1. Retrospective of the Middle Ages.

2. Development of travel in the Middle Ages.

3. Travel for commercial purposes.

4. Travel by "knowledge" and their geography.

5. Founders of sea voyages in the Middle Ages.

6. Development of traditions of hospitality in the Middle Ages.

1. The Middle Ages, the Middle Ages - this is the second historical age in the development of civilizations, the time of the birth, development and decomposition of feudalism, which lasted twelve centuries (end of the 5th century - the middle of the 17th century). The chronological framework of this period is considered to be two significant historical dates - the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Age of Great Geographical Discoveries. The Middle Ages was a complex historical and cultural phenomenon, which has its own specifics among different peoples and was established at different times. So, in Western Europe, this historical age developed from the end of the 5th century. AD in other regions later. The duration of this period was also not the same. That is why we should talk about the Middle Ages, Western European, Eastern European, about the medieval period of the development of Arab culture and the like. However, there were also similar features of the development of cultures and peoples. Religion dominated the world. At present, the main world religions already existed - Buddhism (originated in Ancient India in the 6th-5th centuries BC), Christianity (originated in the 1st century AD as a religion of the oppressed in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, in Palestine ) and Islam (originated in the 7th century AD in Arabia). Religion in the Middle Ages greatly influenced the worldview of people, limiting their horizons. The scientific achievements of the era of antiquity were revised. The idea of ​​the sphericity of the Earth and the idea of ​​a single World Ocean were forgotten. Everything was permeated with religious content, and the material culture of Antiquity was viewed by the church as a sinful heritage, subject to oblivion and destruction. Religion came into force and had a huge impact on society, on domestic and foreign policy, on socio-economic relations in general. The everyday life of people was determined by the religious cult, which included visiting temples and holy places. The reasons that prompted people to go on long journeys were different: the hope to receive spiritual support, the desire to recover, the need to fulfill the repentance imposed by the priest who professes. It is not surprising that it was under such conditions that the religious tradition turned into a large-scale pilgrimage for broad masses of believers at the end of the 5th century. AD

2. The culture and life of the Middle Ages were permeated with a religious spirit, therefore, only travels that were carried out for spiritual purposes were of value. That is why most of the medieval travel was associated with the movement of pilgrims to the Holy Places. Pilgrimage (from Lat. Palm, palm branch) is a journey of believers to the Holy Places in the hope of supernatural help. The name comes from the custom of pilgrims to bring a palm branch from Palestine - Paloma. People who traveled for religious purposes in different regions were called pilgrims, pilgrims, or cripples. In all religions of the world there are natural (rivers, springs, mountains, caves) or cult (temples, burials, relics of saints) objects to which these people made their journeys. In the V century. the pilgrimage is most widespread and the church should impose restrictions on its implementation.

The "religious" roads of Christians and Muslims led to Jerusalem - the city of Christ's earthly residence, in which objects of worship have been concentrated over the centuries. For Christians, such objects were the temples of the Resurrection, the Holy Sepulcher, the Tree of the Holy Cross, the churches of the Tomb of the Virgin Mary, Golgotha ​​- the place where Jesus was buried, the Armageddon Valley, Yardenit - the place of baptism of pilgrims, the Anointing stone, etc. For Muslims - the Kubbat mosque al-Sahra, Omar and Al-Aqsa, the sacred court of Haram el-Sheriff. Other centers of pilgrimage for Christians and Hajj for Muslims were places of worship in Rome (St. Peter's Cathedral) and Bethlehem (Church of the Nativity of Christ), Mecca (Al Harri, Kaaba temple), Medina (Tomb of Muhammad), etc. ...

Centers of Buddhist pilgrimage in the Middle Ages can be called Cape Kandy (modern Sri Lanka) with the temple of Dalida Maligawa, Lhasa with the monastery and palace of the Dalai Lama, Nara with Totaiji monastery similar. Since the pilgrimage in the Middle Ages became widespread, routes (road books) to Palestine began to be issued for those who traveled for religious purposes. A special "service" for the pilgrims was carried out by the Licar Order of the Hospitallers, formed at the monastery of the Virgin Mary in Jerusalem. The main task of the Order was to help the sick, as well as to protect the pilgrims from the robbery of the infidels. Gradually, the Hospitallers established a whole network of hospitals (hospes) in the cities not only of the Holy Land, but also throughout the Middle East. In the VIII century. was written a guide (itinerarium) for pilgrims "The Tale of Epiphanius Agiopolitus about Syria and the Holy City", and then another "A brief description of the cities and country from Antioch to Jerusalem and also Syria, Phenicia and the saints of the city of Palestine" "in which the cities of Beirut, Sidon, Nazareth, the shrines of Jerusalem and its environs in the Jordan Valley and near the Dead Sea are described in detail: monasteries, temples, dwellings of hermits.

In the Middle Ages, travel for missionary purposes was encouraged in every possible way, which contributed to the spread of their religion among dissidents. These travels were common in Christianity, especially Catholicism. One of the first missionaries was Martin of Tours. He began his preaching work in northwestern Gaul and then in Great Britain. During these historical times, travel for religious purposes was the most common.

3. The Middle Ages as a consequence of frequent wars, disorder of life, feudal

the dependence of travel was not widespread, but large feudal lords with guards, groups of vagabonds, consisting of poets, actors and singers, moved along the roads. Special groups consisted of people who traveled for commercial purposes. The commercial life of the Middle Ages was dying out. Only the reorientation of trade routes to the north of Europe took place. This is due to the fact that, firstly, the Arab Caliphate (a feudal-theocratic state that included the countries of the Near and Middle East, the countries of South-Western Europe and North Africa) cut off European trade routes from Asian and African markets.

Secondly, there is a certain rate of development of vehicles and communication lines. For land vehicles, they hardly changed. Carts were used to move cargo, and carts were used to transport people, sometimes sedan chairs, titled persons had permission to use carriages. Water vehicles received more modernization, which were already equipped with navigation devices, which made it possible to sail not only long distances along the coast, but also because of the large oceanic expanses.

In the Middle Ages, it was possible to travel by land thanks to roads that have survived from ancient times (Roman roads). The peasants and townspeople were to restore, repair and maintain in good condition these roads. But the roads were built. Thus, the first state road between Mainz and Koblenz was built in Europe. Almost all of central Europe was crossed by a dirt road - "Vindobonska arrow", which ran from the Baltic to Vindobona (modern Vienna). Amber was transported along it, therefore this road was also called "Amber Shlyakh".

It should be noted that the so-called "travel boom" covered all the countries of medieval Europe. The best roads were in Byzantium and in the countries of the Balkan Peninsula. Roads girdled mountain spurs and went from Trieste along the Danube to the Black Sea and further to Constantinople.

Thirdly, at that time (VII century) a large trade route along the North Sea was developed. The pioneers of this path were the Frisians - the people who inhabited the territory of Friesland and Zeeland (modern Belgium and Holland). It should be noted that the merchants of that time preferred exactly the water trade routes (sea, river or lake) as the safest and cheapest.

The development of communication lines and vehicles in the Middle Ages contributed to the development of travel in general, and travel for commercial purposes as well. The commercial interests of European merchants were directed to the north, west and east. European merchants understood the opportunities that trade with countries opened up for them East Asia, therefore, this direction was of particular interest. In order to explore unknown lands and distant countries, many travels were carried out.

The most famous travel for commercial purposes is considered to be the travel of the Polo merchants from Venice. In 1260, the brothers Nicolo and Matteo Polo went to the East for the first time. They were the first Europeans to cross all of mainland Asia and arrived before the Mongol ruler of China Kublai Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan). Having agreed with him on trade with Western countries, they moved to Italy. The journey was long.

On the next trip, they went with Marco (the son of Nicolo Polo), who was only fifteen years old. Arriving at the eastern ruler, the Polo family stayed with him for services. Marco Polo was the personal envoy of the great Kublai for 17 years. During this time, Marco Polo visited many provinces of Mongolia, Burma, Korea, Armenia, etc. By order of the khan, he described in detail in his diary different territories, populations, and features of nature.

Returning to Italy, Marco Polo wrote "A Book on the Diversity of the World", which aroused the keen interest of Europeans. Scientists drew from it information about the natural world of distant countries and exotic islands, the culture of peoples, they were inhabited. In general, the book became not only the first description of Asian countries in Europe, but also served as a guide for cartographers of the XIV-XV centuries. when drawing up maps. All educated people of medieval Europe had the "Book on the Diversity of the World" in their library. Christopher Columbus reread it many times. Therefore, it is fair to say that it stimulated the development of travel with various purposes, not only in the Middle Ages, but also in subsequent ones.

The most significant travel with commercial purposes should be attributed to the travel of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin. About his journey, he set off in the spring of 1468 on two ships, together with a caravan of Arab ambassadors. India was the ultimate goal. Many adversities fell to the lot of the traveler (robberies by the Tatars, death of comrades-in-arms, loss of goods), but the journey continues. In the fall, it leaves Baku through the Derbenske (Caspian) Sea to Iran, then through the Elburz Mountains to the city of Hormuz (a port in the Persian Gulf) and then through the Indian (Arabian) Sea to India.

The Tver merchant-traveler stayed in India itself for about four years. Afanasy Nikitin visited the northern and central parts of medieval India. I traveled slowly. I stayed for a long time in some town where I was engaged not only in trade, but also conducted observations. At the end of 1473, the traveler goes to his native land and already through the Pontus Euxine or Russian (Black) Sea gets to Kafa (Feodosia), then the Dnieper city to Kiev and possibly to Smolensk (the exact place is not determined) where he died of a serious illness. In his journey he crossed three seas, therefore he called the description of his wanderings "The Voyages of the Three Seas of Afanasy Nikitin". In these notes, the traveler recorded everything he saw truthfully and realistically, without decorations. That is why they still have scientific value today, especially those that relate to the description of the route to India itself, geographic location and the political structure of Asian countries, biography and religions (84 religious movements) of numerous nationalities, the nature of the Indian subcontinent. A special merit in this of the merchant-traveler lies in the fact that 30 years before the "discovery" of India by the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama, he independently, without support from the state and the church, made this journey, made and described the route.

In general, travel for commercial purposes opened up the limited circle of the medieval world and stimulated the development of travel for other purposes, especially the discovery and study of other countries of the world.

4. Regular trade and economic relations with other countries and contacts with foreigners contributed to the spread of scientific knowledge in medieval Europe. Society began to add value not only to learning, but also to literacy. During the Middle Ages, Latin-based literacy began to develop in Western Europe. The Slavic peoples received writing thanks to the learned monks-educators brothers Cyril and Methodius. In the middle of the IX century. Cyril, on the basis of the Greek alphabet, created the Slavic alphabet, and together with Methodius they translated church books from the Greek. Along with translated works in ancient Russian culture were specific - chronicles containing invaluable information on history Ancient Rus... The most significant work of this period was the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years", written in 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor.

Gradually revived such human qualities as "bookishness and learning". There was a need for knowledge. Scientific and cultural centers began to form. Such centers in Western Europe have become the cities of Bologna, Paris, Oxford, Salerno, Rome, Orleans, Salamanca, Valencia, etc. Eastern Slavs were Kiev, Novgorod, Polotsk, Rostov, etc.

The development of medieval culture is closely associated with the opening of universities. The first university is Bologna (XI century). He was the most popular in Europe. Therefore, a large number of students studied there, for whom the corporations Tsitromontaniv (actually Italians) and Ultramontaniv (foreigners) were formed. Our fellow countryman Yuri Drohobych studied at this university. Here he received his Ph.D. in philosophy, and then was the rector of the university.

In 1200, the Sorbonne was formed by the charter of Philip II Augustus. Paris in the Middle Ages was called the "city of science" and "new Athens", which was true. It was here that the center of science and culture was located.

Later, namely in the XIII century. Oxford and Cambridge Universities in England, Salamanca Universities in Spain are opened. And already in 1500r. 65 universities were opened across Europe.

The best minds of the time taught at the universities. The famous lawyer of the time, Irnerius, taught at the University of Bologna, who revolutionized jurisprudence. He wrote the first book on law. The University of Paris attracted students because it was taught by the followers of the philosopher Ibn Rushd, who developed the philosophical views of Aristotle and Avicenna. The University of Salerno attracted by the fact that the teacher here was Arnold da Villanova, who wrote the first encyclopedia "Salerno Codex". In this institution, one could get the best medical education.

The principles of functioning of the university system were the same for the whole of Europe. Theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, medicine, and later the natural sciences, formed the basis of university education. The teaching was conducted in Latin. The training could stretch for many years ago, that students often moved from one university to another, if the discipline was laid out somewhere, they were interested, or lectures were given by famous professors. The degree awarded by the university was recognized throughout the Christian world. This made it possible to study where young people considered the most acceptable for themselves. Such provisions contributed to the birth of "student" travel or travel for "knowledge". Traveling from city to city, as well as from country to country, became common in medieval Europe. These student travelers were called vagants. With the emergence of universities in Europe, the traditions of educational travel are revived.

5. Even in the early Middle Ages, sea travel was widespread in Europe. The founders of sea travel at that time were Irish monks. The most famous travelers, more precisely the lucky ones, were those whose names and travels found a place in the sagas (Old Icelandic prose works, the authorship of which has not been established). It was these works that brought to us the name of the Irish sailor monk - St. Brandan (other sounding Brendan or Brandon), who sailed on Currie from Ireland through the North Strait and the Irish Sea to England. Legends attribute to him the discovery of the islands of Iceland and Jan Mayen. The Irishman Cormac discovered the Faroe (Sheep) Islands.

In the discovery, often secondary, after the ancient Irish, in the development of the North Atlantic, the "northern people" - the Normans or the Vikings - played a significant role. They were good navigators, the very name of this people speaks for itself - "Viking" from Old Norse means a bay, and "Vikings" are people who put their ships in bays. Swedish scientists have their own vision of the origin of this name, drawing another parallel. In their opinion, the term "viking" is derived from the verb "vikya" - to return, to deviate. Thus, a Viking is a person who sailed from home, perhaps a sea warrior, an outflow for prey. The Normans themselves called the Vikings those who participated in pirate expeditions. In medieval Europe they were called Varangs (in Byzantium) and Varangians (in Russia). In Arab countries they were called madhusams, which meant sea monsters. The main occupations of the ancient Normans were cattle breeding and sea crafts. In search of fish and sea animals, they sailed across the northern seas. Since agriculture could not provide the population with food, especially bread, the Normans were forced to go to other "grain" countries of Europe for exchange operations. In European markets, the Normans traded furs, fish, leather, honey and fat for bread and other products. The Normans often associated simple trade with the slave trade because it was slaves who were the most expensive commodity.

According to the sagas, the Normans had good ships - single-masted dribnositny sailboats (Knera), which allowed them to sail both on the sea and along the rivers. This greatly expanded the geography of their travels. While sailing, they were guided by the sun and the stars, or by the depths and sea animals. From their shores, the Normans swam and raided in all directions. In the eastern direction, the Normans through the Baltic Sea, using the old Russian trade routes, penetrated into Byzantium, the Arab Caliphate and Central Asia. From there to Europe, they delivered silk, spices, wine, jewelry and silver in coins. Moving westward, the Normans settled on the islands of the North Atlantic, the first of the Europeans crossed the ocean, discovered Greenland and visited the northeastern shores of America. The discovery of North America by the Normans was eventually forgotten, but the discovery of Greenland, Iceland and the North Atlantic remained with them.

Moving south and bypassing the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula through Gibraltar, the Normans penetrated the Mediterranean Sea, and further to Sicily and southern Italy. Norman waterways encircled not only all of Europe, but also northern Africa (Mediterranean countries).

Thanks to the Normans, a single European economic space was formed. Even more their merit is associated with sea travel and, in this regard, the discovery of new geographical objects (the islands of Iceland and Greenland, the lands of North America). For medieval Europeans, these discoveries are unattractive because of the unfavorable natural conditions. But later, these voyages prompted the search for the British at the end of the sixteenth century. Northwest Passage, and later the Great Geographical Discoveries during the Renaissance.

6. During the Middle Ages, travel for pilgrimage and trade was widespread. This contributed to the further development of the culture of hospitality. That is why the development of infrastructure for travelers in the Middle Ages is associated with the formation of shelters for pilgrims (in Spain they were called albergaria or hospitale). They were built at monasteries and orders of knights. In these shelters, pilgrims could find not only lodging and free bread, but also receive medical assistance. Since the XV century. already in all the major cities of medieval Europe there were sitting yards and taverns, where, while traveling, they could stop for a rest for a small fee. Here guests were provided with a minimum of services, and the living conditions were uncomfortable. As a rule, seating yards were built next to the tracks. Typical road hospitable courtyards had a tavern, stables, service and utility rooms on the ground floor, and guest rooms on the upper floors.

In Russia (or, as it was called in Western Europe, Muscovy), the hospitality infrastructure developed more slowly than in Europe. So, in Russia inns were widespread, which were built along the paths. They were called pits. In the XV century. in Russia, there was a centralized institution - the Yamsk order, which regulated the then transportation throughout the country. The pits were the forerunners of hotels and served as a resting place for travelers and changing horses. They, as a rule, were located from each other at a distance of the equestrian crossing. Already in 1549, guest yards were built for foreigners in Muscovy, which were distinguished by great comfort. In addition to accommodation, they provided catering services and the ability to carry out commercial transactions. Foreigners settled in living rooms by nationality, since they were "English", "German", "Dutch", "Greek" and others.

In the Byzantine Empire, a caravanserai was built on the roads for travelers, where the traveler could spend the night, eat, and also carry out trade operations. As a rule, they were placed from each other at a distance of one day's drive. Their appearance resembled large storage rooms in which people were housed on tiers along the courtyard.

One of the most travel-friendly regions of medieval Europe was the south, namely Italy. It revived the traditions of hospitality in the days of Ancient Rome. Over time, hospitality became a lucrative business. It was in Italy that the "Unions of Hotel Owners" had been operating since 1282 - guilds of hotel owners, which developed rules for the owners and guests of hotels.

In the XVI century. in the cities of England, inns and taverns for commoners, which were called simple, were widespread. In them, at a common table, the next dishes were served at a fixed price. In England, accommodation facilities, unlike those in other European countries, were much more comfortable.

The Europeans' favorite vehicle was the post carriage, and the cities of stops in roadside taverns and inns were later called post stations. Similar structures became widespread in Russia, albeit a little later. The first roadside hotel was built in St. Petersburg.

Other establishments in the hospitality system include cafes that first appeared in Venice (Italy). In England were popular "Chocolate Houses", and in France - "Hot Chocolate Boutiques", in Paris in 1533 the first restaurant-type establishment was opened.

The life of a medieval man was not devoid of entertainment and holidays. With the development of trade and crafts, radical changes took place in the way of life of the inhabitants of the city. The accents of cultural entertainment have also changed, which from "laughter" turns into "carnival-arena". So in the Middle Ages, such forms of attraction as fairs, professional holidays, carnivals and the like are developing. Among the most popular spectacles of the Middle Ages were knightly tournaments, which attracted a large audience. The townspeople were also attracted by theatrical performances, including performances by itinerant artists (jugglers, animal trainers, acrobats, etc.).

In Russia, festivities were one of the forms of leisure in the cities. These measures are usually attached to church holidays and significant events in public life. Especially merry festivities were held at Christmas, Easter and Shrovetide. Depending on the season, they were accompanied by rides on a merry-go-round, troika, sleigh rides, the construction of a snow fort, and the like. Booths and fairgrounds were necessarily arranged.

Carnival traditions developed in Western European countries. The word “carnival” itself comes from Italian, which means “goodbye to meat.” So, carnivals were organized 40 days before Easter, on the first day of the New Year, on Epiphany, etc. in the 15th century.It should be noted that carnivals and city holidays contributed to the development of the hospitality system in the Middle Ages.

According to the development of land vehicles in the Middle Ages, in addition to carts for travel, they also used couchs - stretchers that were carried either by servants or by horses. Wheeled horse-drawn carriages were common, but only privileged persons could move on them. If we talk about water vehicles, then they got the best quality, allowing you to make long journeys (caravels).

Especially for those traveling in the Middle Ages, guidebooks were printed, which described in detail not only the paths, but also indicated places for rest, attractions, churches, monasteries, baths, and the like. The earliest of the guidebooks was compiled for pilgrims in the 13th century. - Itinerarium "The Story of Epiphanius Agiapolitus about Syria and the Holy City", written in Greek.

In Russia, pilgrims were given passports for travel, which were a kind of guarantor of their safety on the trip. There was also a special document (traveler), issued to everyone who planned to go on a long journey.

Conclusions: in the Middle Ages, research travels were carried out (with the aim of Persimilarity or scientific purposes), cognitive, trade and religious (pilgrimage), health, "for knowledge", etc. Of particular relevance in European countries have acquired a pilgrimage to the Holy Places, trade and travel "for knowledge". Infrastructure elements were argued, namely, accommodation establishments (hostels, inns, inns, hospitable courtyards, caravanserais) for travelers and food (taverns, taverns, cafes) were upset; new land and sea routes were laid (Vindobondska or Amber Route, Volga Route, "From the Varangians to the Greeks", "From the Vikings to the Persians", the North-Eastern Passage, the South-Eastern Trade Route); travel guides (itineraria) were created; vehicles (caravels; postal carriages) were modernized.

In the Middle Ages, economic and cultural ties continued to develop between various countries of the East and West, North and South. This was largely facilitated by the travels of writers, travelers, diplomats and merchants. However, the main incentive force that forced people to undertake long journeys to foreign countries was military campaigns and trade.

From the VII century. AD the Arabs living on the Arabian Peninsula began to spread their power and their faith, the militant, "Mohammedan", or Muslim religion - Islam (in Arabic - obedience) over a vast territory. In the East, they conquered the entire Iranian Highlands and Turkestan, to the north of Arabia - Mesopotamia, the Armenian Highlands and part of the Caucasus, in the northwest - Syria and Palestine, in the west - all of North Africa. In 711, the Arabs crossed the strait, which from that time began to be called the Arabic word Gibraltar, and within a few months they conquered almost the entire Iberian Peninsula.

Arab merchants sailed in all the seas of the Old World, except for the northern ones, and traveled to tropical Asia, subtropical countries and countries of the temperate zone - Eastern Europe and Central Asia. They penetrated sub-Saharan African countries and crossed the equator. Thanks to their widespread trade, the Arabs provided the medieval world with a number of distinguished travelers.

A famous Arab traveler was Suleiman, a merchant from Basra. He made a trip to the Persian Gulf through the Indian Ocean to China, visiting Ceylon, Sumatra, and the Nicobar Islands along the way. About his journey, Suleiman left notes dating back to 851 AD, in which he described the route he traveled and the adventures that happened in the city.

At the turn of the 9-10th centuries. the Arab writer Ibn-Dasta traveled to Western Asia and Eastern Europe. He presented the results of his wanderings on Arabic in the historical-geographical encyclopedia "The Book of Precious Treasures", which contains valuable information about the Slavs.

In 921-922. Ahmed Ibn-Fadlan participated as the secretary of the embassy sent by the Baghdad caliph Muktadir at the request of the Bulgarian king Alimas to the “Volga Bulgars” who had converted to Islam in order to strengthen them in Islam. The embassy passed through the Iranian highlands and Bukhara to Khorezm, crossed the desert plateau Ustyurt and the Caspian lowland and reached the capital of the “Volga Bulgars”. Ibn-Fadlan wrote about his travels a book "Journey to the Volga", which is one of the critical sources on the medieval history of the Volga and Trans-Volga regions.

Among the travelers of the first half of the 10th century. distinguished Baghdad Arab Massoudi (died in Egypt in 956), historian and geographer. Two of his books have come down to us: "Golden Meadows and Diamond Placers" and "Messages and Observations", which include extensive materials about the nature, history and ethnography of the countries he visited. He visited all the countries of the Near and Middle East, Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe, and in the south - East Africa to Madagascar inclusive.

For about 20 years he wandered across Western Asia and North Africa Palestinian Arab Mukaddasi. In the Indian Ocean alone, he walked "about two thousand farsakhs" (about 11.5 thousand km.), Which he described in his book "The best instruction for the knowledge of climates."

Idrisi (1100 - 1161) was an outstanding traveler and scientist of the 12th century. In his youth, he visited Asia Minor, England, France, Spain. Educated in Cordoba.

Idrisi was invited by the Sicilian king - the Norman Roger II, an ardent lover of all kinds of geographic news, to Palermo to draw up geographic maps.

The Sicilian king sent experienced travelers and skilled artists to different countries, who reported to Roger about what they had seen, heard and painted.

For 15 years, Idrisi was involved in processing the information delivered to him. The result of a long work was the composition of Idrisi "Entertainment of the weary in a wandering through the regions" with 70 cards, and "Garden of affection and entertainment of the soul" with 73 cards.

However, the most prominent Arab traveler of the 14th century was the itinerant merchant Ibn Battuta (1304-1377), a Berber by birth.

In 1325, Ibn Battuta sent by land from Tangier to Alexandria of Egypt, visited Syria, Western Arabia, Iraq and Yemen, visited the capital of the Golden Horde - Saray Berke. He was in Constantinople, Khorezm, Urgentch, Bukhara, Samarkand, India, China, sailed to Ceylon and the Maldives. In 1354, Ibn Battuta finished his journey and dictated a description of his wanderings, relying entirely on his memory for 25 years of travel, he traveled about 120 thousand km by land and by sea. The indefatigable traveler visited Muslim countries and possessions in Europe and Byzantium, North and East Africa, Western and Central Asia, India, Ceylon and China.

The book "Ibn Battuta's Journey" has been translated into a number of European languages. It contains a huge historical, geographical and ethnographic material, represents great interest for the present time for explorers and travelers.

Thus, Arab travelers made a significant contribution to the history of the development and discovery of new lands, significantly expanded the ideas of ancient authors about the world around them, introduced Western Europe to the Asian continent, continued and described the most important trade routes, and contributed to the rapprochement of Asian and European civilizations.

If we owe the Arabs the first news about the East and South, then the Normans - the information about the North and the New World.

The brave sailors - the Normans were known under various names - Danes, aksamats, Vikings, Gaids, Ostmans, Historylings and Nordleids.

The main occupations of the Normans were cattle breeding and fishing. In search of fish and sea animals, they made long journeys across the northern seas.

The ships of the Normans were solidly built from oak and spruce wood. Acquaintance with the stormy North Sea forced them to build not flat ships, which sailed in the Mediterranean, but high ones, with a deck, tanks and quarterdecks. It was on ships of this kind that the Normans undertook their predatory raids to Constantinople in one direction and to the American coast in the other.

Despite the predatory nature of some of the voyages of the Normans, their discoveries and improvements in maritime affairs undoubtedly influenced the preparation and conduct of the great voyages of subsequent sailors.

From time immemorial Slavic peoples proved themselves to be brave travelers and navigators. In written sources relating to our era, it is said that even then the Slavs had mastered the waterway along the Dnieper. From the records of Greek historians it is clear that the Russians in the 6th-7th centuries. went along the Dnieper to the Black Sea and through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles - to the Marmara, Aegean and Adriatic seas.

By the end of the VIII and the beginning of the IX centuries. a state was created with the center in Kiev. At the same time, the Russian people mastered the famous route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", connecting the Black and Baltic seas.

There was also another waterway running from Novgorod and Kiev to the Volga.

The ancestors of the Slavs also sailed on their boats in the Baltic Sea, went to Atlantic Ocean and through the Strait of Gibraltar they entered the Mediterranean Sea. Traces of ancient Slavic settlements have been found even in England.

In the X-XI centuries. Due to its geographical position, Russia was the center of the intersection of trade routes between the West and the East. As a result of the campaigns of the Russian princes Oleg (911) and Igor (944) against Constantinople, trade agreements were concluded with Byzantium.

In connection with the adoption of Christianity in Russia (988), the “walking” of the Russian people to the “Holy Land” became widespread.

Thus, the development of trade relations of Ancient Russia with neighboring countries and pilgrimages to “holy places” contributed to the formation of reliable routes for trade caravans and pilgrims' routes, the creation of inns with places to sleep and eat, the formation of a kind of service system reminiscent of a modern tourist service.

Soon after the discovery of America by the Normans, Europe was involved in the crusades that lasted nearly two centuries.

The most massive movement of people in medieval Europe took place during the Crusades, which were undertaken by European monarchs, knights and merchants in order to seize other people's wealth and territories. Priests and pilgrims followed them to the East, accompanied by many beggars.

Even in antiquity, the struggle began for the conquest of the countries of Western Asia (especially Syria and Mesopotamia), as well as for the conquest of Egypt. These countries were one of the richest and most cultural regions of the then world. The routes of international trade ran through them. Byzantium and Iran fought for domination in these countries. At the end of the XI century. the feudal states of Western Europe also entered the struggle.

Crusades to the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, which took place under the guise of a religious event, began at the end of the 11th century. and continued intermittently until the end of the XII century.

What is the significance of the Crusades? They have not only general historical interest (as an expression of ideas and moods of minds in a certain period of medieval history), but also cognitive. They are rich external factors and the results, which, although they were bought at a very high price, had a significant impact on spiritual development European peoples. Then Western Europeans for the first time rose from their places in large masses to get acquainted with peoples and countries unknown to them. They partially assimilated their manners and customs, partially passed on their concepts and views to them. In the East, a new world opened up for the Europeans with completely unfamiliar and alien concepts, a way of life and a political structure. Stories and descriptions of what he saw and heard made up a rich literature, which was read with lively interest in monasteries and knightly castles.

The Muslim East has had a significant impact on various aspects of the life of Western European society - on its material culture, way of life and much more.

For example, in the XII - XIII centuries. In Western Europe, following the example of Muslim countries, they began to sow buckwheat and rice, grow watermelons, apricots and lemons, and plant a Damascus rose. From the same time, cane sugar, previously unknown to Europeans, came into use (earlier in Europe, honey was the only sweet food product). In the XII century. in Europe began to build windmills- their crusaders saw in Syria. Eastern origin some fabrics were also used: atlas (in Arabic this word means beautiful), muslin (from the name of the city of Mosul), damask (from the name of the city of Damascus). From the end of the XI - XII centuries. in the West, carrier pigeons began to be bred, which the Arabs had long used. For many centuries, the inhabitants of Western Europe washed only with cold water, and wore a dress to the holes. V eastern countries Europeans learned to bathe in hot baths and change clothes and underwear.

The knights brought shields decorated with coats of arms from Syria and Palestine, as well as some musical instruments, on which military music was played during the battle.

Further development of travel is associated with the Mongol conquests. V early XIII v. The Mongols created a huge empire stretching from the Danube to the Pacific Ocean, conquering Russia, passing through Poland, Silesia, Moravia, stopping at the borders of Italy. As a result of these conquests, extensive, relatively safe routes through Eastern Europe and Asia were created, which merchants began to use, supplying the Mongol khans and the aristocracy with foreign luxury goods and positions at the headquarters of the great khan, scouts who penetrated in order to collect military and religious information, etc.

The famous traveler of the Middle Ages was the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who not only traveled from Europe to the Golden Horde, but also served at the court of the great khan for almost 25 years.

Polo returned to Venice in 1295, took part in the war with Genoa, was captured and sitting in a dungeon, dictated stories about his travels to fellow prisoner Rusticiano in Pisa, which he called: "Marco Polo's book about the diversity of the world."

The "book" by Marco Polo tells about a journey, which, according to the definition of the largest world authority in the history of geographical discoveries, the German scientist R. Hennig, "among all medieval travels, undoubtedly, is rightfully considered the most remarkable and truly outstanding event."

Speaking of travels in the Middle Ages, one cannot ignore the "walking" of the Russian merchant Afanasy Nikitin to India, which takes an honorable place among the first Russian explorers and navigators who visited distant countries. He visited the countries of Western Asia 200 years after M. Polo and went by sea from Hormuz to Hindustan, having visited the interior regions of India, where no European had ever set foot before him.

Being in India for almost four years, A. Nikitin directed his inquisitive mind and observation to study various aspects of life and nature of the then mysterious Indian land. He set out his observations in notes known under the name "Voyage across the Three Seas" - Caspian, Black, Arabian.

Thus, in the X - XIV centuries. hiking and travel were further developed. They were carried out by Russians, Byzantines, Arabs, Normans, and during the Crusades - by representatives of European peoples. In connection with the adoption of Christianity in Russia, a stream of Russian pilgrims poured into Palestine to the holy places.

The treks and travels of the X-XIV centuries undoubtedly paved the way for the era of geographical discoveries.

1.4. Travels and discoveries in the 15th – 16th centuries.

The process of decomposition of feudalism and the emergence of capitalist relations in Europe was accelerated in connection with the development of new trade routes and the opening of new countries in the 15th – 16th centuries, which marked the beginning of great geographical discoveries.

Even at the beginning of the 15th century. in a number of coastal countries there was a desire for long voyages, the purpose of which was to open a direct sea route to the "Indies", i.e. to the countries of South and East Asia, which were considered the birthplace of spices and allegedly abounded in gold. The precious metal was demanded both by the cities that had embarked on the bourgeois path of development, and by the developing trade not only between European, but also non-European states. However, as a result of the Turkish conquests in Arabia and Asia Minor, it became increasingly difficult for Western Europeans to use the old eastern, combined land and sea routes leading to South and East Asia. The search began for other routes - southern - around Africa, and western - across the Atlantic Ocean. The search for southern routes was taken up by Portugal, which in the 15th century. represented on the European continent a strong maritime power interested in further maritime expansion.

At this time, Portuguese shipbuilding achieved great success. Starting from the second half of the 15th century, the Portuguese became teachers of shipbuilding, as well as navigation for Western European peoples, holding this primacy until the last quarter of the 16th century.

In the XV century. the Portuguese created a light sailing ship - the caravela - a three-masted ship of a special design, equipped with big amount straight and oblique sails, with relatively sharp hull contours. Portuguese caravels were distinguished by high seaworthiness: they were light, fast (with a tailwind - up to 22 km per hour), freely maneuvered, in an unfavorable wind they maneuvered well, turning to the wind with one or the other side, as if they had oars. They seemed to be indispensable "for discoveries", i.e. when sailing off undiscovered or completely unknown shores, but sailing on them was far from safe.

Due to the fact that the compass and nautical charts (portolans) were improved, the Portuguese improved the goniometric instrument borrowed from the Arabs, with which the positions of the stars and latitude were calculated. At the end of the 15th century. tables of planetary motion were published, facilitating the calculation of latitude at sea, thereby significantly increasing traffic safety.

The peoples of Asia - Indians, Chinese, Malays and Arabs - during the Middle Ages made significant progress in the field of geographical knowledge, in the development of navigation in the Indian and Pacific Oceans and in the art of navigation. This was important for the geographical discoveries of Europeans in Asia, Africa and their expansion on the territory of these continents.

Such was the situation in world navigation on the eve of the great geographical discoveries. The fact that it was Spain who was the first to send westward small flotilla of X. Columbus, is explained by the conditions that historically developed in this country at the end of the 15th century.

One of these conditions was the strengthening in the last quarter of the 15th century. Spanish royalty, previously limited. In 1469, Queen Isabella of Castile married the heir to the Aragonese throne, Ferdinand, who became king of Aragon 10 years later. This is how the two most large states Iberian Peninsula - Castile and Aragon and the Spanish monarchy arose. At the beginning of 1492, Spanish troops enter Granada. The eight-century process of reconquest - the re-conquest of the Pyrenean countries by the Christian states, captured in 711 by the Muslims - the Moors, has ended.

The desire for leadership on the European continent pushed the royal power to expand the territory of the monarchy, gold mining and slaves. This could be achieved as a result of hostilities or the discovery of new lands. The possibility of the latter was given to Isabella and Ferdinand by the Italian Christopher Columbus.

J. Columbus was born in October 1451 in Italy, near Genoa. His father was the weaver Dominico Colombo, his mother was Susanna Fontanorosa. Dominico was not a wealthy man and did not even have his own house, but rented an apartment in the Genoese monastery of Santo Stefano.

Columbus made four voyages, as a result of which he initiated the discovery of the mainland - South America and the isthmuses of Central America. He opened all the Greater Antilles - Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico, the central part of the Bahamas archipelago, most of the Lesser Antilles from Dominica to the Virgin Islands inclusive, as well as Trinidad and a number of small islands in the Caribbean.

In other words, Columbus discovered all the important islands of the American Mediterranean and initiated the discovery of the double western continent, which later became known as America.

The news of Columbus's discovery caused great alarm in Portugal. The Portuguese believed that the Spaniards had violated their right to own all the lands south and east of Cape Bojador, confirmed earlier by the Pope, and were ahead of them in reaching India; they even prepared a military expedition to capture discovered by Columbus lands. To resolve this dispute, Spain turned to the pope. With a special bull, the Pope blessed the capture of all the lands discovered by Columbus by Spain.

Under these conditions, the Portuguese hastened to open the sea route to India. In the summer of 1497, the Portuguese king Manuel I appointed the young courtier Vasco da Gama as the leader of the expedition to India.

He opened the sea route from Western Europe to India and East Asia. Along with this discovery, through capture, the huge colonial empire of Portugal was created, stretching from Gibraltar to the Strait of Malacca.

From that time until the digging of the Suez Canal in the 60s. XIX century. sea ​​route around South Africa was the main road along which trade between the countries of Europe and Asia was carried out and the penetration of Europeans into the basins of the Indian and Pacific oceans took place.

A new plan for a large expedition in search of the southwestern passage to the Pacific Ocean and reaching Asia by the western route was proposed to the Spanish king by F. Magellan.

September 29, 1519 Magellan sailed from San Lucar. Magellan's flotilla consisted of five ships. Four of the five captains and almost all of the helmsmen were Portuguese. The expedition of 265 people included 37 Portuguese, 30 Italians, 19 French, several Flemings, Germans, Sicilians, British, Negroes and representatives of other nationalities.

The ships entered the open sea and headed southwest. On December 21, Magellan reached the strait, later named after him. Having passed the strait, the travelers saw in front of them a boundless ocean, which Magellan called the Pacific.

Magellan completed the work begun by Columbus: he reached the Asian mainland and the Moluccas by the western route, opening a new sea route from Europe to Asia. This was the first circumnavigation of the world in the history of mankind; it irrefutably proved the spherical shape of the Earth and the inseparability of the oceans that wash the land.

Thus, travel and discoveries of the XV – XVI centuries. significantly expanded people's ideas about the world around them, and Magellan's circumnavigation of the world became a practical confirmation of the sphericity of the Earth. Great geographical discoveries contributed not only to the formation of the world market, but also to the development of international diplomatic and cultural ties, the formation of permanent water and land routes between continents, which later became tourist ones.

1.5. Travels and discoveries in the second half of the 16th – 18th centuries.

The discovery of the New World, the sea route to India and the first round the world voyage enormously expanded the geographic horizon of mankind. All these discoveries revolutionized the worldview of the people of that time.

The predominant type of traveler in the second half of the 16th – 18th centuries. there were businessmen - adventurers and adventurers. Missionaries sometimes joined them. However, at the same time, a new type of traveler appeared, guided not only by selfish interests, but also by a love of science. Gradually, this type of traveler becomes predominant, and thanks to the work, energy of such travelers and researchers, people have managed to acquire a truly scientific knowledge of the Earth's surface today.

Despite the agreement on the division of spheres of influence between Portugal and Spain, sailors and merchants from other European countries, in search of profit and wealth, began to penetrate into unexplored parts the globe... Thus, English and French navigators explored the eastern part of North America, and the Dutch, as a result of voyages made in during the XVII century, discovered Australia, which was still poorly known by ancient authors.

The discovery of America and travel to Africa made the British desire to find through the North Arctic Ocean the nearest way to China and East India. On the advice of the famous navigator Cabot, the society of London merchants equipped in 1553 three ships under the command of Captains Willoughby, Chanceler and Durforth. Willoughby and Durforth's ships died in the Barents Sea. Chancellor entered the White Sea and reached the mouth of the Dvina. Learning that the accidentally open coast belongs to Russia, he asked to be admitted to the court of the tsar. In Moscow, Chancellor was received by John IV, to whom he presented the letter of his King Edward VI with an invitation to friendship and trade relations with England.

Thus, as a result of the British expedition, not only trade, but also cultural ties were established between Russia and England, which later became widespread.

Russian navigators and travelers made their significant contribution to the discoveries of the second half of the 16th-18th centuries, moving mainly to the southeast of Asia ( middle Asia, Mongolia, China), and the northeast (Siberia and the Far East).

The trade and diplomatic trips of the Russian people in the 16th – 17th centuries were of great educational value for contemporaries. to the countries of the East, survey of the shortest land routes for communication with the states of Central and Central Asia and China. These are the embassies of I. Khokhlov, A. Gribov, I. Petlin and others.

Ermak's campaign (1581-1584) led to the fall of the Siberian Khanate and the annexation of Western Siberia to the Russian state.

Moving east into the taiga and tundra of Eastern Siberia, the Russians discovered one of the largest rivers in Asia - the Lena (Penda's expedition).

An outstanding event of that era was the discovery in 1648 of the strait between America and Asia, made by Dezhnev and Alekseev.

During the years 1643-1651. the campaigns of the Russian detachments of V. Poyarkov and E. Khabarov to the Amur took place, having obtained a number of valuable information about this river not studied by Europeans.

The travels of Russians abroad and foreigners in Russia constitute an important part of the travel history of the 17th – 18th centuries.

The first official attempt to acquaint the Russians with Europe took place under Tsar Boris Godunov, when, on his order, five young nobles were sent to study in Lubeck, six to France, and four to England. However, only one of them returned home.

In the XVIII century. thanks to the activities of Peter 1, meetings of scientists, naturalists, historians are held, in connection with which the number of Russian tourists abroad is constantly growing. Under Peter the Great, travel became a means of education, a favorite pastime for wealthy people.

End of the 18th century marked by several famous travels around the world. Among such voyages, made by French and English sailors, is the voyage around the world of Bougainville in 1766 and Commander Byron in 1764-1766. James Cook's three voyages around the world (1768-1771, 1772-1775 and 1776-1780) should also be noted.

All three voyages are also important because for the first time naturalists of various specialties took part in them, having collected extensive scientific material.

Thus, during the second half of the XVII-XVIII centuries. thanks to the bold expeditions of sailors and travelers from many countries, most of the earth's surface, the seas and oceans that wash it, were discovered and explored. The most important sea routes were laid, connecting the continents with each other.

As a result of these discoveries, Europe's ties with the countries of Africa, South and East Asia expanded and for the first time contacts were established with America. Trade has taken on a global scale.

All this created the prerequisites for the massive movement of people from one continent to another, and prepared routes for future tourist cruises.

1.6. The development of travel in the XIX - early XX centuries. The first tourism organizations

XIX century. characterized by the victory of the capitalist mode of production in many countries, the development of industry, transport, science, the division of the world between the great powers and the rapid colonization of the previously open lands.

The beginning of the 19th century was marked by major sea voyages around the world, in which Russian sailors played a major role in many respects.

In the first three decades of the 19th century alone, five large round-the-world expeditions were equipped in Russia. The idea of ​​equipping the first round-the-world expedition belongs to the famous statesman, Chancellor Count N.P. Rumyantsev.

June 26, 1803 The ships "Neva" and "Nadezhda" under the leadership of Lieutenant-Commander I.F. Krusenstern left Kronstadt and set off on a voyage around the world, which lasted three years and 12 days.

I.F. Kruzenshtern, as the leader of the expedition, was received by Tsar Alexander 1, who ordered the minting of a medal in memory of the first Russian circumnavigation of the world and the publication of a description of the route compiled by the traveler with drawings and maps. Book I.F. Krusenstern "Around the World" was translated into many European languages ​​and put the author's name on a par with the names of famous scientists-travelers.

During the journey of I.F. Krusenstern was followed by other voyages and travels. O.E. Kotzebue, swam around the world V.M. Golovnin, having written the book "Travel around the world on the Kamchatka boat in 1817–1819".

In total, in the first half of the 19th century. Russians made about 50 round-the-world and semi-circular voyages, which completed an important stage in the history of navigation.

After graduation Napoleonic Wars resumed sea voyages England and France. The French retained their interest in the Pacific Ocean in the first half of the 19th century. sent several expeditions there, among which were voyages led by Louis de Freycinet (1817), Louis Dupperrel (1822), Jules Dumont-D'Urville (1825-1829 and 1837-1842), and others.

From the English expeditions of the first half of the XIX century. should be distinguished by its results, the expedition on the ship "Beagle" under the command of Captain Fitz-Roy, which lasted from 1831 to 1836. Charles Darwin took part in this expedition.

Geographical societies began to play the main role in organizing and managing travel in many countries, of which the first was opened in 1821 in Paris, the second in 1828 in Berlin, in 1830 in London, in 1845 - the Russian geographical society in St. Petersburg. Later, geographic societies arose in scientific centers. different countries... These societies organized travel to little-explored continents.

Part scientific research apart from geographical societies, ministries, colonial departments, local governments, other institutions and scientific societies... As a result, in the second half of the nineteenth century. in the field of studying the Earth, scientists have made significant progress. At the cost of the tremendous efforts of numerous travelers and explorers, there were fewer and fewer blank spots on the world map.

In the second half of the XIX century. a new stage of travel begins, characterized by the fact that now sea expeditions were equipped not only to discover new lands, continue routes and study the conditions of navigation, but also for scientific research of the world's oceans.

During the XIX century. almost all maritime countries, to one degree or another, took part in organizing travel for the purpose of exploring the seas and oceans.

Over the centuries-old history of travel, geographical discoveries, industrial development of new territories, expansion of micro-economic ties, numerous scientific and literary materials, reports and diaries have been collected. They played an invaluable role in the accumulation of human knowledge in various fields of science, culture, technology. Many people have a need to see new regions and countries, to get acquainted with the life and customs of their peoples. All this was the reason for the emergence of a special form of travel - tourism.

Naturally, the process of activating economic ties not only increased the mobility of the population on a huge scale, but was also accompanied by the construction of roads, comfortable hotels, restaurants, the creation of recreation areas, treatment, the study of historical and cultural attractions, etc.

At the same time, with the advent of regular passenger transport, catering and accommodation networks, many of the risks and hardships associated with travel for centuries have disappeared. To a large extent, they turn into recreational and recreational trips. V late XVIII v. representatives of the propertied classes European states who attended foreign countries out of curiosity and for the purpose of entertainment, they began to be called "tourists". By the beginning of the 19th century. the overwhelming majority of them were the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie.

In the second half of the XIX century. The scattered tourist movement in Europe, represented by single enthusiasts, is beginning to take on certain organizational forms. In 1857, the world's first association of mountain travel lovers, the English Alpine Club, was formed in London. English climbers by the middle of the XIX century. have already made many ascents to the peaks of the Alps, have become frequent visitors to the most remote areas of this mountain system and greatly contributed to the development of tourism in Europe: Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Germany, France. Having mastered the Alps, the English Alpine Club began to organize its expeditions to other mountain regions of the world: the Caucasus, the Himalayas, the Andes, the mountains of New Zealand, etc.

Following the English in 1862, the Alpine Mountain Club appeared in Turin, later transformed into the Italian Mountain Club; in 1863 the Swiss Club was founded. By the beginning of the 90s. XIX century. alpine clubs originated in many European countries as well as in the United States of America. The total number of members reached 120 thousand. Most of the clubs began to publish their own magazines dedicated to the mountains and travel in them. The first such magazine was published in London in 1863 ("Alpine Journal"). In the 90s. there were more than 30 of them. All European alpine clubs not only contributed to the organization of travel to mountainous and other areas, but also studied them, since information about the mountains in the 19th century. were still extremely limited.

In the second half of the XIX - early XX century. national and international tourism continued to develop, involving new countries in its orbit. However, tourism and excursions were still available mainly to representatives of the property classes, who made expensive trips for recreation, treatment and entertainment. At this time, national and international resorts and tourism centers were opened in France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, in the mountainous regions of Switzerland.

Thus, tourism is becoming a special form of movement of people. It developed on the basis of travels and discoveries carried out by navigators, researchers, historians, geographers and representatives of the business world, who collected and made the achievement of modern nations and peoples numerous studies, observations, descriptions, literary, historical and geographical materials, reports and diaries. The emergence of tourism became possible as a result of fundamental changes in the nature of social production, the development of means of transport and communication, the establishment of world economic relations in various fields.

End of work -

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Historical and geographical forms of tourism development. The role of international tourism organizations in the development of international cooperation in the field of tourism

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Publications of the section Literature

In the footsteps of medieval travelers

Five months long, the dangers and imperfections of transport - all this did not bother the ancient travelers medieval Russia... Pilgrimages, embassies and business travel were an important part of their lives.

Many centuries ago, pilgrims had their own, special philosophy of travel. The philologist Yuri Lotman said that the earth was simultaneously perceived by them both as a geographical space and as a place of earthly life, opposed to the life of heaven, which means that it received something unusual for modern geographic concepts religious and moral significance. Simply put, there were “sinful” lands, the path to which did not promise anything good - first of all, for the soul of the traveler, and “righteous” lands, into which people of the past mentally or physically tried to get into.

Of course, I had to go there and there. And this is how literate travelers perceived their trips.

"The Walking of Abbot Daniel"

In the 12th century, the monk Daniel made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He became the first Russian to describe a journey to the Holy Land, and the text "The Life and Voyages of Hegumen Daniel" served as a model for all subsequent "travel notes".

Daniel scrupulously describes what he sees on his way, ranging from the shrines that are in the cities he visits, and ending with the sights. The traveler is interested in literally everything: their appearance and condition, device, size. He does not forget to mention the distance between cities, and natural resources terrain.

"And on that island will be born mastic resin, and good wine, and all kinds of fruits."

Most likely, Daniel's journey took place in 1104-1106, by that time Jerusalem had already become a kingdom, and our compatriot managed to get acquainted with the first ruler of the Holy City - King Baldwin I.

“The prince of Jerusalem, Baldwin, went to war to Damascus by the way, to the Tiberias Sea, for there is a road to Damascus, past the Tiberias Sea. I learned that the prince wanted to go the way to Tiberias, went to that prince, bowed to him and said: “And I would like to go with you to the Tiberias Sea, to walk around all the holy places near the Tiberias Sea. For God's sake, take me, prince! " Then this prince gladly ordered me to go with him and attached me to his servants. Then I with great joy hired something to ride for myself. And in this way we passed those terrible places with the royal soldiers without fear and without damage. And no one can go that road without warriors; St. Helena was the only one who walked the way, and the other no one. "

"The Life and Walking of Hegumen Daniel of the Russian Land"

At the end of the 14th century, Deacon Ignatius, a native of the Smolensk principality, went to Constantinople with Bishop Michael and Metropolitan Pimen. Whether he expected to witness how many historical events he would have to become, and whether he guessed that he would never see his small homeland, which he repeatedly recalled in "Walking", we cannot say for sure.

Ignatius describes not only his journey, but mentions a "certain strife" between Metropolitan Pimen and the Moscow Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich (Donskoy), talks about the struggle for the throne between Kaloyan and Manuel Palaeologus, and finally tells about the wedding to the kingdom of Manuel II Palaeologus ( "In the summer of 6900 the month of February 11").

In his text, Ignatius conveys valuable information for posterity about how the Constantinople Hippodrome and the drum of the dome of St. Sophia Cathedral looked like.

“On the thirty-first day we went to the top of the Church of St. Sophia, saw 40 neck windows, measured a window with a pillar, two fathoms without two spans”.

"The Walking of Ignatius Smolnyanin"

Ignatius stayed in Constantinople until 1393, then went to Jerusalem (1393-1395), and ended his days on Athos, leaving a description of all his travels.

Fra Beato Angelico. "Annunciation"

"The origin of Abraham of Suzdal"

In 1437, Abraham, Bishop of Suzdal, became a member of the Russian embassy at the Ferrara-Florentine Cathedral (1438-1439). The Russian ambassador witnessed the Catholic divine service and described in detail the mysteries "Annunciation" and "Ascension", which he observed in the churches of Florence. Impressions from what he saw formed the basis for the text "The Exodus of Abraham of Suzdal to the Eighth Council with Metropolitan Isidor in the summer of 6945".

“And it was also created very wonderfully. And it is arranged upstairs behind the curtains, from the former doors to the middle of the church, twenty-five great fathoms. At this place, a stone bridge was created from one wall to the other, on stone pillars, at a height of three fathoms, and two and a half fathoms in width. And this bridge is covered with a beautiful drag. On the bed on the left side there is a bed with a master's bed and a blanket. By this bed there are very wonderful and expensive pillows in their heads. In this important and wonderful place, a prudent youth sits, dressed in expensive and wonderful girlish clothes and a crown. He holds books in his hands and reads quietly and resembles the Most Pure Virgin Mary in all likeness. "

Abraham was interested in the acting of the actors, their clothes, and the stage design. The author emotionally, even enthusiastically describes what is happening, giving the reader valuable information about the device of stage machines, fabric patterns, light and noise effects:

“During the ascent of the angel from above, fire from the father with great noise and continuous thunder went to the previously mentioned ropes and to the middle of the platform where the prophets stood. And back upward, this fire returned and from the top quickly came downward. And from this turning of the fire and from the blows, the whole church was filled with sparks. The angel climbed to the very top, rejoicing and waving his arms here and there and moving his wings.
Simply and clearly you can see how he flies. The fire begins to emanate abundantly from the upper place and rains down the whole church with a great and terrible thunder. And unlit candles in the church are lit from this great fire. And there is no harm to the spectators and their ports. This is a wondrous and terrible sight.
The angel returned up to his place from which he descended, the fire stops and the curtains are still closing. This wonderful spectacle and cunning device was seen in the city of Florence, and as far as his insanity could understand, he described this spectacle. It cannot be described otherwise, since it is wonderful and inexpressible. Amen".

"The exodus of Abraham of Suzdal to the eighth council with Metropolitan Isidor in the summer of 6945"

Merchants. Miniature from the obverse vault. XVI century

The liveliness and brilliance of the description made the text of "Proceedings" one of the most popular in Russia. Up to mid XVII century "Exodus" remained the only monument Old Russian literature telling about theatrical performances.

"The Walking of Afanasy Nikitin"

In the second half of the 15th century, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin ended up in India. It seems that he really "turned out", as he himself testifies - "from many misfortunes." Nikitin's text is a set of travel notes that are interesting not only because they deviate from the genre of walking, but also because they radically change the idea of ​​India.

For a long time in Russia, India was perceived as a paradise on earth: an ideal Christian country ruled by "tsar and priest" in one person. Among the texts with which medieval readers were familiar, one can find "The Legend of the Indian Kingdom" - a message from the mythical Indian Christian king John to the Byzantine emperor Manuel. This amazing work, without contradicting the Christian pathos, describes a whole world of amazing creatures inhabiting distant unexplored lands.

"I am a champion Orthodox faith Christ's. But my kingdom is this: in one direction you need to go ten months, and it is impossible to reach the other, because there heaven meets earth. And I live in one area dumb people, and in another - horned people, and in another land - three-legged people, and other people - nine fathoms, these are giants, and some people with four arms, and others - with six. "

"The Legend of the Indian Kingdom"

A century later (the text of the Tale is dated to the XII century, but he came to Russia in the XIII or XIV century) Nikitin sees India with his own eyes, meets with local residents, gets into unpleasant situations and, of course, describes the people and things around him differently.

“In Bidar, horses, damask, silk and any other goods and black slaves are sold for sale, but there is no other commodity here. The goods are all Gundustansky, and only vegetables are edible, but for the Russian land there are no goods. And here people are all black, all villains, and wives are all walking, and sorcerers, yes tati, yes deceit, yes poison, they poison gentlemen with poison. "

"Walking the Three Seas"

Afanasy Nikitin clearly hoped that his "Walking" would be read in Russia, and actively masked some delicate moments so that the text would not be available to everyone. Here you can find passages in the Turkic and Persian languages, written in Cyrillic letters. Thus, not only observations about the value of slaves and women of easy virtue are "encrypted", but also the texts of prayers, in which there are borrowings from the Koran, as well as some reasoning about the homeland.

“God save! God save her! Lord, keep her! There is no country in this world like it, although the emirs of the Russian land are unjust. Let the Russian land settle down and let there be justice! God, God, God, God! "

"Walking the Three Seas"

"The Legend of Dracula"

The following text cannot be attributed to literary monuments dedicated to travel. "The Tale of Dracula" is the oldest example of the original Russian fiction, but we cannot but tell about it here.

The author of the legend could have been Ivan III's clerk Fyodor Kuritsyn, who in 1482-1484 headed the Russian embassy to the Hungarian king Matthew Corvin and Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great. During the embassy, ​​the clerk wrote down a number of anecdotes, which made up the main part of the story. It was thanks to this text, at least in the mind of the Russian reader, that the image of the Romanian prince-monster began to take shape.

Many other travelers have written about Dracula. But Kuritsyn's story is distinguished from foreign analogues by a strange feature: talking about the atrocities of his hero, the author of the text specifies that he mercilessly punishes any crime, no matter who committed it, which in the eyes of the Russian ambassador was an indisputable boon.

“And Dracula hated evil in his land so much that if someone commits any crime, steals, or rob, or deceives, or offends, death cannot be avoided. Whether he is a noble nobleman, or a priest, or a monk, or common man, even if he owned untold riches, he still could not pay off death, so formidable was Dracula. "

"The Tale of Dracula"

Foreign travel and pilgrimage trips of ancient Russian writers and chroniclers

Travelers of the Middle Ages. Born March 4, 1394 in Porto. Third son of King Joan I (founder of the Aviz dynasty) and his wife Philip of Lancaster (daughter of John of Gaunt). Heinrich (Enrique) Navigator - Portuguese prince, nicknamed the Navigator. For 40 years, he equipped and sent numerous naval expeditions to explore the Atlantic coast of Africa, creating the prerequisites for the formation of a powerful colonial empire of Portugal. Heinrich is a navigator.

Slide 17 from the presentation "From the history of geographical discoveries"

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"Art of the Middle Ages" - Buildings are round or octagonal in plan. Norway. Chapels. Basilicas. Basilica. In 476, the Western Roman Empire fell under the onslaught of the barbarians. Perception of the soul and body as two opposite principles. The bull is the symbol of St. Charles I Chapel in Aachen, 788-805 The Bible is from the Greek "books". THE BIBLE IS THE CHRISTIAN'S MAIN BOOK Almost the only one in the Middle Ages.

"Culture of the Middle Ages" - What subjects were studied in the Middle Ages? What is the hallmark of each style? What architectural styles existed in Europe during the Middle Ages? Division into groups. What are the main directions of literature during this period? What worried medieval poets and artists? Art. Was the "dark middle ages" "bright"?

"Culture of the Middle Ages" - - castle - spawn feudal era, a period of fragmentation, wars, raids. Theatrical action was called mystery. Culture of the Middle Ages. Another genre is the Liturgical Drama: from the birth to the crucifixion of Christ. Features of sculpture of the Middle Ages. Leaning Tower of Pisa. Cultural point of view. Gothic style in architecture.

"Travelers" - The Vikings called the open land Vinland - "rich." The first travelers. English navigator. James Cook. Robots are controlled from Earth, and humans don't have to risk their lives. Subsequently, Polo was elevated to the rank of member of the Grand Council of Venice. Was Columbus the First to Land in America? *No.

The bravest of the brave are the people who sailed in the uncharted waters of the world's oceans in search of new lands. Great travelers were people from Portugal, Italy, Spain and England on their incredibly daring sea voyages. Here are some of the discoverers of new worlds and new peoples who have explored the planet with the wind in sails, in pursuit of wealth.

Magellan led the first round the world expedition, crossing the Pacific Ocean for the first time. A feat that was considered impossible, which was the main testament to his fortitude and leadership.

One of the most famous British explorers was Captain James Cook, an excellent navigator and cartographer. On his expeditions, he drew up a map of a portion of the coast of Australia that was so accurate that it was used in the 20th century. Many scientists took part in his expeditions, who discovered thousands of new plants and animals. He also had artists aboard the ships who made numerous drawings depicting exotic locations discovered and visited.

Marco Polo, the great traveler who has explored over 15,000 miles in his 24 years of travel. Traveling mainly in Asia, he understood the culture of China more than anyone else than served as an authority on Asian countries for Europeans. Marco Polo inspired Christopher Columbus to visit China, a fact that most historians keep silent when teaching about the explorer of the New World.

Vasco da Gama was definitely a determined man who knew how to survive and get things done for his country. His first expedition opened a direct sea trade route to India. With his second expedition, he promoted Portugal as a country that no one can intimidate by defending its rights and faith in a rather brutal way. Either way, Vasco da Gama did enough to establish Portugal as the leading country in the world emerging from the Middle Ages.

Christopher Columbus was a great traveler and a wonderful sailor, but also very calculating. He convinced the rulers of that time that he could quickly cross the Atlantic, get to India and return with spices, which were very prized at that time. He estimated the trip to be 3,000 nautical miles, when in fact, it was 12,000. Columbus was an excellent sailor and only using the monsoon winds and currents of the Atlantic Ocean returned home with a crew suffering from hunger and thirst.

Amerigo Vespucci was the first to sail along the coast of South America, and the first to communicate with the Native Americans. Amerigo was the great Italian explorer, navigator and cartographer who paved the way for expeditions to the New World.

Vasco da Gama's journey
Brave, cruel, skilled sailor and navigator, Portuguese the traveler Vasco da Gama(c. 1460-1524) opened the first sea route from Western Europe to India.

Born in southwestern Portugal to a noble family, serving as a naval commander, da Gama, at the age of 32, led a successful siege of French ships off the coast of the Algarve province of Portugal. In 1490, the Portuguese decided to find a way to India by ocean - in order to end the monopoly of Muslim trade with the East - and turned to the da Gama family. Ironically, Vasco's father died before the trip, so he himself had to lead the journey.

On July 8, 1497, da Gama and a crew of 170 people left the harbor of Lisbon with four three-masted ships. They sailed south to the Cape Verde Islands, and in November circled the Cape of Good Hope to uncharted waters (for European sailors). Ten months after leaving Portugal, in May 1498, the ships of Vasco da Gama reached Calicut, shopping center on the southwest coast of India, where they found an abundance of spices, precious stones and silk.

Da Gama's first visit lasted three months, establishing relations with the rulers of the Hindus. The journey back to Lisbon was long, with the crew losing more than half of their crew from scurvy. But when he returned in September 1498, the Portuguese king was pleased - da Gama received money and land, as well as a title and a house - but a new expedition soon followed. In 1502, da Gama returned to India, this time with 20 ships and the order to capture Calicut by the Portuguese colony. The Indian resistance was suppressed with particular brutality.

By the new Portuguese monarch, in 1524, da Gama was appointed Viceroy of Portugal in India and soon made his third and final voyage to the East.

Magellan's journey.

Portuguese traveler Ferdinand Magellan(1480-1521) was the first European to make an expedition around the world. He traveled across the Atlantic Ocean, across the southern tip of South America, through canals and mountain bays, and then across the Pacific Ocean. And in the end he returned to Spain, having made the first round the world trip in the world.

Magellan was born into a noble Portuguese family, and at a young age, was a royal courtier. When he was 25, he enlisted in the Portuguese navy and spent the next six years participating in military battles. In 1513, during a battle with the Moors in Morocco, Magellan received a serious spear wound in his left knee, which led him to life limp. And when he returned to Portugal in 1514, he learned that he was accused of illegal livestock trade with the Moors. The King of Portugal dismissed Magellan from the navy, and Magellan in his hearts announced the end of his allegiance to Portugal. In 1517, he offered his services to Portugal's main rival, the Spanish king Charles I, and began a new stage in his career as a Spanish explorer.

On September 20, 1519, 39-year-old Magellan and about 270 people sailed from Spain, on five ships: Trinidad, San Antonio, Concepcion, Victoria, and Santiago. Their goal was to reach the Moluccas by a western route - which avoided the Portuguese-controlled Cape of Good Hope. The ships were sailing southwestward, crossing the Atlantic and ending up in South America, in Rio de Janeiro, three months later. They continued south along the coast, exploring all the bays and estuaries in what is now Uruguay and Argentina, trying to find a strait into the Pacific Ocean. On March 31st, a tired and disgruntled crew aboard three ships mutinied against their commanders. Magellan quickly regained control of his crew, with the result that one of the captains was killed in close combat and the rioters landed alone on the beach. Finally, in October 1520, a passage was found - now known as the Strait of Magellan - this did indeed lead to the Pacific Ocean.

The second half of the journey was as difficult as the first. Only three ships remained after one sank and the other deserted; there was very little food and people were dying of scurvy. Reaching the island of Guam in 1521, Magellan was engaged in robberies of villages in retaliation for the theft of the natives. In the same year, in the Philippine Islands, Magellan was killed in a skirmish with the natives on the island of Mactan. Two of his ships continued their voyage, reaching the Spice Maluku Islands in November 1521. On September 8, 1522, only one ship, Victoria, captained by the Spaniard Juan Sebastian de Elcano, reached Spain, with 17 remaining crew members.

Columbus's journey

Christopher Columbus(1451-1506) was Italian traveler who sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, hoping to find a way to India (for the spice trade). He made a total of four expeditions to the Caribbean and South America in the years 1492-1504.

First trip. King Ferdinand II of Spain and Queen Isabella of Spain equipped the first expedition led by Columbus. On his first voyage, Columbus led an expedition of three ships, the Nina (whose captain was Vicente Janes Pinzon), the Pinta (the owner and captain was Martin Alonso Pinzon) and the Santa Maria (whose captain was Columbus himself) and about 90 crew members. They sailed on August 3, 1492 from Palos, Spain, and on October 11, 1492, discovered islands southeast of North America. They landed on the island, calling it Guanahani, but later Columbus renamed it San Salvador. They were met by the local Taino Indians, many of whom were captured by Columbus's people and then sold into slavery. Columbus thought that he got to Asia, to some region of India, and called its inhabitants Indians.

While exploring the islands in the area and looking for gold, Columbus's people traveled to the island of Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Cuba, and many other smaller islands. On the way back, "Santa Maria" crashed, Columbus returned to Spain on "Nina", arriving on March 15, 1493.

Second journey. The second time, a larger expedition was assembled (September 25, 1493 - June 11, 1496), leaving with 17 ships and about 1,500 men to find gold and capture the Indians as slaves. Columbus established a base at Hispaniola and sailed around Hispaniola and along the southern coast of Cuba. He discovered and named the island Dominica on November 3, 1493.