Plan.
1. The concept of synonyms. Types of synonyms (semantic, stylistic and semantic-stylistic; absolute, linguistic and speech (contextual)).
2. Synonymous row.
3. The compatibility of synonymous words with other words. Synonyms and ambiguity.
4. Ways of origin of synonyms. Morphological categories of synonyms.
5. The stylistic role of synonyms. Functions of synonyms.
1. The concept of synonyms.
Obscure words of one part of speech denoting the same phenomenon objective reality, but differing in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, or both at the same time, are called synonyms (Greek synonymos - of the same name).
For example, the words round, steep, steep call the same sign, but with different shades in the meaning: steep - sharply decreasing; steep - steep and uneven; sheer - very cool. Words forehead and forehead denote the same thing - upper part faces, but differ stylistically: forehead - common word, stylistically neutral, a person -archaism used in poetic style.
The words object, protest, contradict denote the same action, but differ in shades of meaning and stylistic use: Disbelieve used in all styles of speech in the meaning: to express disagreement with someone, something, a word protest - bookish, has the meaning: to express a sharp disagreement with something; contradict used in colloquial speech in the meaning: to speak in spite of.
Types of synonyms... Semantic and stylistic differences allow us to highlight the following types synonyms: semantic, stylistic and semantic-stylistic.
Semantic synonyms - these are words that differ in shades of meaning.
Shades can mean:
a) the degree of manifestation of the symptom: rise, inspiration; hobby, passion; buddy, friend; fast, lightning fast; hot, hot; fast, swiftly; run, rush; angry, angry;
b) the scope of the covered phenomena- expansion or contraction of the meaning: contract, agreement; adult, adult; pedagogical(work), teacher's(work); cook, boil; catch up, catch up(in the given pairs of synonyms, the first words are wider in meaning than the second);
c) penetration into the literary language of dialectisms, professionalisms, jargon, colloquial words: stubble, stubble; steering wheel, steering wheel, steering wheel; thief, swindler, mazurik; restore, tune, incite;
d) the development of new meanings of the word: suspicious, doubtful, dark- Wed: dark, gloomy, unlit; location, location, geography(mineral).
Morphological categories of synonyms.
Synonyms are common among words of all parts of speech.... They can be nouns: anger, rage; diligence, diligence; slope, slope; wolf, priyuk; adjectives: kind, kind-hearted, humane, sympathetic, humane; adverbs: literally, literally; casually, lightly, in passing; often, often; cold, chilly; Verbs: define, find, recognize, diagnose, install, measure, measure, fix; pronouns: everyone, everyone; someone, someone; anything, anything; this, this; service parts of speech: because, because; than than; how, exactly; and, yes; so that.
It should be noted that not all words enter into synonymous relations. They do not have synonyms a) most of the words denoting very specific objects, signs and actions: water, hair, goose, bone, leaf, ice, book, leg, window, sheep, sand, glass, chair, notebook, white, pink, lie, sit, melt and under.; b) proper names: TO irill, Odessa, Carpathians, Danube and etc.; c) word-terms (as a rule): atom, affix, analgin, benoir, bassoon and dr.
5. The stylistic role of synonyms.
Synonyms are widely used in our speech as stylistic tool... With their help, you can convey the subtlest shades of meaning and thus more accurately express your thoughts, as well as diversify your speech, avoid repeating the same words.
Synonyms of language, skillfully used by writers and publicists, is a means of lively and colorful display of life, creating comic situations, figurative speech, for example: We sometimes have a discipline, to put it in homeless language, "boring", boring, the discipline of rhetoric, prodding, annoying chatter. The question of how to make the discipline pleasant, exciting, touching the heart is a question of just pedagogical technique(Poppy.).
The expressiveness of speech enhances the use of synonyms - words denoting the same concept, but differing in additional semantic shades or stylistic coloring. Synonyms(Greek synonymos "of the same name") - words that are different in sound, design, but close or identical in meaning. Without owning the synonymous wealth of your native language, you cannot make your speech bright and expressive. Poor vocabulary often leads to the repetition of the same words, tautology, to the use of words without taking into account the shades of their meaning. K. Chukovsky, discussing translations, asked questions and answered them himself: “Why is it always written about a person - thin, and not lean, not thin, not frail, not skinny? Why not cold, but cold? Not a shack, not a shack, but a shack? Not a trick, not a catch, but an intrigue? Many ... think that girls are only beautiful. Meanwhile, they are pretty, pretty, good-looking, not bad in themselves - and you never know what else. " Synonyms allow you to diversify speech, avoid the use of the same words. The authors skillfully use them, not mechanically replacing a repeating word, but taking into account the semantic and expressive shades.
Sometimes they use several synonyms in a row, as if stringing them, due to which a strengthening of a sign, an action, is achieved, for example:
And I realized that I would not break my oath,
And if I want to violate, I cannot,
That I neversbresh , notstrush ,
Notdrift , notI will lie and notlie .
(B. Slutsky)
Mouth andlips - their essence is not the same,
ANDeyes - not at allpeepers !
Depth is available to some,
Others - deep plates!
(A. Markov)
Pushing synonyms in one context, the poet A. Markov gives a figurative description of their stylistic difference.
A group of words that are close in meaning, united by synonymous relations, make up synonymous row... By the number of components, synonymous series include from two to several dozen words: kindness--kindness - complacency - kind-heartedness - kindness. One of the words in each row is pivotal and is called dominant... It is stylistically neutral, more commonly used, more fully expresses the concept common to words of the synonymous series. For example, in synonymous series red, crimson, crimson, scarlet, crimson, purple, purple, fiery, fiery, ruby, coral, red, bloody, fiery, carmine, red dominant is the word Red... In dictionaries of synonyms, synonymous series begin with a dominant. Not all words are synonymous. Terms, proper names, many names of household items do not have synonyms: morphology, syntax, algebra, Minsk, fork. Synonyms do not include generic and specific concepts: clothes and a skirt, a dwelling and a hut, a bird and a nightingale, a tree and a linden.
When studying synonyms, it is necessary to take into account the ambiguity of words. By their different meanings they are included in different synonyms. For example, the adjective heavy with the meaning weighty combines synonyms heavy, weighty, full-weight, multi-pound, one-stop; with the meaning "hard to learn" is synonymous difficult, difficult, inaccessible; with the meaning "time"is a member of the synonymous series gloomy, black, evil, vague, dashing; with the meaning " a life" - savory, terrible, tragic, doggy. Essentially, there are no synonyms with completely identical meanings in the language. Usually synonyms differ from each other in semantic (semantic) or stylistic shades, in connection with which it is customary to distinguish semantic and stylistic synonyms.
Semantic(ideographic, conceptual) synonyms denote the same concept, the phenomenon of reality and differ in shades of meaning. For example, the words friend, buddy, comrade denote general concept proximity to each other. But the word friend- this is the one that is associated with someone by mutual trust, devotion, love (old friend, dear friend)... Word Buddy- a close acquaintance with whom they are on friendly terms (old friend of mine): There are many friends, but no friend. A friend in need is a friend indeed.
Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, differ from each other in emotional coloring, stylistic affiliation, that is, they indicate a different attitude of the speaker to the same object, person, phenomenon. For instance: face, physiognomy, mug, muzzle, mug, mug, snout, ryashka, muzzle, muzzle. Noun face is stylistically neutral. The words physiognomy, mug, muzzle, snout, mug, are colloquial, rude, they are characterized by an emotional assessment of disapproval.
Semantic and stylistic synonyms combine the properties of semantic and stylistic groups. They differ in shades of meaning, and stylistic affiliation, and emotional coloring. For example, the words talk and jabber are semantic synonyms, since the second characterizes the degree of manifestation of the action (to chatter - to speak quickly), and stylistic (talk -- stylistically neutral, jabber - colloquial ).
Absolute, or full, synonyms - words that are identical in meaning and stylistic coloration: linguistics - linguistics--linguistics; spelling - spelling; They are most often used in scientific terminology, where their parallel coexistence is possible. Such synonyms are interchangeable, explained through each other. From the proper linguistic, common, conventional (lat. Usus "usual"), synonyms that are recorded in synonymous dictionaries, it is necessary to distinguish contextual, individual-author, occasional(lat. occasionalis "random"), which enter into synonymous relations with each other temporarily, only in this context. out of context, they will not be synonymous.
Using synonyms, you can express the most subtle shades thoughts, diversify and individualize speech, you can convey emotional attitude to the described, to avoid repetitions, and this makes speech more figurative, effective and expressive. Synonyms are the basis of such stylistic figure, how gradation(lat. gradatio "gradual increase" from gradus "step, degree") - the arrangement of a number of words according to the degree of increase or decrease in their semantic and emotional meaning.
Music is uselessthe sounds ,
Superfluousthe sounds ,
Inapplicabletones ,
Pain not causedgroans ... (B. Slutsky)
Here, Slutsky has synonyms - epithets that convey the characteristics of sounds, serve as stylistic methods of clarifying uselessness, uselessness.
And I will go, I will go again,
I will goto roam in dense forests,
On the steppe roadwander .
(J. Polonsky)
The East turned white ... The rook was rolling,
Sail funsounds !
Like an overturned sky
The sky below ustrembled …
Synonyms are divided into absolute(full) and relative(partial).
Absolute (full) synonyms synonymous words are called, which are identical in the meaning of the word and in stylistic coloration. Absolute synonyms have no semantic or stylistic differences. For instance: abstract - abstract, spelling - spelling, linguistics - linguistics, bucks - greens - green. Such synonyms are most often completely interchangeable. .
Relative (partial) synonyms (quasi-synonyms) such words are called synonyms that have semantic and stylistic differences. There are three types of relative synonyms:
· semantic (ideographic) synonyms differ in shades of values ( key - spring: key - a source where water beats with pressure, spring- water seeps out; semantic synonyms may indicate varying degrees manifestation of a sign or action: run away and rush;(bonfire) burned- (bonfire) blazed, fast(step) - impetuous(step), anxiety - confusion, hot(air) - sultry(air) etc.
· stylistic synonyms differ in their style, i.e. used in different functional styles of speech. For example, synonyms eyes - eyes, beauty - beauty differ from each other only stylistically: the first words are stylistically neutral, the second are bookish. Synonymously run away - run away, run away the first word is stylistically neutral, the last one is colloquial.
· semantic-stylistic synonyms differ in shades of meaning and stylistic affiliation. For example, synonymous adjectives interesting and amusing differ in shades of meanings: word interesting is used in the sense of ‘arousing attention with something significant’, and amusing- ‘arousing only external interest’. Moreover, interesting- the word is stylistically neutral, and amusing- colloquial. ( Go - trudge, cough - plump, die).
Synonyms are divided into occasional and general language.
Common language (common) synonyms synonyms are called, which are characterized by relative independence from the context, sufficient frequency of use. Such synonyms are reflected in modern dictionaries and, as a rule, lend themselves to literal translation into another language (if they do not denote special, nationally limited concepts, phenomena, realities, etc.). For instance, cheerful - joyful.
Occasional (usual,contextual-speech, contextual, situational, individual, copyright ) synonyms such words are called synonyms, which, taken separately, are not synonyms, but, lined up in one row by the speaker in a certain context, seem to converge in a common sense, since become the spokesmen for the author's intention. For instance, " They are tired of dual power, polyarchy, or rather - anarchy "(Russian newspaper. 1994). Dual power and multiple power are equated in anarchy only in this context.
Contextual synonyms converge in their meanings only in the context of the context. Distinctive features of such synonyms are clearly expressed contextual conditioning and fixation, a single (as a rule, individual) character of semantics (and often word formation), irreproducibility, i.e. obvious limited use, absence in dictionaries and the difficulty of literal translation into another language.
In modern Russian, there are several types of synonyms, distinguished depending on the nature of the differences between words, with their general semantic similarity.
Words that are the same in meaning are called full synonyms, absolute synonyms, or lexical doublets:linguistics = linguistics , throw = throw, look = watch, stop = stop, strike = strike, original = original, everywhere = everywhere, spelling = spelling, cavalry = cavalry... These are words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences. From this point of view, all other types of synonyms are incomplete, relative. There are few complete synonyms in Russian, since the language tries to avoid duplication.
Incomplete synonyms ( quasi-synonyms) .
Semantic (ideographic, conceptual), denoting the same phenomenon of reality, highlight in it different sides and differ so apart shades of its meaning I am.
If the meaning of one of the quasi-synonyms is completely “embedded” in the meaning of the second, and at the same time there are some semantic components in the meaning of the second, then there are relations of “inclusion” between them. The words carry = drag, attack = aggression correlate in exactly this way: to drag- it carry, but with difficulty (you can carry the bag and drag it, but you cannot drag a cup of coffee, for example); any aggression is an attack, but not every attack can be considered aggression (in combination attack by robbers on a passerby word attack cannot be replaced by aggression).
The values of two quasi-synonyms can have a common part, and the meaning of each of them differs in some peculiarity, in this case their meanings "intersect". So, greedy means ‘Obsessed with the desire to seize someone else’s’, stingy- ‘obsessed with a passion not to give what is mine’. Consider the following group of synonymous nouns: calm, calm, calm... They all mean ‘no wind’, but differ from each other in shades of their lexical meanings: the word calm what matters is ‘complete absence of wind, calm weather’; word silence- ‘calm, lack of noise’; word lull- ‘weakening, temporary cessation of wind, noise’.
Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, differ from each other stylistic affiliation... They also have differences in semantic expressiveness and emotional coloring. An example of stylistic synonyms is the words sleep - rest - take a nap... Verb sleep is stylistically neutral and does not contain emotional connotations. Verb rest is outdated, stylistically bookish; word sleep is colloquial with emotional disapproval.
Stylistic or multi-style synonyms also include the words: face - face - muzzle(neutral - bookish - vernacular), die - die - die(neutral - bookish - colloquial), satisfactory - three, get tired - get tired(neutral - colloquial), argument - argument, gaze - gaze(neutral - bookish).
Within the framework of stylistic synonyms, the following are also distinguished:
a) Synonyms that differ from each other in the degree of modernity. In such a synonymous row, one word refers to modern vocabulary, the other to outdated: airplane - airplane, minister - people's commissar, this - this, cinema - cinema;
b) Synonyms, differing in scope. This includes, for example, ranks consisting of a common word and term or professionalism : kitchen - galley, cook - cook(marine), jaundice - hepatitis(honey.), page - strip(polygraph.); literary jargon ranks : parents - ancestors, dining room - feeder, knife - feather, search - shmon;
Semantic and stylistic synonyms differ in both shades of lexical meanings and stylistic coloring. An example of such synonyms is the verbs go and trail that have a close but not the same meaning: go- "move, stepping over your feet", and trail- "move slowly, sluggishly." Hence the verb trail has an additional semantic connotation - "to move with difficulty, barely stepping over your feet." Also, synonymous verbs go and trail differ in stylistic affiliation: the verb go is neutral and the verb trail used in colloquial speech with an emotional assessment of disapproval. So the words go and trail are semantic and stylistic synonyms. Comp. Also: stock - reserve: stock- a common word, means "everything that is prepared for the future"; reserve- bookish, special, has the meaning "what is left for a special, exceptional case." Semantic and stylistic differences are also characteristic of synonyms angry - angry(colloquial), hasty - hasty(colloquial), eat - eat(simple);
All of the above synonyms are general linguistic, that is, they are characteristic of the lexical system of the Russian language, understandable to all or the overwhelming majority of its speakers. It should be distinguished from general language contextual, or individual-author's synonyms... These include words that enter into a synonymous relationship temporarily, only in this context. For example, between the words showered and pasted over in the lexical system of the Russian language there are no synonymous relations. However, in the story "Chelkash" A.M. Gorky uses the word pasted over as a synonym for showered: He fell asleep with a vague smile on his face covered with flour dust. Let's compare more examples of the use of contextual synonyms : Ostap was about to take a pound by the starched collar and show him the way(collar- contextual synonym for the word collar); The whole plain is covered with loose and soft lime (lime – snow).
Polysemous words can be included in several synonymous series, participating in each of them with only one meaning. So, short in meaning 'Small in height' is synonymous with the word low; quasi-synonymous with words squat, undersized, undersized(about a human); in the meaning 'related to the lower sound register' is synonymous with bass, bass(for example, about the voice); in the sense of ‘unsatisfactory in quality’ is synonymous with the word bad; when denoting a certain quality of a person short enters into a synonymous relationship with words sneaky, dishonorable.
Synonyms can also differ in their compatibility with other words. So, Brown has free collocation with many words: pencil, shoes, coat. Meaning brown is phraseologically related to the word eyes; chestnut can only be hair.
12. Synonym functions
In everyday speech, synonyms perform two new functions for everyone who speaks Russian. First, it is replacement function some words with others. It is caused by the desire to avoid unwanted repetitions of the same words in speech: The whole audience applauded. Clapped with their hands up... Secondly, refinement function... A person with a lot of weight can be called complete, and fat, and overweight... Moreover, each of the synonyms has its own meaning, emphasizing the volume (full), shape ( thick), the weight ( overweight). Such a person can sit down or about start up I'm on a chair, maybe flop down; at the door he is not always enters- into the narrow he squeezed in or squeezes; his voice can sound, rattle, rumble(if it's bass) hum, hiss etc.
The refinement function is associated with the technique of stringing synonyms to emphasize the identity or semantic proximity of words: Intellectually, intellectually, she agreed with Sergei in everything.« We will close the card index and bury it, ”said Volodya. In this case, in the same synonymous row, there may be words that are different in stylistic affiliation and emotional coloring: They shouted that it was sinful, even mean, that the old man was out of his mind, that the old man was deceived, cheated, cheated(Ven.) Comp. also: And soon a crowd gathers near the wood warehouse ... Ochumelov makes a half turn to the left and walks towards the gathering(A. Chekhov.) - here in a synonymous pair crowd - gathering the second word in the meaning of "large gathering of people" has the stylistic labels "disapproved." and "razg.", which "reduces" its meaning in the text and serves as an expression of a negative assessment.
The use of synonyms can create a comic effect and be a means of characterizing a character:
-- Died Claudia Ivanovna, - said the customer.
- Well, the kingdom of heaven, - agreed Bezenchuk. - Passed away, so the old woman ...
Old ladies, they always pass away ... Or give their soul to god, - it depends on what kind of old woman. Yours, for example, is small and in body - that means she has passed away. And, for example, which is larger and thinner, it is believed that it gives its soul to God ...
- That is, how is it counted? Who counts it?
- It counts with us. At the masters. Here you are, for example, a prominent man, eminent growth, albeit thin. You, it is believed, if, God forbid, die, what in box played... And who is a merchant, a former merchant guild, that means ordered to live long... And if someone is of a lesser rank, a janitor, for example, or some of the peasants, they say about him: spread over or legs stretched... But the most powerful, when they die, a railway conductor or someone from the authorities, it is believed that give oak... So they say about them: "And ours, they heard, gave an oak."
Shocked by this strange classification of human deaths, Ippolit Matveyevich asked:
- Well, and when you die, how will the masters say about you?
- It is impossible to give me an oak tree or play in a box: I have a small build ...(I. Ilf and E. Petrov. Twelve chairs)
Sometimes there is the use of synonyms in the so-called antonymic situation. for instance : this city is old, but not old... Let us compare the following statement by K.S. Stanislavsky: The actors have not hands, but hands, not fingers, but fingers ... They do not walk, they walk, they do not sit, they sit, they do not lie, but recline ...
Antonyms(gr. anti - against + onyma - name) words with opposite meanings are called.
Words that are correlative with each other in terms of logical connection, generality of semantics and grammatical meanings(refer to the same part of speech). For example, ruddy - pale, cheerful - sad, polite - rude, health - illness, joy - sadness. The given pairs contain opposite meanings in the field of quality, state, as well as properties of objects and phenomena. Antonyms can also express contrasting concepts of time (early - late, morning - evening), space (close - distant, south - north), size, volume (small - large, shallow - deep), feelings (love - hate, happiness - grief ), age (old - young), natural phenomena (cold - heat, windy - quiet), contrasting concepts in the field of objects and phenomena associated with human social activities (labor - idleness, victory - defeat, peace - war), etc.
V antonymic relationship come far not all words Russian language. So, nouns with a specific meaning (house, table, wall) do not have antonyms, numerals do not have antonyms, most pronouns and proper names have no antonyms. As a rule, there are no antonyms among qualitative adjectives denoting the names of colors and their shades (with the exception of a few: black - white, dark - light), although in general, antonymic pairs among quality adjectives are formed especially actively, and this is precisely what serves as one of distinctive features quality adjectives.
By structure antonyms are divided into different roots ( day Night) and single-rooted ( come - go, revolution - counter-revolution).
Antonyms, as already mentioned, are usually coupled in the language. However, this does not mean that a particular word can have one antonym. Antonymic relations allow expressing the opposition of concepts in an "open", polynomial series, cf.: specific - abstract, abstract; happy- sad, sad, dull, boring.
Such a correlation of synonymous and antonymic relations reflects the systemic connections of words in vocabulary. The interconnection of polysemy and antonymy of lexical units also indicates consistency. When choosing antonyms, it is taken into account possibility of word ambiguity... So, the word low can be an antonym not only for the word high (low house - high house), but also to the words noble (low deed - noble deed), sublime (low goal - sublime goal).
14 semantic types of antonyms.
Antonymic pairs (as opposed to synonyms) differ not in stylistic and emotional-evaluative features, but almost exclusively in conceptual ones. Their logical basis is incompatible concepts, that is, concepts whose volumes do not coincide. Incompatible concepts are of three types - opposite (contra) and contradictory (contradictory), multidirectional (vector).
1) Contradictory antonyms are represented by pairs whose members are mutually exclusive. Into the contradictory opposition it is inadmissible to include a neutral term... Contradictory antonyms are mainly represented by pairs of single-root words, one of which contains a negative word-formation prefix, meaning the absence or deprivation of any feature, for example, loading - unloading, good faith - bad faith... This kind of opposition shows gradualism in the expression of a generic trait.
2) Vector antonyms... They represent the opposite of directions: there - here, up - down, sunrise - sunset, ascend - descend, enter - exit, descend - ascend, light - extinguish, revolution - counterrevolution.
Stylistic synonyms
Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism. From allegory to iambic. - M .: Flinta, Science... N.Yu. Rusova. 2004.
See what "stylistic synonyms" are in other dictionaries:
stylistic synonyms- see stylistic synonyms (synonyms in the article) ...
stylistic synonyms- 1. Synonyms that differ only stylistically. 2. Synonyms that coincide in meaning, but differ in belonging to different styles speech, degree of use, expressive coloring etc … Explanatory translation dictionary
Stylistic resources of vocabulary, or lexical stylistics- - 1) section of linguistic stylistics, focused on the description of stylistic resources of the modern. Russian lit. language on lexical level linguistic structure (see the works of L.V. Shcherba, G.O. Vinokur, A.N. Gvozdev, A.M. Efimov, D.I. Rosenthal, D.N. ...
- (Greek synonymos of the same name) words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or in stylistic coloring, or both. They can also be synonymous ... ... Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism
Synonyms- (from the Greek συνώνυμος of the same name) words of the same part of speech (as well as, in a broader sense, phraseological units, morphemes, syntactic constructions) that have completely or partially coinciding meanings. As a unit of meaning ... ... Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary
synonyms- (Greek synonymos of the same name). Words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or in stylistic coloring, or both. Synonyms usually belong to ... ... Dictionary linguistic terms
Syntax stylistic resources, or syntactic stylistics- - stylistic possibilities of syntax means, their role in generating stylistically marked statements; the ability of syntactic units to act as expressive stylistic means, i.e. associated with the achievement of ... ... Stylistic Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language
Synonyms- This term has other meanings, see Synonym (meanings). Synonyms of words of one part of speech, different in sound and spelling (compare homonyms), but having the same or very close lexical meaning(compare antonyms). Examples ... ... Wikipedia
Synonyms- (from the Greek synônymia - the same name) - identical or similar in meaning (but different in sound) units of the language of the same level (morphemes, words and phrases, syntactic constructions). S. are most often called close or identical by ... ... Stylistic Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language
Synonyms- (from the Greek synonymos of the same name) words related to one part of speech, the meanings of which contain identical elements; the differing elements of these values are permanently neutralized in certain positions. Thus, S. can be recognized ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Books
- School explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Active vocabulary of the literary language. Interpretation. Pronunciation. Examples of use. Synonyms. Antonyms. Grammatical and stylistic characteristics, Skorlupovskaya E. The dictionary contains more than 8000 words and phrases that represent the active vocabulary of the modern Russian language. ... Each dictionary entry indicates grammatical and stylistic ...