it is something whole and at the same time a part of another whole (for example, a molecule). This other whole is, in turn, a part of some larger whole (for example, an animal's organism). The latter is part of an even larger whole (for example, planet Earth), etc. Any arbitrarily large whole accessible to our thought is ultimately only a part of an infinitely large whole. So, one can imagine all bodies in nature as parts of one whole - the Universe.

By the nature of the connection of parts, various wholes are divided into three main types:

1.unorganized (or summative) integrity. For example, a simple accumulation of objects, like a herd of animals, a conglomerate, i.e. mechanical connection of something heterogeneous (rock of pebbles, sand, gravel, boulders, etc.). In an unorganized whole, the connection between the parts is mechanical in nature. The properties of such a whole coincide with the sum of the properties of its constituent parts. Moreover, when objects are part of an unorganized whole or leave it, they do not undergo qualitative changes.

2. organized integrity. For example, atom, molecule, crystal, solar system, galaxy. An organized whole has a different level of order, depending on the characteristics of its constituent parts and on the nature of the connection between them. In an organized whole, its constituent elements are in a relatively stable and natural relationship.

The properties of an organized whole cannot be reduced to the mechanical sum of the properties of its parts: the rivers "are lost in the sea, although they are in it and although it would not exist without them." Zero in itself is nothing, but in the composition of an integer, its role is significant. Water has the ability to extinguish fire, and its constituent parts separately have completely different properties: hydrogen itself burns, and oxygen supports combustion.

3. organic integrity. For example, an organism, a biological species, a society. This is the highest type of organized integrity, system. Her characteristics- self-development and self-reproduction of parts. The parts of the organic whole outside the whole not only lose a number of their significant properties, but also cannot exist at all in this qualitative determination: no matter how modest the place of this or that person on Earth and no matter how little what he does, he nevertheless carries out the work necessary for the whole.

Content is what constitutes the essence of an object, the unity of all its constituent elements, its properties, internal processes, connections, contradictions and trends. The content includes not only the components, this or that object, elements, but also the way of their connections, i.e. structure. In this case, different structures can be formed from the same elements. By the way the elements are connected in a given object, we recognize its structure, which gives relative stability and qualitative definiteness to the object.

Form and content are one: there is no and cannot be formless content and form devoid of content. Their unity is revealed in the fact that a certain content is “clothed” in a certain form. The leading party, as a rule, is the content: the form of the organization depends on what is being organized. Change usually starts with content. In the course of the development of the content, a period is inevitable when the old form ceases to correspond to the changed content and begins to hinder its further development. A conflict arises between form and content, which is resolved by breaking the outdated form and the emergence of a form corresponding to the new content.

The unity of form and content presupposes their relative independence and the active role of form in relation to content. The relative independence of the form is expressed, for example, in the fact that it may lag somewhat behind the content in development. The relative independence of form and content is also revealed in the fact that one and the same content can be clothed in different forms.

3.7 Essence and phenomenon

Essence is the main, basic, defining thing in an object; these are essential properties, connections, contradictions and tendencies in the development of an object. Language formed the word "essence" from existence, and the real meaning of essence is more easily expressed by the concept of "essential", which means important, the main thing, determining, necessary, natural. Any law of the world around us expresses an essential connection between phenomena.

Phenomenon is an external discovery of an entity, a form of its manifestation. Unlike the essence, which is hidden from the gaze of man, the phenomenon lies on the surface of things. But a phenomenon cannot exist without what appears in it, i.e. without its essence.

The phenomenon is richer, more colorful than the essence, because it is individualized and occurs in a unique set of external conditions. In a phenomenon, the essential manifests itself together with the insignificant, accidental in relation to the essence. But in a holistic phenomenon there are no coincidences - it is a system (a work of art). The phenomenon may correspond to its essence or not correspond to it, the degree of both may be different. The essence is found both in a mass of phenomena and in a single significant phenomenon.

3 .8 The Idea of Causality

When one phenomenon under certain conditions modifies or gives rise to another phenomenon, the first appears as a cause, the second as a consequence. Causality is a connection that turns a possibility into reality, reflecting the laws of development. The chain of cause-and-effect relationships is objectively necessary and universal. It has no beginning or end, it is not interrupted either in space or in time.

Any consequence is caused by the interaction of at least two bodies. Therefore, the phenomenon-interaction acts as true reason phenomena-consequences. Only in the simplest particular and limiting case can the causal relationship be presented as a one-sided, unidirectional action. For example, the reason for the fall of a stone on the Earth is their mutual attraction, which obeys the law of universal gravitation, and the fall of the stone on the Earth itself is the result of their gravitational interaction. But since the mass of the stone is infinitely less than the mass of the Earth, then the effect of the stone on the Earth can be neglected. And as a result, the idea of a one-sided action arises, when one body (Earth) is the active side, and the other (stone) is passive. However, in more complex cases, one cannot abstract from the reciprocal effect of the carrier of the action on other bodies interacting with him. So, in the chemical interaction of two substances, it is impossible to distinguish the active and passive sides. This is even more true when transforming into each other. elementary particles.

The temporal relationship between cause and effect consists in the fact that there is a time interval in the form of a lag between the beginning of the action of the cause (for example, the interaction of two systems) and the beginning of the manifestation of the corresponding effect. For a while, cause and effect coexist, and then the cause fades away, and the effect ultimately turns into a new cause. And so on ad infinitum.

The interaction of cause and effect is called the feedback principle, which operates in all self-organizing systems where the perception, storage, processing and use of information occurs, such as in the body, electronic device, society. Stability, control and progressive development of the system are unthinkable without feedback.

The cause acts as active and primary in relation to the effect.

Distinguish between a full cause and a specific cause, main and non-main. The total cause is the totality of all events, in the presence of which a consequence is born. Establishing the full cause is possible only in fairly simple events in which a relatively small number of elements are involved. Usually, however, research is aimed at revealing the specific causes of the event. A specific cause is a combination of a number of circumstances, the interaction of which causes a consequence. In this case, specific reasons cause a consequence in the presence of many other circumstances that were already available in a given situation before the onset of the investigation. These circumstances constitute the conditions for the action of the cause. A specific cause is defined as the most essential elements of a complete cause in a given situation, and its other elements act as conditions for the action of a specific cause. The main reason is the one that plays a decisive role from the totality of reasons.

The reasons are internal and external. An internal cause operates within the framework of a given system, and an external cause characterizes the interaction of one system with another.

The reasons can be objective and subjective. Objective reasons are carried out against the will and consciousness of people. Subjective reasons lie in the purposeful actions of people, in their determination, organization, experience, knowledge.

A distinction should be made between immediate causes, i.e. those that directly cause and determine the given action, and indirect causes that cause and determine the action through a number of intermediate links.

3.9 Reason, conditions and reason

In order for a cause to cause an effect, certain conditions are required. Conditions are phenomena that are necessary for the occurrence of a given event, but in themselves do not cause it. The mode of action of a given cause and the nature of the effect depend on the nature of the conditions. By changing the conditions, it is possible to change both the mode of action of the cause and the nature of the effect.

...

Westernism.

Russian Westernism of the 19th century has never been a homogeneous ideological trend. Among the public and cultural figures who believed that the only acceptable and possible development option for Russia was the path of Western European civilization, there were people of a wide variety of convictions: liberals, radicals, conservatives. Throughout their lives, the views of many of them have changed significantly. Thus, the leading Slavophiles I.V. Kireevsky and K.S.Aksakov in their young years shared Westernizing ideals (Aksakov was a member of Stankevich's "Westernizing" circle, which included the future radical Bakunin, liberals K.D. Kavelin and T.N. Granovsky, conservative M.N. Katkov and others). Many of the ideas of late Herzen clearly do not fit into the traditional complex of Westernizing ideas. The spiritual evolution of Chaadaev, undoubtedly one of the brightest Russian Western thinkers, was also difficult.

A special place in Russian philosophy of the 20th century. is occupied by religious metaphysics. When defining the role of religious philosophy in the Russian philosophical process at the beginning of the century, extremes should be avoided: at that time it was not a “mainstream” or the most influential trend, but it was not a secondary phenomenon (non-philosophical, literary-journalistic, etc.). In the philosophical culture of the Russian diaspora (the first, post-revolutionary emigration), the work of religious thinkers already determines a lot and can be recognized as the leading direction. Moreover, it can be quite definitely asserted that the original Russian "metaphysical" project outlined at the very beginning of the century (primarily the collection The problems of idealism, 1902, proclaiming the future "metaphysical turn") was realized and became one of the brightest and most creatively successful experiments in the "justification" of metaphysics in philosophy of the 20th century. All this happened in extremely unfavorable historical circumstances: already in the 1920s, the Russian philosophical tradition was interrupted, the forced emigration in no way contributed to the continuation of a normal philosophical dialogue. Nevertheless, even in these difficult conditions, the metaphysical theme in Russian thought developed, and as a result we have hundreds of serious works of a metaphysical nature and a significant variety of metaphysical positions of Russian thinkers of the 20th century.

The meaning of this Russian metaphysical experience can only be understood in the context of the world philosophical process. In post-Kantian philosophy, the attitude to metaphysics determined the nature of many philosophical trends. Philosophers, who saw the danger that the tendencies of radical empiricism and philosophical subjectivism posed for the very existence of philosophy, looked for an alternative in the revival and development of the tradition of metaphysical knowledge of supersensible principles and beginnings of being. On this path, both in Europe and in Russia, the convergence of philosophy and religion often took place. Russian religious thinkers of the 19th and 20th centuries, defining their own position precisely as a metaphysical one, used this term as a classical designation of philosophy going back to Aristotle. In the Brockhaus dictionary, Vl.S. Soloviev defines metaphysics as "a speculative doctrine about the initial foundations of all existence or the essence of the world." In the same place, the philosopher writes about how the metaphysical experience of understanding “being in itself” (Aristotle) comes into contact with religious experience.

In Russian religious philosophy of the 20th century. we find a significant variety of topics and approaches, including those that are quite far from the principles of the metaphysics of the unity of Vl.S. Soloviev. But his arguments in a dispute with positivism, which denied the importance of metaphysics, were taken in the most serious way. Last but not least, this applies to Solov'ev's thesis about the "need for metaphysical knowledge" as an integral and most important component of human nature. The philosopher was quite radical in his conclusions: in some respect, every person is a metaphysician, experiences a “need for metaphysical knowledge” (in other words, wants to understand the meaning of his own and world existence), the same, in his words, “who do not have this need absolutely, can be viewed as abnormal creatures, monsters. " Of course, the recognition of such a fundamental role of metaphysics does not represent anything exceptional in the history of philosophy. "In the mind of man ... a certain philosophy is laid down by nature," one of the founders of European metaphysics, Plato, argued in dialogue Phaedrus... The greatest reformer of the metaphysical tradition, Immanuel Kant, wrote in Criticism of pure reason that “metaphysics does not exist as a finished building, but works in all people as a natural location ”. In the 20th century, M. Heidegger, highly critical of the experience of Western metaphysics, also insisted on the rootedness of "metaphysical need" in human nature: "as long as a person remains a rational living being, he is a metaphysical living being."

In the last third of the 19th century. in Russia, it is by no means only Vl.S. Soloviev who apologizes for metaphysics and, accordingly, criticizes positivism. A consistent choice in favor of metaphysics was made, for example, by such brilliant and authoritative thinkers as S.N. Trubetskoy (1862-1905), the largest historian of philosophy in Russia at that time, close in his philosophical views to the metaphysics of total unity, and L.M. Lopatin (1855–1920), who developed the principles of personalistic metaphysics (for several years, these philosophers jointly edited the journal Problems of Philosophy and Psychology).

The first visible result of the religious movement of the Russian intelligentsia at the beginning of the century is considered to be the Religious and Philosophical Assemblies (1901–1903). Among the initiators of this peculiar dialogue between the intelligentsia and the church were D.S. Merezhkovsky, V.V. Rozanov, D. Filosofov, and others. Ivanov, E. N. Trubetskoy, V. F. Ern, P. A. Florensky, S. N. Bulgakov and others). In 1907 the St. Petersburg Religious and Philosophical Society began its meetings. Religious and philosophical topics were considered on the pages of the journal Novy Put, which began to appear in 1903. In 1904, as a result of the reorganization of the editorial board of Novy Put, it was replaced by the journal Voprosy Zhizn. We can say that the famous collection Milestones(1909) was not so much philosophical as ideological in nature. However, its authors - M.O. Gershenzon, N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, A. Izgoev, B. Kistyakovsky, P.B. Struve, S.L. Frank - understood their task in this way. Milestones were supposed to influence the mood of the intelligentsia, offering it new cultural, religious and metaphysical ideals. And, of course, the task of comprehensive criticism of the tradition of Russian radicalism was solved. Underestimate the value Milestone it would be wrong, this is the most important document of the era. But it is necessary to take into account the fact that it took a long time for the same Berdyaev, Bulgakov, Frank to be able to fully creatively express their religious and philosophical views. The religious and philosophical process in Russia continued: the philosophical publishing house "Put" was founded in Moscow, the first edition of which was the collection About Vladimir Soloviev(1911). The authors of the collection (Berdyaev, Blok, Vyach. Ivanov, Bulgakov, Trubetskoy, Ern, etc.) wrote about various aspects of the philosopher's work and quite definitely considered themselves as the successors of his work. The publishing house "Put" also turned to the works of other Russian religious thinkers, publishing the works of I.V. Kireevsky, Berdyaev's books about Khomyakov, Ern about Skovorod, etc.

Creativity, including philosophical creativity, does not always lend itself to strict classification according to directions and schools. This also applies to Russian religious philosophy of the 20th century. Singling out as the leading direction of the latter post-Solov'ev metaphysics of total-unity, we can quite reasonably attribute to this trend the work of such philosophers as E.N. Trubetskoy, P.A. Florensky, S.N. Bulgakov, S.L. Frank, L.P. .Karsavin. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account a certain conventionality of such a classification, to see fundamental differences in the philosophical positions of these thinkers. During that period, traditional themes of world and domestic religious thought were developed both in philosophical works proper and in literary forms that had little in common with the classical versions of philosophizing. The era of the "Silver Age" of Russian culture is extremely rich in experience of expressing metaphysical ideas in artistic creation. A striking example of a kind of "literary" metaphysics is the work of two prominent figures in the religious and philosophical movement at the turn of the century - DS Merezhkovsky and VV Rozanov.

Dmitry Sergeevich Merezhkovsky (1866-1941) was born in St. Petersburg in the family of an official, studied at the Faculty of History and Philology of St. Petersburg University. As a poet and researcher of literature, he stood at the origins of the poetry of Russian Symbolism. Merezhkovsky became famous for his historical and literary works: L. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky (1901), Eternal companions(1899) and others. A peculiar symbolism permeates the work of Merezhkovsky the novelist, primarily his trilogy Christ and Antichrist(1896-1905). A significant period of his literary activity fell on the time of emigration (he emigrated in 1920): The secret of the three(Prague, 1925), The birth of the gods(Prague, 1925), Atlantis - Europe(Belgrade, 1930) and other works.

DS Merezhkovsky saw in Vl.Soloviev a harbinger of "a new religious consciousness". In all the work of Solovyov, he singled out Three conversations, or rather the "apocalyptic" part of this work ( A short story about the antichrist). Like no other Russian religious thinker, Merezhkovsky experienced the doom and dead end of the historical path of mankind. He always lived in anticipation of a crisis threatening a fatal universal catastrophe: at the beginning of the century, on the eve of the First World War, in the interval between the two world wars. So, in work Atlantis - Europe he says that this book was written "after the First World War and, perhaps, on the eve of the second, when no one thinks about the End yet, but the feeling of the End is already in everyone's blood, like a slow poison of infection." Humanity and its culture, according to Merezhkovsky, inevitably fall ill and no cure is possible: the “historical church” cannot play the role of a healer because, on the one hand, in its “truth about heaven” it is isolated from the world, alien to it, and on the other, in its historical practice itself is only a part of the historical body of mankind and is subject to the same diseases.

The salvation of modern humanity can only lie in the transcendental "second coming". Otherwise, according to Merezhkovsky, history, which has already exhausted itself in its routine, profane development, will only lead to the triumph of "the coming Ham" - a degenerating spiritless philistine civilization. In this sense, the "new religious consciousness" proclaimed by Merezhkovsky is not only an apocalyptic consciousness awaiting the end of times and the "religion of the Third Testament", but also a revolutionary consciousness, ready to break through into the anticipated catastrophic future, ready for the most radical and irrevocable discard the "dust of the old world."

Merezhkovsky did not develop his idea of a “mystical, religious revolution” into a somewhat holistic historiosophical concept, but he constantly wrote about the catastrophic nature, the discontinuity of history, its revolutionary breaks, and with pathos. “We sailed from all shores”, “only insofar as we are people because we rebel”, “the century of revolutions has come: political and social - only a harbinger of the last, final, religious” - these and similar statements define the essence of Merezhkovsky's worldview position, which was anticipated by many revolutionary and rebellious trends in Western philosophical and religious thought of the 20th century.

Even against the background of the general literary genius of the figures of Russian culture of the "Silver Age", the work of Vasily Vasilyevich Rozanov (1856-1919) is a striking phenomenon. The philosopher of "Eternal Femininity" Vl.Soloviev could compare the real process of the continuation of the human race with an endless string of deaths. For Rozanov, such thoughts sounded like sacrilege. For Solovyov, the greatest miracle is love, which ignites in the human heart and tragically "falls" in sexual intercourse, even if the latter is associated with the sacrament of marriage and the birth of children. Rozanov, however, considered each birth a miracle - the disclosure of the connection between our world and the transcendental world: "the knot of sex in a baby", which "comes from the other world," "from God, his soul falls." Love, family, the birth of children - for him, this is being itself, and there is no other ontology, except for the ontology of bodily love, and there cannot be. Everything else in one way or another is only a fatal "distraction", a departure from being ... Rozanov's apology for corporeality, his refusal to see in the body, and above all in sexual love, something lower and all the more shameful are much more spiritualistic than naturalistic. Rozanov himself constantly emphasized the spiritual orientation of his philosophy of life: "There is no grain in us, a nail, a hair, a drop of blood that does not have a spiritual principle in itself," there is a body at all, the body swirls around it and out of it "and so on.

For the late Rozanov, the whole metaphysics of Christianity consists in a consistent and radical denial of life and being: "Only the monastery naturally follows from the text of the Gospel ... Monasticism constitutes the metaphysics of Christianity." Florovsky wrote that Rozanov "never understood and did not accept the fiery mystery of the Incarnation ... and the mystery of God-manhood." Indeed, tied in heart and mind to everything earthly, to everything "too human", who believed in the holiness of the flesh, Rozanov longed from religion for its immediate salvation and unconditional recognition (hence the gravitation towards paganism and the Old Testament). The path through Golgotha, through the "trampling" of death by the Cross, this "fiery" path of Christianity meant for Rozanov the inevitable parting with the dearest and nearest. And this seemed to him almost tantamount to a denial of being in general, a withdrawal into oblivion. Rozanov's dispute with Christianity can in no way be considered a misunderstanding: the metaphysics of the sex of the Russian thinker clearly does not "fit" into the tradition of Christian ontology and anthropology. At the same time, in the religious position of Rozanov, despite all the real contradictions and typically Rozanov's extremes, there was also a deeply consistent metaphysical protest against the temptation of "world denial." In his criticism of the "world-rejecting" tendencies that have manifested themselves more than once in the history of Christian thought, Rozanov is close to the general trend of Russian religious philosophy, for which the task of metaphysical justification of being, being "created" and, above all, human, has always been of decisive importance.

If the metaphysics of Paul Rozanov can be attributed to the anti-Platonic tendencies in Russian thought at the beginning of the 20th century, then one of the brightest metaphysicists-Platonists of this period was V.F. Ern (1882-1917). In general, interest in metaphysics, including religious-metaphysical ideas, in Russia in the pre-revolutionary period was high and was reflected in various spheres of intellectual activity. So, for example, metaphysical ideas played an essential role in the Russian philosophy of law, in particular, in the work of the prominent Russian theoretical lawyer P.I. Novgorodtsev.

Pavel Ivanovich Novgorodtsev (1866-1924) - professor at Moscow University, liberal public figure(was deputy I State Duma). Under his editorship in 1902, the collection was published The problems of idealism, which can be considered a kind of metaphysical manifesto. In his ideological evolution, the legal scholar was influenced by Kantianism and the moral and legal ideas of Vl.S. Solovyov. The main works of Novgorodtsev are devoted to the definition of the role of metaphysical principles in the history of legal relations, the fundamental connection between law and morality, law and religion: his doctoral dissertation Kant and Hegel in their teachings about law and state(1903), works The crisis of modern legal consciousness (1909), On the social ideal(1917) and others. It can be said that anthropological ideas, primarily the doctrine of personality, were of exceptional importance in Novgorodtsev's philosophical views. The thinker consistently developed an understanding of the metaphysical nature of personality, insisting that the problem of personality is rooted not in the culture or social manifestations of the personality, but in the depths of its own consciousness, in the moral and religious needs of a person ( Introduction to the philosophy of law... 1904). In work On the social ideal Novgorodtsev subjected various types of utopian consciousness to radical philosophical criticism. From his point of view, it is the recognition of the need for an "absolute social ideal", which is fundamentally not reducible to any socio-historical era, "stage", "formation", etc., that allows one to avoid the utopian temptation, attempts to practically implement the mythologemes and ideologemes of the "earthly paradise ". “One cannot sufficiently insist on the importance of those philosophical propositions that follow from the basic definition of the absolute ideal ... Only in the light of the highest ideal principles are temporary needs justified. But on the other hand, precisely because of this connection with the absolute, each temporal and relative step has its own value ... To demand unconditional perfection from these relative forms means to distort the nature of both the absolute and the relative and to mix them together. " Late works of Novgorodtsev - On the ways and tasks of the Russian intelligentsia, The essence of the Russian Orthodox consciousness, Restoration of shrines and others - testify that his spiritual interests at the end of his life lay in the field of religion and metaphysics.

Professor of Moscow University, Prince Evgeny Nikolaevich Trubetskoy (1863-1920), a prominent representative of religious and philosophical thought, one of the founders of the publishing house "Put" and the Religious and Philosophical Society named after Vladimir Solovyov, also dealt with problems of philosophy of law. E.N. Trubetskoy, like his brother S.N. Trubetskoy, came to religious metaphysics under the direct and significant influence of Vl.S. Solovyov, with whom he maintained friendly relations for many years. Among the philosophical works of Trubetskoy - Philosophy of Nietzsche (1904), History of philosophy of law (1907), (1913), Metaphysical Assumptions of Cognition (1917), Meaning of life(1918) and others. He was the author of a number of brilliant works on Old Russian icon painting: Speculation in paints; Two worlds in ancient Russian icon painting; Russia in her icon... His works reflected the basic principles of the metaphysics of the all-unity of Vl.S. Solovyov. At the same time, Trubetskoy did not accept everything in the heritage of the founder of the Russian metaphysics of total-unity and in his fundamental research Worldview of Vladimir S. Solovyov deeply critical of the pantheistic tendencies in Solov'ev metaphysics, Catholic and theocratic hobbies of the philosopher. However, he did not consider Solov'ev's pantheism to be an inevitable consequence of the metaphysics of total-unity, but in the idea of God-manhood he saw "the immortal soul of his teaching."

EN Trubetskoy insisted on the defining meaning and even "primacy" of metaphysical knowledge. These ideas are clearly expressed, first of all, in his teaching about the Absolute, All-Consciousness. The unconditional, absolute beginning, according to Trubetskoy, is present in cognition as "a necessary prerequisite for every act of our consciousness." Consistently insisting on the “inseparability and non-fusion” of the Divine and human principles in the ontological plan, he followed the same principles when characterizing the process of cognition: “our knowledge ... "). Complete unity of this kind in human knowledge is impossible, the religious thinker believed, and, accordingly, it is impossible to fully comprehend the absolute truth and the absolute meaning of being, including human ("in our thought and in our life there is no meaning that we are looking for"). Trubetskoy's idea of the Absolute Consciousness turns out to be a kind of metaphysical guarantee of the very striving for truth, justifies this striving and at the same time presupposes hope and faith in the reality of "counter" movement, in the self-disclosure of the Absolute, in Divine Love and Grace. On the whole, in the religious philosophy of Trubetskoy one can see the experience of interpreting the principles of metaphysics of all-unity in the spirit of the tradition of the Orthodox world outlook.

Another famous Russian religious thinker - N.A. Berdyaev - worried about the problem of loyalty to any religious canons to an incomparably lesser extent. Nikolai Aleksandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1948) studied at the law faculty of Kiev University. Passion for Marxism and ties with the Social Democrats led to arrest, expulsion from the university, and exile. The "Marxist" period in his spiritual biography was relatively short-lived and, more importantly, it did not exert a decisive influence on the formation of Berdyaev's worldview and personality. Already Berdyaev's participation in the collection The problems of idealism(1902) showed that the Marxist stage was practically exhausted. Further evolution of Berdyaev was associated primarily with the definition of his own original philosophical position.

Berdyaev's two books - Philosophy of Freedom(1911) and The meaning of creativity(1916) - symbolically designated the spiritual choice of the philosopher. The key role of these ideas - freedom and creativity - in Berdyaev's philosophical outlook was already determined in the years preceding the October Revolution of 1917. Other concepts of symbols that are extremely important for him will be introduced and developed in the future: spirit, Whose "kingdom" is ontologically opposed to the "kingdom of nature", objectification- Berdyaev's intuition of the drama of the fate of a person who is not able to leave the boundaries of the "kingdom of nature" on the paths of history and culture, transcending- a creative breakthrough, overcoming, at least for a moment, the "slave" shackles of natural and historical life, existential time- the spiritual experience of personal and historical life, which has a metahistorical, absolute meaning and preserves it even in an eschatological perspective, etc. But in any case, freedom and creativity remain the inner basis and impulse of Berdyaev's metaphysics. Freedom is what ultimately, on the ontological level, determines the content of the "kingdom of the spirit", the meaning of its opposition to the "kingdom of nature." Creativity, which always has freedom as its basis and goal, in fact, exhausts the "positive" aspect of human existence in Berdyaev's metaphysics and in this respect knows no boundaries: it is possible not only in artistic and philosophical experience, but also in religious and moral experience. ("Paradoxical ethics"), in the spiritual experience of the individual, in his historical and social activity.

Berdyaev called himself a "philosopher of freedom." And if we talk about the relationship between freedom and creativity in his metaphysics, then the priority here belongs to freedom. Freedom is Berdyaev's original intuition and, one might even say, its not only basic, but also the only metaphysical idea - the only one in the sense that all other concepts, symbols, ideas of Berdyaev's philosophical language are not just "subordinate" to it, but are reducible to it ... Freedom is recognized by him as a fundamental ontological reality, where one must strive to leave our world, the world of “imaginary”, where there is no freedom and, therefore, no life. Following this undoubtedly basic intuition, he recognized the existence of not only an extra-natural, but also an extra-divine source of human freedom. His experience of justifying freedom was perhaps the most radical in the history of metaphysics. But such radicalism led to a rather paradoxical result: a person who seemed to have a fulcrum outside of a totally determined natural being and is capable of creative self-determination even in relation to the Absolute Beginning, found himself face to face with absolutely irrational, "baseless" freedom. Berdyaev argued that ultimately this freedom "rooted in Nothing, in the Ungrund" is transformed by Divine Love "without violence against it." God, according to Berdyaev, loves freedom literally no matter what. But what role does human freedom play in the dialectic of this Berdyaev myth? (The Thinker considered myth-making as an integral element of his own creativity, declaring the need to “operate with myths”.)

Berdyaev wrote about Heidegger as "the most extreme pessimist in the history of Western philosophical thought" and believed that such pessimism is overcome precisely by a metaphysical choice in favor of freedom, and not impersonal existence. But his own subject-less and fundamental-less freedom puts a person in a situation no less tragic. Ultimately, Berdyaev nevertheless turns out to be "more optimistic" than Heidegger, but exactly to the extent that his work permeates Christian pathos. It leaves a person with hope for outside help, for transcendental help. Naturally, one has to wait for it from a personal Christian God, and not from "no-fundamental freedom." The fate of Berdyaev's "free" man in time and history is hopelessly and irreparably tragic. This perception of history and culture largely determined the philosopher's outlook throughout his life. Over the years, it became more and more dramatic, which was undoubtedly facilitated by the events of Russian and world history of the 20th century, of which he happened to be a witness and participant. Constantly appealing to Christian themes, ideas and images, Berdyaev never claimed the orthodoxy or “Orthodoxness” of his own understanding of Christianity and, acting as a free thinker, remained alien to theological tradition. The spiritual path of his friend S.N. Bulgakov was different.

Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov (1871-1944) graduated from the Law Faculty of Moscow University. In the 1890s, he was fond of Marxism, was close to the Social Democrats. The meaning of Bulgakov's further worldview evolution is quite definitely conveyed by the title of his book From Marxism to Idealism(1903). He participated in compilations The problems of idealism(1902) and Milestones(1909), in the religious and philosophical journals "New Way" and "Questions of Life", publishing house "Put". Bulgakov's religious and metaphysical position found a completely consistent expression in two of his works: Economy philosophy(1912) and Non-Evening Light(1917). In 1918 he became a priest, in 1922 he was expelled from Russia. From 1925 until the end of his days Bulgakov directed the Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris.

In the philosophical and theological works of Bulgakov, sophiology plays a central role. Seeing in the teachings of V.S. Solovyov about Sophia "the most original" element of the metaphysics of total-unity, but "unfinished" and "not agreed", Bulgakov developed the Sophian theme starting with Economy philosophy and down to his last theological creations - Comforter(1936) and Bride of the Lamb(1945). His theological experience of interpreting Sophia as the “ideal foundation of the world”, the Soul of the world, the Eternal Feminine, the uncreated “eternal image” and even the “fourth hypostasis” was taken sharply critically in Orthodox church circles and condemned, both in Russia and abroad. In the metaphysical sense, Bulgakov's sophiology is an ontological system developed in the mainstream of the metaphysics of total-unity and tracing its roots back to Platonism. It attempts to radically - within the boundaries of the Christian paradigm - substantiate the ontological reality of the created world, the cosmos, which has its own meaning, the ability to creative development, "living unity of being." V In the light of the night it is argued that "the ontological basis of the world lies in the continuous, metaphysically continuous sophianicity of its basis." The world in Bulgakov's sophiology is not identical with God - it is precisely the created world, "summoned to being from nothing." But for all its "secondary" nature, the cosmos has "its own divinity, which is the created Sophia." The Cosmos is a living whole, a living all-unity, and it has a soul ("entelechy of the world"). Building an ontological hierarchy of being, Bulgakov distinguished between the ideal, “eternal Sophia” and the world as “becoming Sophia”. The idea of Sophia (in its various expressions) plays a key role in substantiating the unity (total-unity) of being - a unity that does not ultimately recognize any isolation, no absolute boundaries between the divine and the created world, between the spiritual and natural principles (the thinker saw in his own ideological position, a kind of "religious materialism", developed the idea of "spiritual corporeality", etc.) Bulgakov's sophiology largely determines the nature of his anthropology: nature in man becomes "sighted", and at the same time, man cognizes precisely "like the eye of the World Soul ", The human personality is" attached "to sophianism" as its subject or hypostasis. " The meaning of history is also “sophien”: the historical creativity of man turns out to be “involved” in eternity, being an expression of the universal “logic” of the development of the living, animate (sophia) cosmos. “Sophia rules history .., - stated Bulgakov in Economy philosophy... "Only in the sophisticated nature of history is there a guarantee that something will come of it." In the anthropology and historiosophy of the Russian thinker, as, indeed, in all his work, the border between metaphysical and theological views turns out to be rather arbitrary.

We also find a complex dialectic of philosophical and theological ideas when considering “concrete metaphysics” by PA Florensky. Pavel Alexandrovich Florensky (1882-1937) studied at the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of Moscow University. Already during his studies, the talented mathematician put forward a number of innovative mathematical ideas. In 1904 Florensky entered the Moscow Theological Academy. After graduating from the academy and defending his master's thesis, he becomes its teacher. In 1911 Florensky was ordained a priest. Since 1914 - Professor of the Academy in the Department of History of Philosophy. From 1912 until the February Revolution of 1917, he was the editor of the academic journal "Theological Bulletin". In the 1920s, Florensky's activities were associated with various areas of cultural, scientific and economic life. He took part in the work of the Commission for the Protection of Monuments of Art and Antiquity of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, in the organization of the State Historical Museum, in research activities in state scientific institutions. Florensky taught at VKHUTEMAS (from 1921 as a professor), edited the "Technical Encyclopedia" and others. In 1933 he was arrested and convicted. From 1934 he was in a camp on Solovki, where he was shot on December 8, 1937.

Pavel's "concrete metaphysics" in general can be attributed to the direction of the Russian philosophy of total-unity with a characteristic orientation towards the tradition of Platonism. Florensky was an excellent researcher and connoisseur of Plato's philosophy. AF Losev noted the exceptional "depth" and "subtlety" of his concept of Platonism. V.V. Zenkovsky in his History of Russian philosophy stresses that "Florensky develops his views within the limits of religious consciousness." This characteristic fully corresponds to the position of Florensky himself, who stated: “We have rather philosophized above religion and O religion, you need to philosophize v religion - plunging into its environment. " The desire to follow the path of metaphysics, proceeding from a living, holistic religious experience - the experience of the church and spiritual experience of a person - was in the highest degree inherent in this religious thinker. Florensky criticized philosophical and theological rationalism, insisting on the principled antinomianism of both reason and being. Our mind is “fragmented and split,” and the created world is also “cracked,” and all this is a consequence of the Fall. However, the thirst for "all-inclusive and eternal Truth" remains in the nature of even a "fallen" person and in itself is a sign, a symbol of a possible rebirth and transformation. “I don’t know,” the thinker wrote in his main essay. Pillar and Statement of Truth, - is there Truth ... But with all my gut I feel that I cannot live without it. And I know that if she is, then she is everything for me: reason, and goodness, and strength, and life, and happiness. " Criticizing the subjectivist type of worldview, which, in his opinion, has dominated in Europe since the Renaissance, for abstract logicism, individualism, illusionism, etc., Florensky in this criticism is least of all inclined to deny the importance of reason. On the contrary, he contrasted the subjectivism of the Renaissance with the medieval type of world creation as an "objective" path of cognition, characterized by organicity, conciliarity, realism, concreteness, and other features that imply an active (volitional) role of reason. Reason "participates in being" and is capable, relying on the experience of "communion" with the Truth in the "feat of faith", to go through the path of metaphysical-symbolic understanding of the innermost depths of being. The "damage" of the world and the imperfection of man are not tantamount to their being forsaken by God. There is no ontological abyss separating the Creator and creation. Florensky emphasized this connection with particular force in his philosophical concept, seeing in the image of Sophia of the Wisdom of God, first of all, a symbolic revelation of the unity of heavenly and earthly: in the Church, in the person of the Virgin Mary, in the imperishable beauty of the created world, in the “ideal” in human nature, etc. True beingness as “created nature, perceived by the Divine Word” is revealed in living human language, which is always symbolic and expresses the “energy” of being. The metaphysics of Father Pavel Florensky was to a significant extent the creative experience of overcoming the instrumental-rationalistic attitude to language and the appeal to the word-name, the word-symbol, in which alone the meaning of his own life and the life of the world can be revealed to the mind and heart of a person.

One of the most consistent and complete metaphysical systems in the history of Russian thought is the philosophy of S.L. Frank. Semyon Ludvigovich Frank (1877-1950) studied at the Faculty of Law of Moscow University, and later studied philosophy and social sciences at universities in Germany. He went from "legal Marxism" to idealism and religious metaphysics. Frank's first significant philosophical work was his book Subject of knowledge(1915, master's thesis). In 1922 he was expelled from Russia. Until 1937 he lived in Germany, then in France (until 1945) and in England. Among the most significant works of Frank during the emigration - Living knowledge (1923), The crash of idols (1924), Meaning of life (1926), Spiritual foundations of society (1930), Incomprehensible(1939) and others.

Frank wrote about his own philosophical orientation, that he recognizes himself as belonging to "the old, but not yet obsolete sect of Platonists." He highly appreciated the religious philosophy of Nicholas of Kuzansky. The metaphysics of the all-unity of Vl.S. Solovyov had a significant influence on him. The idea of total unity plays a decisive role in Frank's philosophical system, and this circumstance is associated with its predominantly ontological character. This all-unity has an absolute meaning, since it includes the relationship between God and the world. However, rational comprehension and, moreover, the explanation of absolute total unity is impossible in principle, and the philosopher introduces the concept of "metalology" as a primary intuition capable of an integral vision of the essential connections of reality. This "primary knowledge", obtained in such a "metalological" way, Frank distinguishes from knowledge "abstract", expressed in logical concepts, judgments and inferences. Knowledge of the second kind is absolutely necessary, it introduces a person into the world of ideas, the world of ideal entities and, which is especially important, is ultimately based on "primary", intuitive (metalogical) knowledge. Thus, the principle of total unity is also valid for Frank in the epistemological sphere.

But a person endowed with the gift of intuition and capable of "living" (metalogical) knowledge, nevertheless, with special force feels the deep irrationality of being. "The unknown and the beyond is given to us precisely in this character of the unknown and not given with the same obviousness ... as the content of direct experience." An irrationalistic theme, clearly stated already in The subject of knowledge, becomes leading in Frank's book Incomprehensible... “The cognizable world is surrounded from all sides by a dark abyss of the incomprehensible,” the philosopher argued, reflecting on the “terrible obviousness” with which the insignificance of human knowledge is revealed in relation to spatial and temporal infinity and, accordingly, the “incomprehensibility” of the world. Nevertheless, there are grounds for metaphysical optimism and are associated primarily with the idea of God-manhood. Man is not alone, the divine "light in darkness" gives him hope, faith and understanding of his own destiny.

We go beyond the limits of the tradition of the Russian philosophy of total-unity, turning to the metaphysical system of Nikolai Onufrievich Lossky (1870-1965). He graduated from the Physics and Mathematics and Historical and Philological Faculties of St. Petersburg University, and later became a professor at this university. Together with a number of other cultural figures, he was expelled from Soviet Russia in 1922. Lossky taught at the universities of Czechoslovakia, from 1947 (after moving to the USA) - at the St. Vladimir Theological Academy in New York. The most fundamental works of the philosopher - Justification of intuitionism (1906), The world as an organic whole (1917), The main issues of epistemology (1919), free will (1927), Conditions for Absolute Goodness(1949) and others.

Lossky characterized his own teaching in the epistemological sense as a system of "intuitionism", and in the ontological sense as "hierarchical personalism." However, both of these traditional philosophical spheres in his teaching are deeply interconnected, and any boundary between Lossky's theory of knowledge and ontology is rather arbitrary. The very possibility of intuitive cognition as “contemplation of other entities as they are in themselves” is based on ontological premises: the world is “some kind of organic whole”, man (subject, individual “I”) is “supertemporal and supraspatial being”, associated with this "organic world". Thus, "the unity of the world", in the version of N.O. Lossky, becomes a decisive condition and basis of cognition, receiving the name of "epistemological coordination". The very process of cognition is determined by the activity of the subject, his "intentional" (target) intellectual activity. Intellectual intuition, according to Lossky, allows the subject to perceive the extra-spatial and timeless "ideal being" (the world of abstract theoretical knowledge - "in the Platonic sense"), which is the constitutive principle of "real being" (in time and space). In recognition of the connection between the two kinds of being and, accordingly, the essential rationality of reality, Lossky saw fundamental difference own intuitionism from the irrationalistic intuitionism of A. Bergson. In addition, Lossky's metaphysics asserts the existence of a superrational, "metalogical" being, which he directly associates with the idea of God.

Lossky's personalism is expressed primarily in his doctrine of "substantial figures", individual human "I" who not only cognize, but also create "all real being." Lossky (disputing the opinion of Descartes) is ready to recognize "substantial figures" the only substance, "supraspatial and supratemporal essence", which goes "beyond the boundaries of the distinction between mental and material processes." Is always the joint creativity of the “doers” forms a “unified system of the cosmos,” but this system does not exhaust the entire universe, of all being. There is a "metalogical being", which is evidenced by "mystical intuition", living religious experience and philosophical speculation, which, according to Lossky, comes to the idea of a "supra-cosmic principle" of being. It is the striving for the "absolute completeness" of being that determines the choice of the individual, her experience of overcoming the "ontological abyss between God and the world." In the religious metaphysics of the Russian thinker, the path of man and the entire created world to God has an absolute value. This principle became the basis of Lossky's "ontological theory of values" and his ethical system. Truly moral actions are always meaningful, always full of meaning for the very reason that they are the response of a person to Divine Love, his own experience of love for God and other people, an approach to the Kingdom of God, where only the unity of “Beauty, Moral Good” is possible in perfect completeness. (Love), Truth, absolute life. "

The work of Lev Isaakovich Shestov (Shvartsman) (1866–1938) is a vivid example of consistent irrationalism. In his youth, he went through a fascination with "left" ideas, dealt with the problems of the economic and social status of the proletariat. Later (at least already in the 1890s) Shestov went into the world of literary criticism and philosophical essayism. Most of the émigré period of his life (in exile since 1919) was spent in France.

Berdyaev was inclined to believe that Shestov's "basic idea" consisted in the very struggle of the latter "against the power of the universally binding" and in upholding the meaning of "personal truth" that every person has. In general terms, this is, of course, so: existential experience ("personal truth") meant for Shestov immeasurably more than any universal truth. But with this view, Shestov's position loses its originality and, in essence, differs little from the position of Berdyaev himself. Shestov disagreed with Berdyaev on the most important metaphysical question for the latter - the question of freedom. For Shestov, Berdyaev's teaching on the spiritual overcoming of necessity and the spiritual creation of the "kingdom of freedom" is nothing more than ordinary idealism, and idealism in both the philosophical and everyday sense, that is, something sublime, but not vital. Shestov contrasts Berdyaev's "gnosis" of uncreated freedom with his own understanding of it. "Faith is freedom", "freedom comes not from knowledge, but from faith ..." - similar statements are constantly encountered in the later works of Shestov.

It is the idea of faith-freedom that gives grounds to consider Shestov as a religious thinker. Criticizing any attempts at a speculative relationship to God (philosophical and theological in equal measure), Shestov opposes them exclusively to the individual, life (existential) and free path of faith. Shestov's faith is free in spite of logic and in spite of it, in spite of obviousness, in spite of fate.

Shestov sincerely and deeply criticized the "faith of philosophers" for its philosophical-Olympic calmness; attacked, with his characteristic literary and intellectual brilliance, the famous formula of Spinoza: "Do not laugh, do not cry, do not curse, but understand." But Shestov's own writings also speak of faith, which is by no means alien to philosophy and is born from a deeply suffered, but no less deeply thought-out understanding of the impossibility of saving human freedom without the idea of God. In his radical irrationalism, he continues to firmly stand on cultural, historical and philosophical grounds. Shestov never likened himself to the biblical Job (about whose faith he wrote vividly and penetratingly), just as his philosophical "double" Kierkegaard never identified himself with the "knight of faith" Abraham.

By exposing rationalism in its claims to universality, Shestov “made room for faith”: only God can, no longer in thought, but in reality, “correct” history, make the former not the former. What is absurd from the point of view of reason is possible for God, - asserted Shestov the metaphysician. "For God, nothing is impossible - this is the most cherished, deepest, only, I am ready to say, Kierkegaard's thought - and at the same time it is what fundamentally distinguishes existential philosophy from speculative." But faith presupposes going beyond the limits of any philosophy, even existential. For Shestov, existential belief is “belief in the Absurd,” that the impossible is possible, and, most importantly, that God desires this impossible. Presumably, Shestov's thought, which did not recognize any limits, should have stopped at this last frontier: here he could only believe and hope.

The philosophical work of L.P. Karsavin, an outstanding Russian historian-medievalist, is an original version of the metaphysics of total-unity. Lev Platonovich Karsavin (1882-1952) was the author of a number of fundamental works on the culture of the European Middle Ages: Essays on religious life in Italy, XII-XIII centuries. (1912), The basics of medieval religiosity in the XII-XIII centuries... (1915), etc. In 1922 he was elected rector of Petrograd University. However, in the same year, together with other cultural figures, Karsavin was expelled from the country. In exile (Berlin, then Paris) Karsavin published a number of philosophical works: Philosophy of history (1923), About the beginnings(1925) and others. In 1928 he became a professor at Kaunas University. In 1949 Karsavin was arrested and sent to the Vorkuta camps.

The sources of the metaphysics of Karsavin's total unity are very extensive. One can talk about its Gnostic origins, about the influence of Neoplatonism, "personalism" of Bl. Augustine, Eastern Patristics, the main metaphysical ideas of Nikolai Kuzansky, from Russian thinkers - A.S. Khomyakov and Vl.S. Soloviev. The originality of Karsavin metaphysics is largely associated with the principles of the methodology of historical research developed by him. Karsavin the historian solved the problems of reconstructing the hierarchical world of medieval culture, converting Special attention on the internal unity (primarily socio-psychological) of its various spheres. To identify the "collective" in cultural and historical reality, he introduced the concept of "common fund" ( general type consciousness) and the "average person" - an individual in whose consciousness the main attitudes of the "common fund" dominate.

The idea of "all-unity" in the metaphysics of Karsavin's history is revealed in the concept of the formation of humanity as the development of a single all-human subject. Humanity itself is viewed as a result of the self-disclosure of the Absolute, as theophany (theophany). Karsavin makes the principle of trinity central in his ontology and historiosophy (primal union - separation - restoration). History in its ontological foundations is teleological: God, the Absolute is the source and goal of the historical existence of mankind as "the all-united subject of history." Humanity and the created world as a whole represent imperfect hierarchical system. Nevertheless, this is precisely a single system, the dynamics of which, its striving to return to divine fullness, to "deification" is determined by the principle of trinity. Within humanity-subject, subjects of lower orders act (individualize): cultures, peoples, social strata and groups, and, finally, specific individuals. All these "all-one" associations Karsavin calls symphonic (collective) personalities. All of them are imperfect in their unity ("consolidated unity"), but at the same time, the organic hierarchism of various historical communities contains the truth and indicates the possibility of unity (symphony) of an incommensurably higher order. The path of “unity” of the mechanical, devoid of historical organic matter and metahistorical integrity, associated with the inevitable “atomization” of the individual within the framework of individualistic ideology or his depersonalization under the pressure of ideologies of the totalitarian type inevitably turns out to be a dead end.

Religious metaphysics played a very significant role in the philosophical culture of the Russian diaspora (the first emigration). You can also call whole line bright thinkers-metaphysicians.

IA Ilyin (1883-1954) - the author of deep historical and philosophical works ( Hegel's philosophy as a doctrine of the concreteness of God and man and others), works on the philosophy of law, moral philosophy, philosophy of religion ( Axioms of religious experience and others), aesthetics. The central place in Ilyin's religious and philosophical essay was occupied by the theme of Russia and its historical fate.

B.P. Vysheslavtsev (1877-1954), whose main metaphysical ideas were reflected in his book Ethics of the transformed Eros. Problems of Law and Grace.

G.V. Florovsky (1893-1979) - a brilliant theologian and philosopher, historian of Russian thought ( The paths of Russian theology).

This is not a complete list. It is to religious metaphysics that many Russian émigré thinkers have given their creative powers. In Soviet Russia, such a philosophical trend in the world of official culture simply could not exist. The fate of A.F. Losev, an outstanding philosopher, scientist, researcher and cultural theorist, and, possibly, the last Russian metaphysician, was dramatic.

Alexey Fedorovich Losev (1893–1988) graduated from the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University, in 1919 he was elected a professor at the University of Nizhny Novgorod. In the early 1920s, Losev became a full member of the Academy of Artistic Sciences, teaches at the Moscow Conservatory, participated in the work of the Psychological Society at Moscow University, in the Religious and Philosophical Society in memory of Vladimir Solovyov. Already in the first publication of Losev Eros in Plato(1916) marked the deep and never interrupted spiritual connection of the thinker with the tradition of Platonism. A certain influence on the young Losev was exerted by the metaphysics of all-unity Vl.S. Solovyov, the religious and philosophical ideas of P.A. Florensky. Many years later Losev told about what he appreciated and what he could not accept in the work of Vladimir Solovyov in the book Vladimir Soloviev and his time(1990). In the late 1920s, a series of his philosophical books was published: Ancient space and modern science; Philosophy of the name; Dialectics of Artistic Form; Music as a subject of logic; Dialectics of number in Plotinus; Aristotle's criticism of Platonism; ; Dialectic of myth... Losev's writings were subjected to gross ideological attacks (in particular, in the report of L.M. Kaganovich at the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks). In 1930 Losev was arrested and then sent to the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal. He returned from the camp in 1933 as a seriously ill man. New works of the scientist were published already in the 1950s. In the creative heritage of the late Losev, an eight-volume History of ancient aesthetics- a deep historical, philosophical and culturological study of the spiritual tradition of antiquity.

Losev's characteristic immersion in the world of ancient philosophy did not make him indifferent to modern philosophical experience. In the early period of his creative work, he took the methodological principles of phenomenology in the most serious way. “The only support I had then was the 'phenomenological method of' Husserl '( Essays on Ancient Symbolism and Mythology). We can say that Losev was attracted to Husserl's philosophy by something that to a certain extent brought it closer to metaphysics of the Platonic type: the doctrine of eidos, the method of phenomenological reduction, which presupposes the "purification" of consciousness from all psychologism and the transition to "pure description", to "the discretion of essences ". At the same time, the methodologism and the ideal of “strict scientificness,” so essential for phenomenology, have never had a self-sufficient meaning for Losev. The thinker strove to “describe” and “perceive” not only the phenomena of consciousness, even if it was “pure”, but also truly existential, symbolic and semantic essences, eidos. Losev's eidos is not an empirical phenomenon, but also not an act of consciousness; this is "the living being of an object, permeated with semantic energies coming from its depths and forming an integral living picture of the manifested face of the essence of the object" ( Music as a subject of logic).

Not accepting the "static" nature of phenomenological contemplation, Losev in his philosophical symbolism turns to dialectics, defining it with exceptional pathos as "a genuine element of reason ... a wonderful and bewitching picture of self-affirmed meaning and understanding." Losev's universal dialectic is designed to reveal the meaning of the existence of the world, which, according to the philosopher, is "a different degree of being and a different degree of meaning, a name." The name "shines" being, the word-name is not an abstract concept only, but a living process of the creation and arrangement of the cosmos ("the world was created and maintained by name and words"). In Losev's ontology (the philosopher's thought was ontological from the very beginning, and in this respect one can agree with V.V. Zenkovsky that “before any strict method, he is already a metaphysician”) the existence of the world and man is also revealed in the “dialectic of myth”, which, in infinitely diverse forms, expresses the equally infinite completeness of reality, its inexhaustible vitality. Losev's metaphysical ideas largely determined the philosophical originality of his later, fundamental works devoted to ancient culture.

Literature:

Radlov E.L. Essay on the history of Russian philosophy... SPb, 1912
Yakovenko B. Essays on Russian Philosophy... Berlin, 1922
Zenkovsky V.V. Russian thinkers and Europe... 2nd ed. Paris: YMCA-Press, 1955
Russian religious and philosophical thought of the twentieth century... Pittsburg, 1975
Levitsky S.A. Essays on the history of Russian philosophical and social thought... Frankfurt / Main: Posev, 1981
Poltaratsky N.P. Russia and the revolution. Russian religious-philosophical and national-political thought of the twentieth century... Tenaflay, N.J., Hermitage, 1988
Shpet G.G. Essay on the development of Russian philosophy.- Compositions. M., 1989
Losev A.F. Vladimir Soloviev and his time... M., 1990
About Russia and Russian philosophical culture... M., 1990
Zenkovsky V.V. History of Russian philosophy, vols. 1-4. L., 1991
Zernov N. Russian religious revival of the 20th century... Paris: YMCA-Press, 1991
Lossky N.O. History of Russian philosophy... M., 1991
Florovsky G.V. The paths of Russian theology... Vilnius, 1991
Russian philosophy... Dictionary. M., 1995
Russian philosophy... Small encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1995
Serbinenko V.V. History of Russian philosophy of the XI-XIX centuries... Lecture course. M., 1996
Serbinenko V.V. Russian religious metaphysics (XX century). Lecture course. M., 1996

13. Specificity of Russian philosophical thought.

Russian philosophy has a thousand years of its existence, ten centuries - from the tenth to the twentieth.

The development of world philosophy is a single process, the laws of which are determined by the course of history and are associated with the identification of new problems that require philosophical comprehension.

The historical and cultural development of Russia has always been characterized by unpredictability, did not fit into traditional patterns and patterns: very often long periods of decline and stagnation in its history were replaced by periods of economic, political and cultural flourishing.

This was reflected in the development of philosophy.

On the development of Russian socio-philosophical thought .(article by S. Frank "The Essence and Leading Motives of Russian Philosophy", first published in Germany in 1925.):

Russian philosophy is "a super-scientific intuitive teaching and worldview."

Therefore, Russian philosophy is also fiction, permeated with a deep philosophical perception of life (Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Tyutchev, Gogol), it is also a freely written article on a philosophical topic,

Truth can be comprehended completely unnecessarily in "logical connections and good-looking systematicity."

Frank said bluntly: "Philosophy of history and social philosophy ... - these are the main themes of Russian philosophy."

Features of the national identity of Russian philosophical thought:

Interest in society and the person in it is organically inherent in Russian philosophy, moreover, in the very essence of the people's perception of the world.

In Russian philosophy, neither abstract logical constructions nor individualism were widely developed.

A very important distinguishing feature of Russian philosophy is the advancement of the moral assessment of people, their deeds, as well as events, including social and political ones, to the fore.

It is characteristic of Russian thinkers that in addition to the concept of "truth", which is in all languages, they also use such an untranslatable word as "truth." It contains the mystery and meaning of national Russian philosophy.

The Russian thinker is always looking for the "truth". After all, "truth" is not only truth, a theoretically correct image of the world. "Truth" is the moral foundations of life, it is the spiritual essence of being. "Truth" is sought not for the sake of abstract knowledge, but in order to "transform the world, purify and be saved."

The search for "truth-truth" also determined the forms in which Russian philosophical thought was denounced. It is always a dispute, a dialogue. It was in them that "truth-truth" was born. Indeed - non-possessors and Masons, materialists, Pushkin and Chaadaev, Slavophiles and Westernizers, Marxists and Narodniks - there was no end to disputes in Russian socio-philosophical thought.

Features of Russian philosophy

The main feature of Russian philosophy is its religious and mystical character, the intertwining and opposition of the pagan and Christian origins of Russian culture.

Russian philosophy, unlike Western European, did not have a pre-Christian period and, therefore, could not rely on the cultural heritage of antiquity. It took shape in pagan forms. (Orientation towards Western culture was determined only with the adoption of Christianity by Russia).

The ancient pagan admiration for nature, attachment to the current material existence combined with the Christian sensation of a higher (other) world, with the desire for direct union with God.

A similar thing was observed in the understanding of man. Russian man: on the one hand, directly belongs to material being; on the other, directly, spiritually connected with God (rooted in eternal, spiritual being).

Awareness of the inevitability of death prompted to think about the “meaning” of life, about the important and essential in it, about what will happen “after death” or “after life”.

Russian Philosophy is the striving of man, as a rational, thinking being, to overcome his finitude, his limitation and mortality, his imperfection, and to comprehend the absolute, "divine", perfect, eternal and infinite.

In Russia, in contrast to the advanced European countries, the emergence of a philosophy free of religion was delayed by 200-300 years. Philosophy penetrated into Russian educational institutions only in the 17th century, when the West already possessed full-blooded philosophical systems.

The separation of philosophy from religion and its establishment as a theoretical science began in the 18th century, thanks to the scientific achievements of M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), the founder of the materialist tradition in Russian philosophy. Russian philosophy split from religion in 1755 when Moscow University was opened, where the secular teaching of philosophy began.

As the second distinguishing feature of Russian philosophy, it is necessary to note the specificity of the Russian style of philosophizing.

Christianity came to Russia from Byzantium in its eastern version, in the form of Orthodoxy. (In this act, the desire was manifested to maintain a certain distance from Western Europe, from its cultural and religious traditions).

For several centuries Russia was fenced off from Western European countries by religious intolerance between the Western and Eastern churches.

The almost 300-year-old Tatar-Mongol yoke and its negative consequences also hindered the deepening of ties with the West.

As a result, Russian thought up to the 17th century. developed in a closed manner.

In Western philosophy since the 17th century. a purely rationalistic, "scientific" method of presentation became dominant, reaching an apotheosis among the representatives of German classical philosophy.

In Russian philosophy, the rationalistic method has never been the main one; moreover, for many thinkers it seemed false, making it impossible to get to the essence of the main philosophical problems.

In Russian philosophy, the emotional-figurative, artistic style of philosophizing turned out to be the leading one, giving preference to vivid artistic images, intuitive insights, rather than strict logical reasoning.

The third, feature of Russian philosophy:

Russian philosophy is more inherent in communal consciousness, conciliarity, "sophianism" ("word-wisdom" is a deed "), which presupposes the posing of completely earthly, human questions.

In Russia, a philosophy detached from life, closed in speculative constructions, could not count on success.

Therefore, it was in Russia - earlier than anywhere else - that philosophy was subordinated to the solution of practical problems facing society.

Comparison of the conditions of Russian life with the life of the advanced European countries has given rise in our philosophy to one of the most acute problems of social thought - the relationship between Russia and the West.

Opposition "Russia - West". The search for Russian philosophical thought took place in a confrontation between two directions: 1) slavophiles , 2)Westerners .Slavophiles focused attention on the originality of Russian thought and associated this originality with the unique originality of Russian spiritual life. Westerners expressed the desire to fit Russia into the development of Western (European) culture. They believed that since Russia embarked on the path of development later than other European countries, it should learn from the West.

Russian philosophers persistently overcame the "inferiority complex" - the false belief that Russian philosophical thought was not independent, and defended its originality.

Russian philosophy - not a distant page of the distant past, which is already absorbed by the flow of time. This philosophy is a living thought. We find in the writings of Illarion Kievsky, Lomonosov, Slavophiles and Westernizers, in the philosophical searches of F.M.Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy, in the philosophical and historical concept of N. Ya.Danilevsky, in the socio-philosophical views of I.A. in the philosophical work of E. V. Ilyenkov answers to many modern questions.

Philosophy - this is what distinguishes a person from an animal. Animals do not philosophize. Like man, they are mortal, their idea of the world is also imperfect, but they are not aware of this. They are unaware of their existence and their finitude. The ability to be aware of one's existence, one's finitude and one's imperfection is the basis and source of Russian philosophy.

The main themes and features of Russian philosophy. Philosophical thought in Russia has become a crystallization of the peculiarities of Russian culture as a whole, the uniqueness of the historical path of which at the same time determines the special originality and originality of Russian philosophy and the special demand for its study.

Let's note some features of Russian philosophy:

- strong susceptibility to religious influence, especially Orthodoxy and paganism;

- a specific form of expression of philosophical thoughts - artistic creativity, literary criticism, journalism, art;

- the big role of morality and ethics problems.

The period of the birth of ancient Russian philosophy and early Christian philosophy of Russia dates back to the 9th - 13th centuries. This was the period of the introduction of Russia to the world of Byzantine Eastern Christian culture, and the philosophical heritage of antiquity (Plato, Aristotle, etc.) also opened for it. Among the most prominent representatives of the philosophy of this period are:

– Hilarion (main work - "The Word of Law and Grace", in which Christianity is popularized and analyzed, its role in the present and future of Russia);

- Vladimir Monomakh (main work - "Instructions", a kind of philosophical moral and ethical code, where teachings are given to descendants, the problems of good and evil, courage, honesty, perseverance, as well as other moral and ethical issues are analyzed);

- Clement Smolyatich (main work - "Epistle to Presbyter Thomas", the main theme of philosophy is the problem of reason, cognition);

- Philip the Hermit (main work - "Cry", affecting the problems of the relationship between soul and body, carnal (material) and spiritual (ideal).

Further development of Russian philosophy is associated with the formation of the centralized Russian state (Muscovite Rus) (XIII-XVII centuries). Among the prominent philosophers of this period, it is necessary to highlight:

- Sergius of Radonezh (XIV century. - philosopher-theologian), whose main ideals were strength and power, universality and justice of Christianity; consolidation of the Russian people, overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke;

- Philotheus (XVI century)- also dealt with issues of Christian theology, defended the idea of the continuity of Christianity ("Moscow - the Third Rome") along the line Rome - Constantinople - Moscow.

The time of the emergence of philosophy in Russia in its modern sense can be considered 1755 - the year of foundation of Moscow University, i.e. the Age of Enlightenment . During this period, acts and M.V. Lomonosov(1711 - 1765), on the one hand, as a major scientist and natural philosopher, and on the other, as a poet and religious thinker. Also at this time such thinkers live and act, such as, M.M.Scherbatov, A.M. Radishchev, in whose works social and moral issues prevailed.

The formation of Russian philosophy proper dates back to the middle of the 19th century. Beginning with P.Ya. Chaadaeva, Russian philosophy initially declares itself as a philosophy of history with a central problem - « Russia-West ". By declaring the "dark past" of Russia, Chaadaev provoked a polemic between Westernizers and Slavophiles over the historical originality of Russia and its status in universal human culture.

Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, V.P. Botkin, K.D. Kavelin and others) called for the reform of Russia according to the Western model with the aim of liberalizing social relations, developing sciences and education as factors of progress.

Slavophiles (I. V. Kireevsky, A. S. Khomyakov, I. S. Aksakov, N. Ya. Danilevsky and others) idealizing Russian history, they believed that Russia, as the keeper of Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality, was called upon to show Europe and all mankind the path to salvation.

The line of religious philosophy in the second half of the nineteenth century is associated with the names of V.S.Soloviev, B.N. Chicherin, S.N. Trubetskoy and others. A key place in it belongs to the metaphysics of the unity of the great Russian thinker V.S. Soloviev. Dominant in Solovyov are two series of ideas: the doctrine of the Absolute and the doctrine of God-manhood.

The turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is characterized as the "golden age" of Russian philosophy, associated with the work of such outstanding philosophers as P.B. Struve, N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Frank, L.I. Shestov, N.O. Lossky, P. A. Florensky and others. The original trend of thought during this period was Russian cosmism (N.F. Fedorov, V.I. Vernadsky, K.I. Tsiolkovsky and others) and Russian Marxism (V. N. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin and etc.).

The development of Russian philosophy was interrupted by the events of 1917, after which philosophy was mainly subordinated to the ideology of Marxism. Modern stage characterized by a return to the richest heritage of Russian thought.

Philosophical thought of Belarus. Philosophical thought in Belarus is a complex of ideas that have developed in the development of Belarus as a country, Belarusians as a nation, Belarusian culture as a unique integrity. The status and content specificity of Belarusian philosophy is determined by historical, geopolitical and socio-cultural factors:

- the absence in history of an independent national form of statehood (territorially, the Belarusian lands were part of other state systems - the ON, Rzeczpospolita, Russian Empire);

- borderland situation: Belarus is located in the space of civilizational, political, economic and cultural interaction between the West and the East;

- Difficulties in the national-cultural self-identification of thinkers, tk. some of them are equally from the cultures of other countries (for example, S. Budny, K. Lyshchinsky, S. Polotsky, G. Konissky, M. Smotritsky and others);

- impossibility of unambiguous correlation of philosophical texts with the national language, since for a long time they were written mainly in Latin or Polish;

- the absence of national themes for philosophical understanding, since only from the second half of the 19th century. the concepts of Belarusian nationality, national and cultural identity are being updated, attention to the status of the Belarusian language is increasing, etc.

Therefore, the concept of "Belarusian philosophy" to a certain extent reflects not so much national as geographic and territorial specifics of philosophizing.

- the sources of the philosophical thought of Belarus are seen in the culture of Kievan Rus during the period of adoption of Christianity (10-12 centuries). The iconic figures of this period are K. Smolyatich, K. Turovsky, E. Polotskaya, as they contributed to the dissemination of Christian ideas and principles, called for enlightenment and "book worship", which was supposed to provide a person with spiritual harmony and help in achieving happiness. The positive side of the adoption of Christianity is associated with the spread of education, the publication of handwritten books, the development of writing and literary creativity. Along with the official Christian culture, a special merit is seen in the folk culture, which has had a noticeable impact on the spiritual life of people.

- an important stage - the humanistic and reformation movement (16th - first half of the 17th centuries), which is characterized by the formation of the Belarusian nationality and language . The formation of an original national philosophy is associated with the name of F. Skorina, a humanist and first printer of the 1st half of XVI v. His worldview was distinguished by religious tolerance and patriotism. Creativity belongs to the same historical period. S. Budny, A. Volan, N. Gusovsky, brothers Zizaniev, V. Tyapinsky. In the XVII century. philosophical searches were continued S. Polotsky, in the XVIII century. - G. Konissky... A distinctive feature of the philosophy of this time is the predominance of religious and ethical searches in it, combined with deep ethical and aesthetic reflections.

Within the framework of ontological problems at this time, the problem of the origin of the world, divine and natural, aroused great interest. In this respect, the rationalistic-theological concept is indicative. S. Budny, religious reformer, philologist, teacher, poet. Denying many dogmas of religion, he tended to interpret God as a cosmic root cause, rejected the Trinity as a fantastic entity: Spirit is not an equivalent substance, but an attribute of God, Jesus Christ is a man chosen by God for the salvation of mankind.

A special place is occupied by the stage of the dominance of the ideas of the Enlightenment in philosophical and socio-political thought (second half of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries). Belarusian thought moves in the mainstream of the European Enlightenment, which affirms the ideas of rationalistic philosophy with its principle of the sovereignty of reason, thanks to which it is possible not only to cognize, but also to transform the world. The Belarusian Enlightenment is associated with the functioning of secret student communities - physiocrats (supporters of various kinds of reforms), philomats(knowledge lovers), filarets(friends of virtue), who actualized socio-philosophical issues (human rights and freedoms, dialectics of personality and society, ways to restore statehood, etc.). These important topics for Belarusian thought were considered in the works of K. Narbut, I. Stroinovsky, J. Chechot, A. Narushevich, B. Dobshevich, A. Mitskevich, T. Zahn and others.

A significant stage - national-democratic ideas in Belarusian social thought (second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries). A distinctive feature is the emphasis on the problem of national revival and liberation of the Belarusian people, the status of the national culture and language, the awakening of national identity. These ideas were considered in creativity F. Bogushevich, M. Bogdanovich, A. Pashkevich, Y. Kupala, Y. Kolas etc. The topic of national self-awareness and national identity in the work becomes philosophically significant I. Abdiralovich "Advechnyi shlakham: daslezins of Belarusians to the light" and the philosophical essay of V. Samoila-Sulima "Gettym peramozhash!"

The development of philosophical thought in Belarus in the XIX-XX centuries. took place in close contact with the ideological and political processes in Russia. It was distinguished by the search for criteria for national identification and ways of developing national identity. Since the end of the 20s. XX century the era of Soviet philosophy began in Belarus.

1. Philosophical ideas P.Ya. Chaadaeva

Petr Yakovlevich Chaadaev played an outstanding role in the development of Russian philosophy in the 19th century.

In the 1920s, traveling across Europe, P.Ya. Chaadaev met Schelling, whose philosophy, especially its religious motives, had a great influence on the formation of his worldview and philosophical convictions. In 1829-1831. he creates his main philosophical work "Letters on the Philosophy of History", better known as "Philosophical Letters".

As a rule, the "Philosophical Letters" is judged by the first of them, published in "Telescope", and therefore it is believed that Chaadaev reasoned in them, first of all, about the historical fate of Russia. However, only one of the eight letters is directly devoted to Russia. And in his "Philosophical Letters" Chaadaev is not concerned only with the fate of Russia, he builds a system of Christian philosophy of history, and, already proceeding from it, examines and interprets the history of Russia. Ideas connected with the mysterious meaning of the historical process, with the role of Russia in the destinies of all mankind, constitute the main core of the first letter. In the second letter, he unfolds the philosophical and scientific evidence of his main idea: "In the human spirit there is no other truth than that which God put into it with his own hand when he pulled it out of existence."

A significant part of the third philosophical letter is devoted to the consideration of the subordination of the human understanding of life to a higher principle, an external force.

In the fourth philosophical letter, moving on to the analysis of the motion of physical bodies, Chaadaev concludes that inexorable logic forces us to speak of it as a consequence of a source outside. And since movement is a universal form of existence of any phenomena in the world, then mental and moral movement also has an external stimulus.

The sixth and seventh philosophical letters deal with the movement and direction of the historical process. In the eighth, and last, philosophical letter, the author concludes: “Truth is one: the kingdom of God, heaven on earth, all the Gospel promises - all this is nothing but the insight and realization of the unification of all the thoughts of mankind in a single thought; and this single thought is the thought of God himself, in other words, an implemented moral law. "

The initial postulate of his philosophy is that God is the Absolute Mind, which, thanks to its universal ideal, spiritual essence, has in itself the beginning for all real existence. He is a self-consistent Universe: "Everything has a beginning in the perfect thought of God." The being of the world, the being of history and the being of man is the result of "the continuous action of God on the world," his triumphant procession. Man never "walked otherwise than with the radiance of divine light." The absolute oneness of God is manifested in the entire totality of human beings. The absolute unity of the Divine mind is most clearly manifested through revelation and providential action, creation and creation of good. Chaadaev seems to be inclined to think that the basis of the Divine mind is good.

Chaadaev believes that the Divine mind can be represented in three ways. First, he appears to us and appears as God the Father, in whom all contradiction disappears. He revealed himself to us (humanity) to the extent that it is necessary so that a person can seek him in this life and find him in another. God is absolute reality, absolute being. Secondly, God appears before us as the "Holy Spirit", spirit, mind, acting on the souls of people through their mind. In him (the Holy Spirit) are the sources and foundations of good, justice, truth. Thirdly, he appears to us and we represent him in the person of God the Son, Jesus Christ, in whom the human is inseparable from the Divine. Therefore, “if Jesus Christ had not come, the world would have become“ nothing ”.

For God to reveal himself to us, emphasizes Chaadaev, the creator, endowed man with the necessary abilities: faith and reason. Faith reveals to us the sphere of the Being of God in all three hypostases of his unity. It is a necessary prerequisite and condition for a person's relationship with God. Reason allows you to understand, comprehend the essence of God. Therefore, Faith and reason are indissoluble. To be a believer is to be reasonable. Moreover, "the divine tasks of the founder of Christianity have never been to impose a mute and short-sighted faith on the world." He agrees with the postulate of St. Augustine that faith without reason is blind. For blind faith is the faith of the crowd, not of the individual.

The human mind is a mode of the Divine mind. The Creator endowed man with it in order to be understood by him (man). Chaadaev distinguishes two properties, two foundations of the human mind. The first property of the human mind is its religiosity and morality. Therefore, “in order to reflect, to judge things, it is necessary to have an understanding of good and evil. Take it away from a person, and he will neither contemplate nor judge, he will not be a rational being ”. God endowed man with a moral reason by his will. This is the central thought of Chaadaev about the essence of the human mind, which manifests itself in the form of a "vague instinct of moral good", "an unformed concept without an obligatory thought", "an imperfect idea of distinguishing between good and evil", incomprehensibly "embedded in our soul."

Another property of the human mind is expressed in its creative nature. The creative nature of human consciousness, according to P.Ya. Chaadaeva, allows people "to create life by themselves, instead of leaving it to their own course." Reason is not a dispassionate system, indifferently contemplating everything. Therefore, the repository of human intelligence is the heart - rational in nature and acting by its own power. "Those who create a head for themselves with their hearts succeed and do more, because there is much more reason in the feeling than in the mind of the senses." Man is something more than a purely rational being, P.Ya. Chaadaev. The focus of a person's rational-spiritual life, his "heartiness" is Christian love, which is "reason without egoism, reason that refuses the ability to relate everything to itself." Therefore, faith is nothing more than a moment of human knowledge. "A necessary condition for the development of man and his mind is religious and moral education based on the obligatory dogma of the Trinity."

P.Ya. Chaadaev and the contradictory nature of human existence, since human existence is governed by two types of laws. As a living bodily being, a person obeys the law of self-preservation, which requires only personal, egoistic good, in which he (the person) sees his freedom. "The operation of this law is visible and eerie, egoistic self-assertion is revered as freedom, a person every time shakes the whole universe and this is how history moves." Earthly freedom is the freedom of the "wild colt", emphasizes P.Ya. Chaadaev. This is negative freedom.

Another law of human existence, the side of necessity, according to Chaadaev, is the Law of Divine Reason, which contains truth and good. It (Divine Reason) both manifests itself and acts as truth and good, acquiring the property of Providence. Therefore, the freedom of a person's existence acquires a genuine character when there is a “continuous external influence on the human mind” of God, which a person does not notice. God guides man on the path of true freedom, which consists in the combination of freedom and goodness. Therefore, a person, both in his being and in history, according to Chaadaev, is faced not so much with the contradiction of freedom and necessity, as with the contradiction of freedom and good, and the desire for the latter should become a necessity.

P.Ya. Chaadaev adheres to the providentialist concept of the world history of mankind: the meaning of history is determined by the Divine mind (seeing everything) and the Divine will (prescribing everything), which rules over the centuries and leads the human race to ultimate goals. Chaadaev believes that the subject of history is humanity or a separate people and, in this regard, assigns a special place and special role Russia in the world human history.

On the one hand, Russia “does not belong ... either to the West or to the East, it has neither the one nor the other traditions. We stand, as it were, outside of time, the worldwide education of the human race has not spread to us. " On the other hand, "Russia is called to an immense intellectual work: its task is to give in due time the solution of all issues and inciting disputes in Europe." She must take the initiative to carry out all the generous thoughts of mankind, become an example for the moral improvement of mankind. Its mission is to overcome the human egoism that "conquered" Europe. The only drawback of Russia for fulfilling such a messianic role is the absence of freedom, republic and serfdom, P.Ya. Chaadaev.

From the philosophy of P.Ya. Chaadaev, two currents, two directions "grew" in Russian philosophy. "Slavophiles" who adopted Chaadaev's ideas about "the faith and conciliarity of the Russian people." Westerners stood under the banner of "reason" preached by Chaadaev. Both trends in Russian philosophy arose almost simultaneously and competed until the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries.

2. Westernizers and Slavophiles on the ways of development of Russia

"Slavophiles" (Slavophilism) is a special trend in Russian philosophical thought. The central problem for Slavophiles is the fate and role of Russia, its special place in world human history. The leaders of Slavophilism - A.S. Khomyakov (1804-1860), I.V. Kireevsky (1806-1856), K.S. Aksakov (1817-1860), Yu.F. Samarin (1819-1876) - made a substantiation of the original path of development of Russia. They proceeded from the fact that Russia has its own special path, determined by its history, position in the world, the vastness of the territory and population, geographical location and especially the peculiar features of the Russian national character, Russian "soul". The Slavophiles considered Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality to be the three pillars of the special historical path of Russia,

One of the founders of Slavophilism is the Russian religious philosopher and publicist Kireevsky Ivan Vasilievich (1806-1856). The main goal of his philosophical views is to substantiate the peculiarity of the path historical development Russia, radically different and different from the development of Europe. He sees the foundations of the development of Russia in Orthodoxy, the Orthodox Church, which have kept the original truth of Christianity, distorted by Catholicism, pure. In Orthodoxy and the Orthodox Church, he sees the foundations for preserving the spiritual integrity of both the individual and the people, the unity of cognitive and moral principles, which are inseparable from faith and religion. Therefore, philosophy must comprehend the fundamental foundations of Russian originality, due to which, in contrast to Western philosophy, it acquires concreteness, eliminating the abstractness of Western philosophy. He sees another basis for the originality of Russia in the communal character of social life, the communal spirit and self-consciousness of the Russian people, based on Orthodoxy. He puts forward the idea of the “conciliarity” of the Russian people, and the Orthodox Church as an institution that actually realizes the idea of conciliarity, since it personifies the purity of Christianity. Therefore, already with Kireevsky, patriotism comes to the fore in the moral and religious education of the people in its originality, requiring the individual to serve the goal of the unity of the people, its conciliarity. The value of the conciliar personality is higher and preferable to the idea of an individual personality. As an educated and enlightened person, he understood the meaning of “European education” as “the mature fruit of all human development,” but it needs to be rethought and transformed on the basis of Orthodoxy, the unity of faith and religion, the unity of the individual and the Orthodox Church. Only in this case Russia will not only preserve its originality, but will also open the way for world history.

Another founder of "Slavophilism" was the Russian thinker, poet and publicist Aleksey Stepanovich Khomyakov (1804-1860). The main idea of his fundamental work "Notes on World History" is the search and substantiation of the historical fate of Russia, its originality and its role in world history.

Considering being as the realization of the universe of God, which is an integral unity, Khomyakov believes that this universe of God is projected in a special way in human history. The basis for the unity of public life and history is "conciliarity" (gathering into a single whole not only the church, but also people). Faith is a necessary condition for such unity and conciliarity, which includes the diversity of the spiritual and spiritual forces of a person, of specific individuals. Moreover, the "true faith", which in its fullness is manifested in Orthodoxy. In addition to Orthodoxy, the basis of conciliarity is the Russian peasant community, which acts as a collective personality, a "living person" endowed with a unique character, soul, appearance and special historical vocation.

Khomyakov was characterized by the idealization of the pre-Petrine era, which bore within itself the true features of an original national culture and national identity.

Christian motives in the work of the Slavophiles had a great influence on the development of Russian religious and philosophical thought. Many Russian historians of philosophy at the beginning of the twentieth century regard Slavophilism as the beginning of the development of a distinctive and original Russian philosophy, which put forward a number of new, original ideas. The Slavophils did not deny the achievements of Western European culture. They highly appreciated the outward arrangement of Western life, and treated Western European science with deep respect. But their active rejection caused the domination of individualism, disunity, fragmentation, isolation of the spiritual world of people, the subordination of spiritual life to external circumstances, the domination of material interests over spiritual ones.

In the 40s of the XIX century, a special direction arose in Russian philosophical thought, which received the name "Westerners", "Westernism"... It arose in the course of polemics with the "Slavophiles". In contrast to the Slavophiles, the "Westernizers" defended the idea not of the originality and exclusiveness of the historical role and fate of Russia in world history, but the idea of Russia being woven into a single evolutionary world process. And development Western Europe and America is the progressive expression of world history. Therefore, Russia should objectively "follow" the western path of development, and not isolate itself from it and not resist it. The development of capitalism, the establishment of the free development of the individual, the creation of a civil society and opposition to all kinds of despotism, the progressive development of science were characteristic of the "western" way of development. Freedom is understood as a necessary attribute of historical development. Representatives of "Westernism" believed that economic, political, social, industrial and technical transformations, which should be promoted, and not prevented, are naturally expected in Russia. The spirit of the socio-economic transformation of Russia took possession of the minds of people, and the essence of this transformation had to be comprehended philosophically.

The Westernizers considered the main obstacle to the progressive development of Russia to be the existence of serfdom and the absence of political and social freedoms of the individual. In this the representatives - "Westernizers" did not disagree. But they disagreed over the ways and means of transforming Russia and the future of Russia. As a single trend, "Westernism" survived until the end of the 1860s. The largest representatives of the "Westernizers" were A.I. Herzen, T.N. Granovsky, N.I. Ogarev, K. D. Kavelin and other philosophers and publicists. The ideas of "Westernism" were supported by V.G. Belinsky, I.S. Turgenev, P.V. Annenkov, I.I. Panaev. But the largest figure in the philosophical thought of Russia of this period was Alexander Ivanovich Herzen (1812-1870).

The formation of his philosophical views was greatly influenced by the philosophy of Hegel, especially his doctrine of dialectics, the materialist philosophy of L. Feuerbach.

A.I. Herzen develops his understanding of the development of history, the essence of the historical process. He notes that the development of history is based on the struggle of opposites. “At all times of the long life of mankind, two opposite movements are noticeable; the development of one causes the emergence of the other, at the same time the struggle and destruction of the first ”. The source of this struggle is the contradiction between the individual striving for monopoly and the masses, which seeks to "take the fruit of their labor, dissolve them in themselves." They are mutually exclusive and complementary at the same time. And "this polarity is one of the phenomena of the life development of mankind, a phenomenon like a pulse, with the difference that with each beat of the pulse, humanity makes a step forward." He emphasizes that this struggle in different epochs and in different countries proceeds in its own way, but it is a real source of universal development.

A person, an individual, according to Herzen, is a participant and creator of his history and the history of mankind as a whole, after he left the animal world. He makes history as a social, social, not biological being. An attribute of a person's being, as a social, social being, is "freedom of the face", understood by him as a comprehensive manifestation of talents, his mind and his consciousness. Freedom itself is a manifestation of his consciousness and reason. By freedom, he understands "mastery of oneself." An indispensable condition for human freedom, according to Herzen, is the recognition of "personal autonomy", personal independence.

Philosophically comprehending the prospects for the development of human history, the internal motive of which is, in his opinion, the achievement of personal freedom, the liberation of a person from social oppression and the establishment of social justice, he is convinced of the justice of the ideas of socialism, the implementation of which will lead to the creation of a just society without oppressing man. Epoch bourgeois revolutions in the 19th century, which he witnessed, were, in his opinion, a natural stage in the movement towards socialism. He believes that Russia is also moving along this path. But disillusioned with the results of the bourgeois revolutions in Western Europe, he comes to the conclusion that the transition to socialism through the Russian peasant community is most organic for Russia. And the peasant is the social force capable of solving this historical problem. “The man of the future in Russia is a man,” A.I. Herzen. Why does he see in the Russian community the basis for the establishment of socialism in Russia? First, because the Russian peasant is instinctively inclined towards communist morality, which denies not only the injustice of the landlords and landlord power, but injustice, inequality as such. Secondly, the Russian community has historically justified the strength of its internal structure. "The community saved the Russian people from the Mongol barbarism ... She ..." resisted the intervention of the authorities; she happily lived to see the development of socialism in Europe. " Thirdly, since the creator of history is the people, and the majority of the people in Russia are the peasantry, the communal consciousness and psychology of the people most fully correspond to the affirmation of the principles of socialism in the organization of social life. In his opinion, the historical mission of Russia is expressed in the fact that it is capable of affirming socialism, which is an expression of the demands of world history itself. Ideas and philosophy of A.I. Herzen influenced the formation in Russia of such a political movement in the 19th century as the People's Will.

The representative of the liberal movement in "Westernism" was the Russian historian and philosopher, a prominent jurist Konstantin Dmitrievich Kavelin (1818-1885). For Westerners-liberals, the general principle is the recognition of human freedom and its realization as a universal driving force of historical development. From these positions, he demanded the abolition of serfdom, as the main obstacle to the socio-economic progress of Russian society, preventing Russia from naturally joining in a single common human process of civilized development. He considered the liberation of peasants with land for ransom as a necessary condition for the formation of a conservative "muzhik estate" endowed with the right of private property, as the social force that would ensure the socio-economic progress of Russia. He believed that patriarchal foundations economic relations and the exclusiveness of the national peculiarities of Russia (for example, the religiosity of the Russian people) have exhausted themselves. Therefore, the historical prospects for the development of Russia are associated with the convergence of the development of Western Europe on the basis of the recognition of liberal individual freedoms and new social groups and classes emerging in Russia at that time. At the same time, he was a supporter of a compromise between the need for liberal socio-economic reforms and the preservation of autocracy based on liberal laws.

For all the differences between Westerners and Slavophiles, they had a lot in common. And that they had in common was love for freedom, love for Russia, humanism. They put spiritual values in the first place on the scale of values, were deeply concerned with the problem of the moral growth of the individual, and hated the bourgeoisie.

Differences of views related primarily to such questions: what should be the form of government, laws; whether legal guarantees of personal freedom are needed; what are the optimal limits of personal autonomy; what place should be taken by religion; what is the significance of the national elements of culture, traditions, customs, rituals.

3. The philosophy of V.S. Solovyova and N.A. Berdyaeva

Vladimir Sergeevich Soloviev(1853-1900) played an outstanding role in the development of Russian philosophical thought in the 19th century. He created his own original philosophical system called "The Philosophy of All-Unity" and "The Teaching of God-manhood". She had a pronounced religious, mystical character.

The initial idea of the doctrine of All-unity is the proposition that "God is everything, that is, that everything in a positive sense or the unity of all constitutes an object, its own content, an object or an objective essence." In other words, God is the Universe. In addition, God is the Absolute subject, creating everything from himself and giving content to the entire existing world, including the natural world. This is the unity of God.

The second postulate of his philosophy of "All-unity" is that God is the beginning. As the primary essence, God appears as the Father, which emphasizes his absolute expression as a subject. The Absolute of God as a subject (Father) is expressed in three ways:

1) he posits everything (creates), since he already possesses the content of this act of creation;

2) positing itself is the realization of the absolute content of God as a subject;

3) God as the Absolute preserves and asserts himself in this content, which is the result of the activity of God as a subject.

The all-unity of God in reality is manifested in the form of a trinity:

1) as the beginning of everything, he is God - the father;

2) God is the word by which Divine Wisdom is uttered, Sophia;

3) holy spirit (non-material essence of God.

All these three hypostases of God the Absolute (the All-unity of God in himself), and as his other, is manifested through the will as driving force God.

God as the Absolute All-Unity acquires a special form of being in the form of the World Soul, which is both active and independent, but does not have its own beginning in itself. But as soon as the World Soul tries to fall away from the Divine all-unity of being, it loses its freedom and its power over itself. "When it becomes isolated, it takes away itself from everything, it ceases to unite everyone." An important role belongs to the world soul - to unite everyone around the values of the Absolute All-unity of God.

As a true philosopher V.S. Soloviev raises the question of the essence of the world process. In his opinion, “the gradual realization of the ideal all-unity is the meaning of the world process,” and nature is a necessary stage in this process. After the World Soul and the natural world united by it fell away from the Divine idea and its beginning, nature fell apart "into many warring elements." That is, it has lost its unity within itself and its unity with the Divine principle (All-unity). In order for the lost unity to be revived in the form of an absolute organism, three stages must and pass through the world natural process:

1) cosmic matter under the influence of gravitational forces is drawn into great cosmic bodies - the stellar or astral epoch;

2) when these bodies become the basis for the development of more complex forces (forms of the world process) - heat, light, magnetism, electricity, chemism. An integral harmonic system is created;

3) finally, the third stage, thanks to the all-pervading ether, as a pure environment of unity, takes the form of being in the form of the life of an organism (living nature).

This is a kind of natural philosophy of V.S. Solovyov, not devoid of evolutionary features. He was a supporter of the creation of the unity of the natural sciences (which he knew well), religion and philosophy, which in their own way reveal the Unity of the Divine principle in everything. But nature, including living nature, is only the beginning, an outer shell for the Divine idea of total unity. Only in man, as a corporeal, rational, and spiritual being, is the World Soul for the first time inwardly united with the Divine Logos. And human consciousness is a sphere where nature outgrows itself and passes into the area of the Absolute, possible achievement of the All-Unity. Why, then, it is in man and through man that the restoration of the lost All-Unity is possible? First of all, because "man is the image and likeness of God." Secondly, “the consciousness of a person carries an eternal divine idea”, “in an ideal consciousness, a person has the spirit of God. Man possesses the unconditional, but formal freedom of the infinite human "I", since he represents the likeness of God. " Thirdly, because "man has the same inner essence of life - all-unity, which God also has." But the most important thing is that man, as an active, acting being, is free to desire to have her as God. "He wants to master it himself or assimilate it." That is, a person as a consciously spiritual being can potentially revive all-unity in himself.

Man as a creation of God, the "first man" Adam, appears at first as an integral bodily and spiritually conscious being. But then he fell away from the Idea of God, from God Himself, lost his original essence, and of his own free will. Falling away from God and his essence is sin. What are the temptations that the "first man" could not resist? The first temptation is material good, which he considers a goal and prefers to spiritual good. The second reason for the fall and evil was "the temptation to make his power, given to him by God, an instrument of self-affirmation as God." The third, last and most powerful temptation for the first man was the temptation to assert "his dominion over the world" at all costs. Achievement of this goal is possible by the only means - violence against the world and against other people. After this act of the Fall, realized through many separate, individual, personal acts, human life itself and human history itself acquired a tragic character. And the people themselves without new strength and the new "ideal of man" is not able to interrupt it, they cannot restore the All-unity with God.

And yet V.S. Soloviev believes in historical progress, the purpose of which is to restore and revive the lost All-unity with God, which is the true meaning and motive of all world history. But this task can be solved if a new type of man appears - "God-man", and humanity becomes "God-manhood", the samples of which we find in the guise and personality of Jesus Christ. This is how V.S. Solovyov's concept of "God-man" and "God-manhood".

According to the philosophical version of V.S. Solovyov Jesus Christ is a special person. He embodies both divine and human traits. He is the son of God, in whom the Divine spirit, Divine will, Divine Wisdom, Divine truth and the Word are embodied in a concrete, individual form. But, in addition, I. Christ and the Son of Man. He is also subject to temptation. But thanks to the Divine spirit and Divine will, he overcomes them. Each person can approach the ideal of the God-man, embodied in the face of I. Christ. V.S. Soloviev perceptively notes that this is achievable if a person transforms himself, not only freely accepts the ideas and teachings of I. Christ, but finds a place for the Divine principle in himself, in his soul.

V.S. Soloviev gives love, moreover, sexual love, a completely earthly human feeling. In his special work "The Meaning of Love" he reveals the connection of sexual love with the All-unity and God-manhood. Expanding the horizon of the action of love, V.S. Soloviev emphasizes that its extension to the sphere of interpersonal relations allows one to overcome atomism and individualism, and thus, the real realization of the All-Unity is achieved. He universalizes love, giving it a cosmic character.

A special place in the embodiment of the idea of All-Unity as the meaning of the historical process of V.S. Soloviev assigned churches. In it, he saw a special institution designed to help people find practical Unity. In the 1980s, he even advocated a union of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Later, he departed from this idea, believing that only Orthodoxy, the Orthodox Church and the Russian people are capable of realizing the cause of All-Unity.

At the end of his life, he was more and more seized by doubts about the realizability of the practical ideas of the All-Unity and the “ideal of good in real life". “The point is not only that evil is a fact of human history, but also that the good of a good person does not make an evil one good. Actual beneficence increases good in good and evil in evil. " He even spoke of the Apocalypse as the end of world history.

At its core, philosophy Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev (1874-1948) has a religious-existentialist character, with clear signs of anthropologism. In his work "My philosophical outlook" (1937), he characterizes the subject of his philosophy as follows: “At the center of my philosophical work is the problem of man. Therefore, my whole philosophy is highly anthropological. To pose the problem of man means at the same time to pose the problem of freedom, creativity, personality, spirit and history. My philosophy is of an existential type. " We can say that the subject of Berdyaev's philosophy is freedom, creativity as a condition and ways of life manifestation of a person as a person, the core of which is spiritual and religious life in its formation and manifestation. “Philosophy is the science of the spirit. However, the science of the spirit is, first of all, the science of human existence. " And if so, then philosophy has not only theoretical, but also practical significance... It is in the practical application of philosophy that N.A. Berdyaev is her vocation: “A real, called-up philosopher wants not only knowledge of the world, but also change, improvement of the world. It cannot be otherwise, if philosophy is, first of all, a teaching about the meaning of human existence, about human destiny. " Therefore, philosophy is not only the love of wisdom, but wisdom itself. Philosophy participates in the mystery of human being and being. Unlike science, it cannot be purely rational, and unlike theology, it (philosophy) is alien to dogmatism. According to N.A. Berdyaev, it has a purifying significance for both science and religion. Due to this vocation and destiny, the philosopher by nature often turns out to be lonely and unrecognized, and only later does he receive public recognition.

Proceeding from such a definition of the subject and task of philosophy, he poses the question, which is eternally fundamental for philosophy: what precedes what - being to freedom or freedom to being? The initial postulate of the entire philosophy of N.A. Berdyaeva consists in the primacy of freedom in relation to being, to everything that exists: "The originality of my philosophical type, first of all, is that I have put at the foundation of philosophy not being, but freedom." “Freedom, according to N.A. Berdyaev, is not special along with divine being, freedom is that without which the existence of the world has no meaning for God, through which only God's plan for the world is justified. God created the world out of nothing, and therefore out of freedom. " Freedom is not only the fundamental principle of being, but the fundamental principle of life, and life is nothing more than a manifestation of the Spirit. "Freedom, according to Berdyaev, is self-determination from within, from the depths, and is opposite to any determination from the outside, which is a necessity." Therefore, freedom is initially ideally spiritual in nature, it is extra-natural. Freedom precedes the world, it is rooted in the original nothing. " That is why even God (the all-powerful spiritual essence) “is all-powerful over being, but not over freedom. There is no Being of God without freedom. " Freedom gives rise to everything in the world, including good and evil (which we will discuss in more detail below). Initially, freedom is necessary condition for the existence of a person, his formation as a person and for creativity. Through it, he (man) positively asserts himself. We can say that, according to Berdyaev, freedom is total in nature. Therefore, he connects the tragedy of man and history with the unfulfillment of freedom.

Freedom, according to N.A. Berdyaev, is most fully embodied in the spirit, in the spiritual life. “Spirit, according to Berdyaev, is a quality that stands outside of any utilitarianism that infects the life of the world ... Spirit is a force that liberates from the power of the elements, from the power of earth and blood ... rising above them, but not destroying them. The spirit is everywhere and in everything, but as an enlightening, transforming, liberating, and not compelling force. " "Spirit is creative activity, creating everything from itself."

Spirit is true and genuine reality, since it is truth, goodness, meaning, freedom. And God, as the highest embodiment of the Spirit, is a creative subject who creates the world from himself according to the laws of the freedom of the Spirit. Berdyaev calls nature a spiritless world, and due to its spiritlessness it is a fallen world and only an object. There is no freedom in this objectified world. The property of "fallen" (a low, base world, since there is no spirit and meaning in it) Berdyaev also extends to the public, social world if freedom is absent in it and the meaning of being is not affirmed. Therefore, the objectified world (natural and social) lies in sin, in evil. He is not a supporter of its destruction and cutting off, realizing that this is impossible, but a supporter of the enlightenment of the lower and its transformation into the higher. And this mission falls to the lot of a person when he becomes a God-human personality! The world is created by God, not by the subject, not by man. But man is “called to creativity in the world,” through man God continues his creation in the form of man's transformative, creative activity. Therefore, not only man needs God to be a creative person, but God needs man.

ON THE. Berdyaev adheres to the established tradition in Christian theology and Christian-religious philosophy to regard man as the result of a creative act of God. He is the image and likeness of God - as a subject. Man, by nature, is a spiritual, bodily, and rational being. It is “in man that the mystery of being is hidden”, since there is a unity of the divine and the simply human in him. That is why he calls his philosophy anthropological.

The idea of the "God-Man" is one of the central problems of the entire philosophy of N.A. Berdyaev. By the God-man, he means not the new Jesus Christ, but an ordinary person, but transformed, freed from sins and vices, who has become a person who is driven by love, goodness and truth and who in his spirit and soul consolidates the ideal of I. Christ.

The first act that every person must perform in order to become a God-human person, that is, a genuine person, is liberation from sin and sinfulness, into which the first man (Adam) fell, of his own free will and out of freedom. The source of the fall, according to Berdyaev, is egocentrism: "Egocentrism is isolation and hopelessness, suffocation, obsession with oneself," notes N.A. Berdyaev. The deepest source of the Fall is the fallen, objectified nature, the bodily substance of man. Atonement and overcoming sin and the fall is possible only through love, since God is love, spiritual love. For, notes Berdyaev, in Christianity the redemption of sinfulness is a matter of love, first of all, spiritual love, and not judicial justice.

ON THE. Berdyaev strongly emphasizes the difference between love and passion. The first comes from the Spirit, the second from the demands of the body. It is the latter that give rise to the power of enslavement, for behind them objectified nature is hidden. They are one of the sources of sin. They can be transformed only under the influence of spiritual love, so to speak, humanized. "Competition" between them is an integral part of human existence in life. Spiritual love leads to freedom, the latter does not. This is also the tragedy of human destiny.

To become a God-human being, that is, a true man, a person, one must go through the crucible of the struggle between good and evil. Good opens the way to the God-man for us, evil closes it. “Evil must first of all be seen in oneself, and not in another,” N.A. Berdyaev. The truly spiritual direction of the fight against evil consists in "faith in the power of good rather than in the power of evil."

A special place in his philosophy N.A. Berdyaev ascribes to the problem of loneliness in being, in the existence of a person. “The disease of loneliness is one of the main problems of the philosophy of human existence as a philosophy of human destiny,” he emphasizes.

List of used literature

philosophy chaadaev soloviev slavophil

1. World of Philosophy: Book for reading: In 2 hours - M .: IPL, 1991.

2. Novikova L., Sizemskaya I. Paradigm of Russian philosophy of history // Free thought - 1995. - №5.

3. Chaadaev P.Ya. Complete collection works and selected letters: 2 volumes - Moscow: Nauka, 1991.

4. Sukhanov K.N., Chuprov A.S. Famous philosophers of the XIX-XX centuries: Essays on ideas and biographies. - Chelyabinsk: Okolitsa, 2001.

5. Soloviev Vl. Reading about God-manhood (bow and arrow). - SPb .: Khudozhes Tvennaya Literature, 1994.

6. Berdyaev N.A. My philosophical outlook / N.A. Berdyaev on Russian philosophy. - Sverdlovsk: USU, 1991. - Part 1.

7. Berdyaev N.A. I and the world of objects / N.A. Berdyaev

8. Berdyaev N.A. Philosophy of a free spirit. - M .: Republic, 1994.

9. Berdyaev N.A. Spirit and reality / N.A. Berdyaev. Philosophy of a free spirit. - M .: Republic, 1994.

10. Chistov G.A. Philosophy. Historical and problematic aspect: Course of lectures. - Chelyabinsk: SUSU Publishing House, 2003. - Part II. - 106 p.

Russian philosophical thought. On Russian philosophy: philosophy in brief

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3.4 Singular, special and general

3.5 Part and whole, system

3.7 Essence and phenomenon

3.8 The idea of ​​causality

3.9 Reason, conditions and reason

3.10 Dialectical and Mechanistic Determinism

3.11 Necessary and accidental

3.12 Possibility, reality and likelihood

3.13 Quality, quantity and measure

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Each area of ​​knowledge has its own specific categories.

1. General characteristics and main stages of development of Russian philosophy

A new stage in the development of Russian philosophy covers the period from the end of the 14th to the 16th century, characterized by the rise of national self-awareness, the formation of a centralized Russian state, strengthening ties with the Slavic south and the centers of Byzantine culture.

The problems of man, moral improvement, the choice of ways of personal and social salvation were in the center of attention of the outstanding Byzantine humanist-educator Maxim the Greek, whose philosophical work became the greatest achievement of Russian medieval philosophy.

The most prominent representatives of Russian free-thinking were Fyodor Kuritsin, Matvey Bashkin, Feodosia Kosoy.

A significant role in the dissemination of philosophical knowledge was played by the largest centers of education and culture - the Kiev-Mohyla and Slavic-Greek-Latin academies, in which a number of philosophical disciplines were taught.

The beginning of the 18th century became the final period in the history of Russian medieval philosophy and the time when the prerequisites for its secularization and professionalization were born, which laid the foundations for a new stage in the development of Russian thought.

Until the second half of the 19th century. philosophical problems were mastered in Russia mainly in philosophical and literary circles outside the official structures of education, which had two kinds of consequences.

Currently, the invaluable spiritual experience gained by Russian philosophy acts as a necessary basis for spiritual revival.

Philosophy of Russia in the Age of Enlightenment.

Being a rationalist and supporter of natural law, Tatishchev linked the development of society with such natural factors as agriculture, trade and education.

In an effort to substantiate the "new intelligentsia", he proceeded from the doctrine of "natural law", which recognizes the inviolable autonomy of the individual. For the first time in Russian literature, he develops the idea of ​​utilitarianism, emanating from rational egoism.

The thinker believed that the human soul is immortal and is reborn after the death of the body in other bodies, which ensures the infinite perfection of the human race. The goal of life is to strive for perfect bliss.

2. The main categories of philosophy

Categories are forms of reflection in thought of the universal laws of the objective world.

2.1 Genesis

What is being?

2.2 Matter

philosophy being matter determinism

Matter in the physical sense has a varied, discontinuous structure. It consists of parts of various sizes, qualitative definiteness: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, radicals, ions, complexes, macromolecules, colloidal particles, planets, stars and their systems, galaxies.

From "discontinuous" forms of matter, "continuous" forms are inseparable. These are different types of fields - gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear. They bind particles of matter, allow them to interact and thereby exist.

One of the attributes of matter is its indestructibility, which manifests itself in the totality of specific laws of conservation of the stability of matter in the process of its change.

2.3 Movement

2.4 Space and time

Space and time exist objectively, their existence is independent of consciousness. Their properties and patterns are also objective, they are not always a product of the subjective thought of a person.

3. Relationship of categories

3.1 Universal communication and interaction

There is nothing in the world that stands alone. Any object is a link in an endless chain. And this universal chain is not broken anywhere: it unites all objects and processes of the world into a single whole, it is universal. In the endless web of connections - the life of the world, its history.

3.2 Development

There is nothing definitively complete in the universe. Everything is on the way to something else. Development is a certain directional, irreversible change of an object: either simply from the old to the new, or from simple to complex, from a lower level to an ever higher one.

3 .3 The idea of ​​the law

3 .3.1 Dynamic law

3 .3.2 Statistical Law

3 .4 Singular, specific and general

3.4.1 Single

An individual is an object in the totality of its inherent properties that distinguish it from all other objects and constitute its individual, qualitative and quantitative determination.

The idea of ​​the world only as an infinite variety of individuals is one-sided and therefore wrong. Infinite diversity is only one side of being. Its other side lies in the commonality of things, their properties and relationships.

3 .4.2 Singular and general - special

Each individual contains the general as its essence. For example, the statement that a given action is a feat means the recognition of a given single action of a certain general quality. The general is, as it were, the “soul,” the essence of the individual, the law of its life and development.

3 .5 Part and whole, system

By the nature of the connection of parts, various wholes are divided into three main types:

3.7 Essence and phenomenon

Phenomenon is an external discovery of an entity, a form of its manifestation. Unlike the essence, which is hidden from the gaze of man, the phenomenon lies on the surface of things. But a phenomenon cannot exist without what appears in it, i.e. without its essence.

3 .8 The Idea of ​​Causality

The cause acts as active and primary in relation to the effect.

The reasons are internal and external. An internal cause operates within the framework of a given system, and an external cause characterizes the interaction of one system with another.

The reasons can be objective and subjective. Objective reasons are carried out against the will and consciousness of people. Subjective reasons lie in the purposeful actions of people, in their determination, organization, experience, knowledge.

A distinction should be made between immediate causes, i.e. those that directly cause and determine the given action, and indirect causes that cause and determine the action through a number of intermediate links.

3.9 Reason, conditions and reason

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Westernism.

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3.8 The idea of causality

Each area of knowledge has its own specific categories.

In an effort to substantiate the "new intelligentsia", he proceeded from the doctrine of "natural law", which recognizes the inviolable autonomy of the individual. For the first time in Russian literature, he develops the idea of utilitarianism, emanating from rational egoism.

3 .3 The idea of the law

The idea of the world only as an infinite variety of individuals is one-sided and therefore wrong. Infinite diversity is only one side of being. Its other side lies in the commonality of things, their properties and relationships.

3 .8 The Idea of Causality