Article by G.E. Krichevsky, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation
Introduction
Currently, the most developed countries are moving into the 6th technological order, and developing countries are catching up behind them. This way of life (post-industrial society) is based on new, breakthrough technologies and, above all, nano-, bio-, info-, cognitive-, and social technologies. This new paradigm for the development of civilization affects all areas of human practice and affects all technologies of previous orders. The latter do not disappear, but are significantly modified and modernized. But, most importantly, a qualitative change is the emergence of new technologies, their transition to a commercial level, the introduction of products of these technologies and modified traditional technologies into the everyday life of a civilized person (medicine, transport of all types, construction, clothing, home interiors and accessories, sports, army , means of communication, etc.).
Krichevsky G.E. – Professor, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Honored Worker of the Russian Federation, UNESCO expert, academician of RIA and MIA, Laureate of the MSR State Prize, member of the Nanotechnological Society of Russia.
This tectonic, technological shift did not bypass the field of fiber production, without which not only the production of textiles of all types, but many technical products of traditional and non-traditional applications (composites, medical implants, displays, etc.) is not possible.
Story
The history of fibers is the history of humanity, from primitive existence to modern times. post-industrial society. Without clothing, home interior, life, culture, sports, science, technology, and medicine are unthinkable without technical textiles. But all types of textiles do not exist without fibers, which at the same time are only raw materials, but without which it is impossible to produce all types of textiles and other fiber-containing materials.
It is interesting to note that many thousands of years ago, from the end of the Paleolithic era (~ 10-12 thousand years BC) until the end of the 18th century, man used exclusively natural (plant and animal origin) fibers . And only the first industrial revolution (2nd technological structure - mid-19th century) and, of course, advances in science and, above all, chemistry and chemical technologies gave rise to the first generation of chemical fibers (cellulose hydrate - copper-ammonia and viscose). From that moment until the present time, the production of chemical fibers has developed extremely quickly in terms of quantity (overtaken the production of natural fibers in 100 years) and in a number of positions in terms of quality (significant improvement in consumer properties). The history of fibers is briefly presented in Table 1, from which it follows that the history of chemical fibers has gone through three stages, and the last one has not yet ended and the third, young generation of chemical fibers is going through its formation stage. A SMALL TERMINOLOGICAL DEVICE
There are discrepancies in Russian (formerly Soviet) and international terms. According to Soviet and Russian terminology, fibers are divided into natural (plant, animal) and chemical (artificial and synthetic).
Let’s ask ourselves the question “doesn’t everything that surrounds us consist of chemical elements and substances?” And therefore they are chemical and, therefore, natural fibers are also chemical. The remarkable Soviet scientists who proposed this term “chemical” were, first of all, chemist-technologists and put into this term the meaning that they are not produced by nature (biochemistry), but are produced by humans using chemical technologies. Chemical technology is placed in first place and dominates in this term.
International terminology denotes all artificial and synthetic fibers (polymers) in contrast to natural - not made by hands, as made by human hands (man-made) - manmade fibers. This definition is more correct from my point of view. With the development of polymer chemistry and fiber production technologies, terminology in this area also develops, becomes more precise, and becomes more complex. Terms such as polymer and non-polymer fibers, organic, inorganic, nano-sized fibers, fibers filled with nanoparticles obtained using genetic engineering, etc. are used.
Bringing terminology into line with advances in third-generation fiber production will continue; This needs to be monitored by both fiber producers and consumers in order to understand each other.
New, third generation of high-performance fibers (HEF)
Third generation fibers with such properties in foreign literature are called HEF - High Performance Fibers (HPF - High Performance Fibers) and, along with new polymer fibers, they include carbon, ceramic and new types of glass fibers.
The third, new generation of fibers began to form at the end of the 20th century and continues to develop in the 21st century, and is characterized by increased demands on their performance properties in traditional and new areas of application (aerospace, automotive, other modes of transport, medicine, sports, army , construction). These areas of application place increased demands on physical and mechanical properties, thermo-, fire-, bio-, chemical-, and radiation resistance.
It is not possible to fully satisfy this set of requirements with a range of natural and chemical fibers of the 1st and 2nd generation. Advances in the field of chemistry and physics of polymers, solid state physics and the production of high-energy electronics on this basis come to the rescue.
Polymers with new chemical structures and physical structures are emerging (synthesized) using new technologies. Establishing the relationship, cause-and-effect relationships between the chemistry, physics of fibers and their properties underlies the creation of 3rd generation fibers with predetermined properties and, above all, high tensile strength, resistance to friction, bending, pressure, elasticity, thermal and fire resistance.
As can be seen from Table 1, which presents the history of fibers, the development of fibers occurs in such a way that the previous types of fibers do not disappear when new ones appear, but continue to be used, but their importance decreases, and new ones increase. This is the law of historical dialectics and the transition of products from one technological structure to another with a change in priorities. All natural fibers, 1st and 2nd generation chemical fibers are still used, but new 3rd generation fibers are beginning to gain strength.
The production of synthetic fibers, fiber-forming polymers, like most modern organic low- and high-molecular substances, is based on oil and gas chemistry. The diagram in Figure 1 shows numerous primary and advanced processed products natural gas and oil up to fiber-forming polymers, 2nd and 3rd generation fibers.
As you can see, plastics, films, fibers, medicines, dyes and other substances can be obtained from oil and natural gas through deep processing.
IN Soviet time all this was produced, and the USSR occupied the leading (2–5) places in the world in the production of fibers, dyes, and plastics. Unfortunately, at present, all of Europe and China use Russian gas and oil and produce many valuable products from our raw materials, including fibers.
Before the advent of chemical fibers in a number of technical areas natural fibers (cotton) were used, having strength characteristics of 0.1–0.4 N/tex and an elastic modulus of 2–5 N/tex.
The first viscose and acetate fibers had a strength no higher than natural ones (0.2–0.4 N/tex), but by the 60s of the 20th century it was possible to increase their strength to 0.6 N/tex and their elongation at break to 13% (due to modernization of classical technology).
An interesting solution was found in the case of Fortisan fiber: elastomeric acetate fiber was saponified to hydrated cellulose and a strength of 0.6 N/tex and a modulus of elasticity of 16 N/tex were achieved. This type of fiber lasted in the world market during the period 1939–1945.
High strength indicators are achieved not only due to the specific chemical structure of the polymer chains of fiber-forming polymers (aromatic polyamides, polybenzoxazoles, etc.), but also due to a special, ordered physical supramolecular structure (molding from a liquid crystalline state), due to high molecular weight (high total energy of intermolecular bonds), as in the case of a new type of polyethylene fiber.
Because the modern ideas about the mechanisms of destruction of polymer materials and fibers in particular comes down to the ratio of the strength of chemical bonds in the main chains of the polymer and intermolecular bonds between macromolecules (hydrogen, van der Waals, hydrophobic, ionic, etc.), then the game to increase strength goes on two fronts : high-strength single covalent bonds in the chain and high strength of total intermolecular bonds between macromolecules.
Polyamide and polyester fibers entered the world market (Dupont) in 1938 and are still present today, occupying a large niche in traditional textiles and in many areas of technology. Modern polyamide fibers have a strength of 0.5 N/tex and an elastic modulus of 2.5 N/tex; polyester fibers have similar strength and a higher elastic modulus of 10 N/tex.
Further increase in the strength properties of these fibers within existing technologies it was impossible to implement.
The synthesis and production of para-aramid fibers spun from a liquid crystalline state with strength characteristics (strength 2 n/tex and elastic modulus 80 n/tex) was started by DuPont in the 60s of the 20th century.
In the last decades of the last century, carbon fibers with a strength of ~ 5 hPa (~ 3 N/tex) and an elastic modulus of 800 hPa (~ 400 N/tex), new generation glass fibers (strength ~ 4 hPa, 1.6 N/tex), appeared. elastic modulus 90 hPa (35 N/tex), ceramic fibers (strength ~3 hPa, 1 N/tex), elastic modulus 400 hPa (~100 N/tex).
Table 1 History of fibers
| *item no.** | *Type of fiber** | *Time of use** | Technological structure | Application area |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | NATURAL – MADE | |||
| 1a | Vegetable: cotton, flax, hemp, ramie, sisal, etc. | Developed 10–12 thousand years ago; are still in use today | All pre-industrial technological and all industrial technological | Clothing, home, sports, medicine, army, limited technology, etc. |
| 1b | Animals: wool, silk | |||
| II | CHEMICAL - MANUFACTURED | |||
| 1 | 1st generation | |||
| 1a | Artificial: cellulose hydrate, copper-ammonia, viscose | End of the 19th – 1st half of the 20th centuries, until now | 1st–6th technological structures | Clothing, home, sports, medicine, limited technology |
| 1b | Acetate | |||
| 2 | 2nd generation | |||
| 2a | Artificial: lyocell (cellulose hydrate) | 4th quarter of the 20th century to the present | 4th–6th technological structures | Clothing, medicine, etc. |
| 2b | Synthetic: polyamide, polyester, acrylic, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl alcohol, polypropylene | 30s – 70s of the 20th century to the present | Clothing, home, appliances, etc. | |
| 3 | 3rd generation | |||
| 3a | Synthetic: aromatic (para-, meta-) polyamides, polyethylene with high molecular weight, polybenzoxazole, polybenzimidazole, carbon | 5th–6th technological structures | Technology, medicine | |
| 3b | Inorganic: new types of glass fibers, ceramic | late 20th – early 21st centuries | 6th technological structure | Technique |
| 3v | Nano-sized and nano-filled fibers |
The 3rd generation of chemical fibers in foreign literature is called not only highly efficient (HEF), but also multifunctional and smart. All these and other names and terms are not precise, controversial, at least not scientific. Because all existing fibers, both natural and chemical, are, of course, to one degree or another, highly effective and multifunctional, and intelligent. Take, for example, natural fibers such as cotton, flax, and wool; not a single chemical fiber can surpass their high hygienic properties (they breathe, absorb sweat, and flax is still biologically active). All fibers have not one, but several functions (multifunctional). As you can see, the above terms are very conditional.
Physico-mechanical properties of VEV
Since the main areas of use of the new generation of fibers (cord for tires, composites for aircraft, rocket, automotive, construction) put forward high demands on the properties of fibers and, above all, on the physical and mechanical properties, we will dwell in more detail on these properties of HEVs.
What physical and mechanical properties are important for new areas of fiber use: tensile strength, abrasion strength, compressive strength, twisting strength. At the same time, it is important for fibers to withstand repeated (cyclic) deformation effects adequate to the operating conditions of products containing fibers. Figure 2 very clearly shows the difference in the requirements for physical and mechanical properties (tensile strength, elastic modulus) that three areas of use impose on fibers: traditional textiles, traditional technical textiles, new areas of application in technology.
As can be seen, the demands on the strength properties of fibers from new and traditional applications are increasing significantly, and this trend will continue as the areas of fiber use expand. A striking example is the space elevator, which is talked about not only by science fiction writers, but also by engineers. And this project can only be realized using ultra-strong cables made from 3rd generation nanofibers and spider silk type fibers (stronger than steel thread).
Figure 2
Explanations for Fig. 2: The modulus of elasticity and tensile strength are assessed in the same units. The elastic modulus is a measure of the rigidity of a material, characterized by its resistance to the development of elastic deformations. For fibers, it is defined as the initial linear relationship between load and elongation. Den (denier) is a unit of measurement of the linear density of a thread (fiber) = mass of 1000 meters in g. Tex is a unit (non-system) of measurement of the linear density of a fiber (thread) = g/km.
Table 2 shows comparative characteristics of the physical and mechanical properties of various fibers, including VEV.
Table 2. Comparative characteristics physical and mechanical properties of various fibers
It should be borne in mind that physical and mechanical properties should be assessed not by one indicator, but at least by a combination of two indicators, i.e. strength and elasticity under various types of deformation effects.
Thus, according to the data in Table 2, steel thread wins in elasticity, but loses in specific density (very heavy). Taking into account all the indicators together, you can choose the areas of use of fibers. So the cable for a space elevator should not only be super strong, but also lightweight.
The fabric for a bulletproof vest must be light, elastic (drape) and capable of absorbing the kinetic energy of a bullet (depending on the burst energy, i.e. the ability to dissipate energy). The composite for racing cars must be impact-resistant and light at the same time; Seat belts must be made of high-strength fibers with high elasticity.
The requirements for the physical and mechanical characteristics of fibers, as a set or combination of two or more indicators, can be continued. This set of properties and factors is formulated by the user based on the operating conditions of products containing fibers. Let us trace the change in generations of fibers using the example of tire cord, the requirements for the physical and mechanical characteristics of which have been increasing all the time.
When the first automobiles appeared (1900), cotton yarn was used as tire cord; with the advent of hydrated cellulose viscose fibers in the period 1935–1955. they have completely replaced cotton. In turn, polyamide fibers (various types of nylon) replaced viscose fibers. But even classical polyamide fibers today do not meet the strength properties of the automotive industry, especially in the case of tires for heavy vehicles and aviation. Therefore, polyamide cord is now replaced by steel threads.
The maximum strength of commercial polyamide and polyester fibers reaches ~ 10 g/den (~ 1 GPa, ~ 1 N/tex). The combination of moderately high strength and elasticity provides high rupture energy (work of rupture) and high resistance to repeated shock deformation. However, these performance indicators of polyamide and polyester fibers do not meet the requirements of certain new applications of fibers.
For example, polyamide and polyester fibers, due to the high increase in stiffness at high strain rates, do not allow their use in anti-ballistic products.
At the same time, polyester fibers are very suitable for high-strength fishing gear (ropes, cables, nets, etc.), since they are characterized by relatively high strength and hydrophobicity (not wetted by water); ropes made of polyester fibers are used on drilling rigs to work at depths of up to 1000–2000 m, where they can withstand loads of up to 1.5 tons.
The combination of high strength and high modulus of elasticity is provided by three groups of high-energy materials: 1. based on aramids, high-molecular polyethylene, other linear polymers, carbon fibers; 2. inorganic fibers(glass, ceramic); 3. based on thermosetting polymers that form a three-dimensional network structure.
VEV based on linear polymers
The first group of VEVs are based on linear (1D dimensional) polymers and the simplest of them, polyethylene.
For materials made from linear polymers, back in 1930, Staudinger proposed an ideal model of a supramolecular structure that provides a high modulus of elasticity along the main chains (11000 kg/mm2) and only 45 kg/mm2 between macromolecules bound by van der Waals forces.
Figure 3. Ideal physical structure of a linear polymer according to Staudinger.
As you can see (Fig. 3), the strength of the structure is determined by the elongation and high orientation of the chains of macromolecules along the fiber axis.
The technology (state of the spinning solution and melt, drawing conditions) for the production of fibers must be designed in such a way that folds of macromolecules do not form. Fiber-forming polymers, with a certain chemical structure of macromolecules, already in solution form elongated, oriented structures combined into blocks (liquid crystals). When fibers are formed from such a state, reinforced by a high degree of elongation, a structure close to ideal according to Staudinger is formed (Fig. 3). This technology was first implemented by DuPont (USA) in the production of Kevlar fibers based on polyparaaramid and polyphenylene terephthalamide. In these high-strength fibers, the aromatic rings are linked by amide groups
The presence of cycles in the chain provides elasticity, and amide groups form intermolecular hydrogen bonds, which are responsible for tensile strength.
Using a similar technology (liquid crystalline state in solution, high degree of elongation during molding, VEVs are produced from various polymers by different companies, in different countries under different trade names: Technora (Taijin, Japan), Vectran (Gelanese, USA), Tverlana, Terlon (USSR, Russia), Mogelan-HSt and others.
Carbon fibers and graphene layers
Large 2D-dimensional molecules do not exist in nature. Monofunctional molecules in reactions produce small molecules; bifunctional ones produce linear (1D-dimensional) polymers; three- or more functional reagents form 3D-dimensional, cross-linked network structures (thermoplastics). Only the specific geometry of the direction of the bonds that carbon atoms can form leads to layered molecules. Graphene, a hexonal, planar network of carbon atoms, is the first example of such a structure.
Carbon fibers are usually produced by high-temperature treatment (cracking) of organic fibers (cellulose, polyacrylonitrile) under tension. Strong, elastic fibers are obtained in which one-dimensional layers are oriented parallel to the fiber axis.
3D mesh structures
Polymers with a 3D network structure are usually called thermoplastics because they are formed in thermocatalytic condensation reactions of polyfunctional monomers.
3D thermoplastics can be produced in the form of fibers. Although heat-resistant, such fibers are not very strong. Examples of such fibers are fibers based on melamine-formaldehyde and phenol-aldehyde polymers*.
Inorganic 3D-dimensional mesh structures (glass and ceramic) and fibers based on them, as well as based on metal oxides and carbides, are characterized by high strength, elasticity, heat and fire resistance.
- The main polymer of wool fiber, keratin, is also a networked, sparsely cross-linked natural polymer. It has unique elastic-elastic properties (resistance to compression). Cross-linking of a linear cellulose polymer with rare cross-links gives the fiber and fabrics made from it resistance to creasing, which cellulose fibers do not initially possess. But at the same time, the tensile and abrasion strength decreases (~15%).
Figures 4–10 show comparative physical and mechanical characteristics of VEVs.
Table 3 shows the main performance characteristics natural and chemical fibers.
Figure 4. Load-elongation curves for conventional fibers and HEVs.
Figure 5. Relationship between specific strength and elastic modulus of HEV.
Figure 6. Dependence of mass strength on strength/volume for VEV.
Figure 8. Load-strain curves of a composite based on HEV in an epoxy matrix.
Figure 9. Breaking length in kilometers for VEV.
Figure 10. VEV. Main areas of use.
Table 3. Basic performance characteristics of natural and chemical fibers (Hearle).
| № | Fiber type | Density g/cm3 | Humidity, at 65% humidity | Melting point, °C | Strength, N/tex | Modulus of elasticity, N/tex | Work of rupture, J/g | Elongation at break, % |
| 1 | Cotton | 1,52 | 7 | 185* | 0,2–0,45 | 4–7,5 | 5–15 | 6–7 |
| 2 | Linen | 1,52 | 7 | 185* | 0,54 | 18 | 8 | 3 |
| 3 | Wool | 1,31 | 15 | 100**/300* | 0,1–0,15 | 2–3 | 25–40 | 30–40 |
| 4 | Natural silk | 1,34 | 10 | 175* | 0,38 | 7,5 | 60 | 23 |
| 5 | Viscose | 1,49 | 13 | 185* | 0,2–0,4 | 5–13 | 10–30 | 7–30 |
| 6 | Polyamide | 1,14 | 4 | 260*** | 0,35–0,8 | 1,–5 | 60–100 | 12–25 |
| 7 | Polyester | 1,93 | 0,4 | 258 | 0,45–0,8 | 7,–13 | 20–120 | 9–13 |
| 8 | Polypropylene-new | 0,91 | 0 | 165 | 0,6 | 6 | 70 | 17 |
| 9 | n-aramid | 1,44 | 5 | 550* | 1,7–2,3 | 50–115 | 10–40 | 1,5–4,5 |
| 10 | m-aramid | 1,46 | 5 | 415* | 0,49 | 7,5 | 85 | 35 |
| 11 | Vectran | 1,4 | < 0,1 | 330 | 2–2,5 | 45–60 | 15 | 3,5 |
| 12 | H.P.E. | 0,97 | 0 | 150 | 2,5–3,7 | 75–120 | 45–70 | 2,9–3,8 |
| 13 | PBO | 1,56 | 0 | 650* | 3,8–4,8 | 180 | 30–90 | 1,5–3,7 |
| 14 | Carbon | 1,8–2,1 | 0 | >2500 | 0,4–3,9 | 20–370 | 4–70 | 0,2–2,1 |
| 15 | Glass | 2,5 | 0 | 1000–12000**** | 1–2,5 | 50–60 | 10–70 | 1,8–5,4 |
continuation of table. 3
| 16 | Ceramic | 2,4–4,1 | 0 | >1000 | 0,3–0,95 | 55–100 | 0,5–9 | 0,3–1,5 |
| 17 | Chemoresistant | 1,3–1,6 | 0–0,5 | 170–375***** | 0–0,65 | 0,5–5 | 15–80 | 15–35 |
| 18 | Heat resistant | 1,25–1,45 | 5–15 | 200–500**** | 0,1–1,3 | 2,5–9,5 | 10–45 | 8–50 |
- – destruction; ** – softening; *** – for nylon 66, nylon 6 – 216°; **** – liquefaction;
***** – temperature range
Economics of VEV
In the 50s of the last century, polyamide and polyester fibers were literally a “miracle” for consumers who were hungry for an abundance of textile products with new properties. After the industrial development of fibers of this type by the world's largest chemical concern DuPont (USA), all the leading chemical companies in developed capitalist countries rushed after them and began producing similar fibers under different names.
The chemical industry of the USSR did not stand aside either, focusing on one type of polyamide fiber - nylon based on polycaproamide. This technology was exported from Germany for reparations in 1945. A prominent Soviet polymer scientist, Professor Zakhar Aleksandrovich Rogovin, took part in the dismantling of German factories that produced this fiber called perlon. He, together with a group of Soviet scientists and engineers, established the production of nylon at a number of factories in various cities USSR (Klin, Kalinin (Tver)).
Polyester fibers based on polyethylene terephthalate were produced on a large scale in the USSR under the trademark Lavsan - an abbreviation for the Laboratory of High Modulus Compounds of the Academy of Sciences. These two fibers became the main high-tonnage ones and still remain so in the world. These fibers are used very widely on their own or in mixtures with other fibers in both the clothing, home textile and technical sectors.
The world balance of fiber production and consumption in 2010 is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Polyester. 2000 – 19.1 million tons;
2010 – 35 million tons;
2020 – 53.4 million tons.
Cotton. 2000 – 20 million tons;
2010 – 25 million tons;
2020 – 28 million tons.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Before moving on to the economics of VEV, let’s say how the pricing and investment policy for the production of polyamide and polyester fibers was built. At the beginning (30–40s of the 20th century) polyamide and polyester fibers were several times more expensive than natural cotton and even wool fibers. It’s hard to believe now, when the picture is the opposite and corresponds to the real cost of production of these fibers. But this was an absolutely correct pricing policy, typical for the beginning of a potentially mass product entering the market. This pricing policy allows significant income to be allocated to subsequent research on the development and improvement of the production of new types of fibers, including VEV. Currently, polyamide and polyester fibers are produced by many companies in many countries in large quantities. Such competition and large runs of these fibers have led to prices quite close to cost.
The situation is different, more complex, in the case of the VEV economy. DuPont, starting research in the field of aromatic polyamides, which led to the creation of Kevlar fiber from them (based on n-polyaramid), initially focused them on the tire cord market.
The appearance of heavy and high-speed cars and heavy aircraft required high-strength cord; Not only cotton and viscose fiber did not meet these requirements, but also much stronger polyamide and polyester fibers.
Increasing the strength of the cord proportionally increased the service life of the tires (“mileage”) and saved the consumption of fibers for the production of cord.
Kevlar and other high-strength EVs are used for specialty tires (racing cars, heavy trailers). Due to the specifics of the market for their consumption, VEVs are produced to order in small batches, by a small number of manufacturers using a much more complex technology (multistage synthesis, expensive raw materials, complex molding technology, high drawing ratio, exotic solvents, low molding speeds) and, of course, at high prices . But those areas of technology in which HEVs are used (aircraft and rocket production) can afford to consume fibers at high prices, which are unacceptable in the case of the production of clothing and home textiles.
The production of the most used wind turbines reaches ~ 10 thousand tons per year, highly specialized ones - 100 tons per year or less (Fig. 19).
Figure 19.
The exception is HEVs based on high molecular weight polyethylene, since both the raw material (ethylene) and the polymer are produced using a well-known, relatively simple technology. It is only necessary at the polymerization stage to ensure the formation of a polymer with a high molecular weight, which determines the excellent physical and mechanical characteristics of this type of fiber. Prices on the world market for high-energy fibers are high, but vary greatly and depend on many factors (fiber fineness, strength, type of yarn, etc.) and market conditions (raw materials). Therefore, in different sources we find large fluctuations in prices (Table 4). So for carbon fibers the price ranges from 18 DS/kg to 10,000 DS/kg.
It is much more difficult to predict the dynamics of price changes for VEVs than for large-tonnage traditional fibers (tens of millions of tons are produced per year), and investing in large-scale production of VEVs is a very risky business. The most capacious market for VEVs is the production and consumption of a new generation of composite materials, catalyzing work to improve the technology for the production of VEVs.
So far, new factories are not being built for the production of VEVs, but they are produced at existing factories on special pilot installations and lines.
Of course, the army, sports, medicine (implants), construction and, of course, aviation and aeronautics are real and potential users of VEVs. Thus, a 100 kg reduction in aircraft weight due to a new generation of lightweight and durable composites reduces annual fuel costs by 20,000 DS per aircraft.
For any innovation there is a risk of investment, but without risk there is no success. It is only in a student project that a business plan can be accurately calculated. Paper will endure anything.
The founder of the world famous automobile company Honda, Soichiro Honda, said well about this: “Remember, success can be achieved through repeated trial and error. Actual success is the result of 1% of your work and 99% of your failures.” Of course, this is hyperbole, but not far from the truth.
Table 4 Prices for various VEVs in comparison with polyester technical fiber
| №№ | Type of fiber | Price in DS/kg |
| 1 | 2 | 3 |
| 1. | Polyester | 3 |
| 2. | High modulus polymer fibers | |
| n-aramid | 25 | |
| m-aramid | 20 | |
| high molecular weight polyethylene | 25 | |
| Vectran | 47 | |
| Zylon (polybenzoxazole RBO) | 130 | |
| Tensylon (SSPE) | 22–76 | |
| 3. | Carbon fibers | |
| based on PAN fibers | 14–17 | |
| based on petroleum pitch (regular) | 15 | |
| based on petroleum pitch (high modulus) | 2200 | |
| based on oxidized acrylic fibers | 10 |
continued table 4
| 1 | 2 | 3 |
| 4. | Glass fibers | |
| E-type | 3 | |
| S-2-type | 15 | |
| Ceramic | ||
| SiC-type: Nicolan NI, Tyrinno Lox-M, ZM | 1000–1100 | |
| stonchometric type | 5000–10000 | |
| Alumina-type | 200–1000 | |
| boron-type | 1070 | |
| 5. | Heat and chemical resistant | |
| REEK | 100–200 | |
| Basofil thermoplastics | 16 | |
| Kynol thermoplastics | 15–18 | |
| PBI | 180 | |
| PTFE | 50 |
Production modern species fibers (polyester, polyamide, acrylic, polypropylene and, of course, VEV) in the Russian Federation is extremely justified from the point of view of the huge reserves of natural raw materials (oil, gas) for the production of fibers and their great need for the modernization of a significant number of industries (oil, gas processing , textile, shipbuilding, automotive industry). Half of the world (excluding the USA, Canada, Latin America) uses our raw materials to make all this and sell it to us with high added value. The production of new generation chemical fibers can play the role of a locomotive for the development of the domestic industry, becoming one of the important factors in the national security of the Russian Federation.
References:
- G.E. Krichevsky. Nano-, bio-, chemical technologies and the production of a new generation of fibers, textiles and clothing. M., publishing house "Izvestia", 2011, 528 p.
- High Performance Fibers. Hearle J.W.S. (ed.). Woodhead Publishing Ltd, 2010, p.329.
Military textiles. Edited by E Wilusz, US Army Natick Soldier Center, USA. Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles. 2008, 362 rub.
- PCI Fibers. Fiber Economics in an Ever Changing World Outlook Conference. www.usifi.com/…look_2011pdf
Abbreviation for fiber names
| English | Russian |
| Carbone HS | carbon |
| HPPE | high strength polyethylene |
| Aramid | aramid |
| E-S-Glass | glass |
| Steel | steel |
| Polyamide | polyamide |
| PBO | polybenozxazole |
| Polypropelene | polypropylene |
| Polyester | polyester |
| Ceramic | ceramic |
| Boron | boron based |
| Kevlar 49,29,149 | aramid |
| Nomex | m-aramid |
| Lycra | elastomeric polyurethane |
| Teflon | polytetrafluoroethylene |
| Aluminum | based on aluminum compounds |
| Para-aramid | p-aramid |
| m-aramid | m-aramid |
| Dyneema | high molecular weight polyethylene HMPE |
| Coton | cotton |
| Acrylic | acrylic |
| Wool | wool |
| Nylon | polyamide |
| Cellulosic | artificial cellulose |
| PP | polypropylene |
| P.P.S. | polyphenylene sulfide |
| PTFE | polytetrafluoroethylene |
| Cermel | polyaramidimide |
| PEEK | polyetherketone |
| PBI | polybenzimidazole |
| P-84 | polyarimid |
| Vectran | aramatic polyester |
Related materials
- “Other materials of the Author on our website”:
The 19th century was marked by important discoveries in science and technology. A sharp technical boom affected almost all areas of production; many processes were automated and moved to a qualitatively new level. The technical revolution did not bypass textile production - in 1890, in France, fiber made using chemical reactions. The history of chemical fibers began with this event.
Types, classification and properties of chemical fibers
According to the classification, all fibers are divided into two main groups: organic and inorganic. Organic fibers include artificial and synthetic fibers. The difference between them is that artificial ones are created from natural materials(polymers), but using chemical reactions. Synthetic fibers use synthetic polymers as raw materials, but the processes for producing fabrics are not fundamentally different. Inorganic fibers include a group of mineral fibers that are obtained from inorganic raw materials.
Cellulose hydrate, cellulose acetate and protein polymers are used as raw materials for artificial fibers, and carbon-chain and heterochain polymers are used for synthetic fibers.
Due to the fact that chemical processes are used in the production of chemical fibers, the properties of the fibers, primarily mechanical, can be changed if different parameters of the production process are used.
The main distinctive properties of chemical fibers, compared to natural ones, are:
- high strength;
- ability to stretch;
- tensile strength and long-term loads of varying strength;
- resistance to light, moisture, bacteria;
- crease resistance.
Some special types are resistant to high temperatures and aggressive environments.
GOST chemical threads
According to the All-Russian GOST, the classification of chemical fibers is quite complex.
Artificial fibers and threads, according to GOST, are divided into:
- artificial fibers;
- artificial threads for cord fabric;
- artificial threads for technical products;
- technical threads for twine;
- artificial textile threads.
Synthetic fibers and threads, in turn, consist of the following groups: synthetic fibers, synthetic threads for cord fabric, for technical products, film and textile synthetic threads.
Each group includes one or more subspecies. Each subspecies is assigned its own code in the catalog.
Technology for obtaining and producing chemical fibers
The production of chemical fibers has great advantages compared to natural fibers:
- firstly, their production does not depend on the season;
- secondly, the production process itself, although quite complex, is much less labor-intensive;
- thirdly, it is possible to obtain fiber with pre-established parameters.
From a technological point of view, these processes are complex and always consist of several stages. First, the raw material is obtained, then it is converted into a special spinning solution, then the formation of fibers and their finishing occurs.
Various techniques are used to form fibers:
- use of wet, dry or dry-wet solution;
- use of metal foil cutting;
- drawing from a melt or dispersion;
- drawing;
- flattening;
- gel molding.
Application of chemical fibers
Chemical fibers have very wide applications in many industries. Their main advantage is their relatively low cost and long service life. Fabrics made from chemical fibers are actively used for sewing special clothing, and in the automotive industry for strengthening tires. In various types of technology, non-woven materials made of synthetic or mineral fiber are more often used.
Textile chemical fibers
Gaseous products of oil and coal refining are used as raw materials for the production of textile fibers of chemical origin (in particular, for the production of synthetic fibers). Thus, fibers are synthesized that differ in composition, properties and combustion method.
Among the most popular:
- polyester fibers (lavsan, crimplen);
- polyamide fibers (nylon, nylon);
- polyacrylonitrile fibers (nitron, acrylic);
- elastane fiber (lycra, dorlastan).
Among artificial fibers, the most common are viscose and acetate. Viscose fibers are obtained from cellulose, mainly from spruce trees. By using chemical processes this fiber can be given a visual similarity to natural silk, wool or cotton. Acetate fiber is made from waste from cotton production, so it absorbs moisture well.
Nonwovens made from chemical fibers
Nonwovens can be obtained from both natural and chemical fibers. Nonwoven materials are often produced from recycled materials and waste from other industries.
The fibrous base, prepared by mechanical, aerodynamic, hydraulic, electrostatic or fiber-forming methods, is bonded.
The main stage in the production of nonwoven materials is the stage of bonding the fibrous base, obtained in one of the following ways:
- Chemical or adhesive (adhesive)- the formed web is impregnated, coated or irrigated with a binder component in the form of an aqueous solution, the application of which can be continuous or fragmented.
- Thermal- This method takes advantage of the thermoplastic properties of some synthetic fibers. Sometimes the fibers that make up the nonwoven material are used, but in most cases a small amount of fibers with a low melting point (bicomponent) is specially added to the nonwoven material at the molding stage.
Chemical fiber industry facilities
Since chemical production covers several areas of industry, all chemical industry facilities are divided into 5 classes depending on the raw materials and application:
- organic matter;
- inorganic substances;
- organic synthesis materials;
- pure substances and chemicals;
- pharmaceutical and medical group.
By type of purpose, chemical fiber industry facilities are divided into main, general plant and auxiliary.
In addition to those already listed, there are fibers made from natural inorganic compounds. They are divided into natural and chemical.
Natural inorganic fibers include asbestos, a fine-fibered silicate mineral. Asbestos fibers are fire-resistant (the melting point of asbestos reaches 1500° C), alkali- and acid-resistant, and non-thermal.
Elementary asbestos fibers are combined into technical fibers, which serve as the basis for threads used for technical purposes and in the production of fabrics for special clothing that can withstand high temperatures and open fire.
Chemical inorganic fibers are divided into glass fibers (silicon) and metal-containing ones.
Silicon fibers, or glass fibers, are made from molten glass in the form of elementary fibers with a diameter of 3-100 microns and very long lengths. In addition to them, staple fiberglass with a diameter of 0.1-20 microns and a length of 10-500 mm is produced. Fiberglass is nonflammable, chemical-resistant, and has electrical, heat, and sound insulation properties. It is used for the production of tapes, fabrics, meshes, non-woven fabrics, fibrous canvas, cotton wool for technical needs in various sectors of the country's economy.
Metal artificial fibers are produced in the form of threads by gradually stretching (drawing) metal wire. This is how copper, steel, silver, and gold threads are obtained. Aluminum threads are made by cutting flat aluminum tape (foil) into thin strips. Metal threads can be given different colors by applying colored varnishes to them. To give greater strength to metal threads, they are entwined with silk or cotton threads. When the threads are covered with a thin protective synthetic film, transparent or colored, combined metal threads are obtained - metlon, lurex, alunit.
The following types of metal threads are produced: rounded metal thread; flat thread in the form of a ribbon - flattened; twisted thread - tinsel; rolled meat twisted with silk or cotton thread - stranded.
In addition to metal ones, metallized threads are produced, which are narrow ribbons of films with a metal coating. Unlike metal ones, metallized threads are more elastic and fusible.
Metallic and metallized threads are used to produce fabrics and knitwear for evening dresses, gold embroidery, as well as for decorative finishing of fabrics, knitwear and piece goods.
End of work -
This topic belongs to the section:
General information about fibers. Classification of fibers. Basic properties of fibers and their dimensional characteristics
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Lecture 1
Introduction. Fibrous materials 1. Goals and objectives of the course “Materials Science of Garment Production”. 2. General information
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Cotton fiber
Cotton is the fiber that covers the seeds of the annual cotton plant. Cotton is a heat-loving plant that consumes large amounts of moisture. Grows in hot areas.
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Natural fibers of animal origin
The main substance that makes up natural fibers of animal origin (wool and silk) are animal proteins synthesized in nature - keratin and fibroin. Difference in molecular structure
Natural silk
Natural silk is the name given to thin continuous threads secreted by the glands of silkworm caterpillars when curling the cocoon before pupation. The main industrial value is the silk of domesticated mulberry
B. Chemical fibers
The idea of creating chemical fibers was realized at the end of the 19th century. thanks to the development of chemistry. The prototype for the process of producing chemical fibers was the formation of silkworm thread
Man-made fibers
Artificial fibers include fibers made from cellulose and its derivatives. These are viscose, triacetate, acetate fibers and their modifications.
Viscose fiber is produced from celluloses
Synthetic fibers
Polyamide fibers. Nylon fiber, which is most widely used, is obtained from coal and oil processing products.
Under a microscope, polyamide fibers are
Types of textile threads
The basic element of fabric or knitted fabric is thread. According to their structure, textile threads are divided into yarn, complex threads and monofilaments. These threads are called primary
Basic Spinning Processes
Fabrics removed from the loom are called gray cloth or gray cloth. They contain various impurities and contaminants, have an unsightly appearance and are unsuitable for the manufacture of garments.
Cotton fabrics
During cleaning and preparation, cotton fabrics are subjected to acceptance and sorting, singeing, desizing, bleaching (bleaching), mercerization, and napping.
Cleaning and
Linen fabrics
Cleaning and preparation of linen fabrics is usually carried out in the same way as in cotton production, but more carefully, repeating the operations several times. This is due to the fact that flaxseed
Wool fabrics
Natural fibers of animal origin
Woolen fabrics are divided into combed (firestone) and cloth. They differ from each other in appearance. Combed fabrics are thin, with a clear weave pattern. Cloth - more thick
Cleaning and preparation of natural silk is carried out in the following order: acceptance and sorting, singeing, boiling, bleaching, revitalizing bleached fabrics.
When when
Chemical fiber fabrics
Fabrics made from artificial and synthetic fibers do not have natural impurities. They may contain mainly easily washable substances, such as dressing, soap, mineral oil, etc. Eye method
Fibrous composition of fabrics
For the manufacture of clothing, fabrics made from natural (wool, silk, cotton, linen), artificial (viscose, polynose, acetate, copper-ammonium, etc.), synthetic (lavsa) are used.
Methods for determining the fiber composition of fabrics
Organoleptic is a method in which the fibrous composition of tissues is determined using the senses - vision, smell, touch. Evaluate the appearance of the fabric, its tint, creaseability
Basic Spinning Processes
Weaving fabrics
The location of the warp and weft threads relative to each other and their relationship determine the structure of the fabric. It should be emphasized that the structure of fabrics is influenced by: the type and structure of the warp and weft threads
The finishing that gives fabrics a marketable appearance affects such properties as thickness, stiffness, drapability, creasing, breathability, water resistance, shine, shrinkage, fire resistance
Fabric density
When weaving, the warp and weft threads mutually bend each other, resulting in a wavy arrangement. the degree of bending of the warp and weft threads depends on their thickness and rigidity, type
Fabric surface structure
Depending on the structure of the front side, fabrics are divided into smooth, pile, fleecy and felted. Smooth fabrics are those that have a clear weave pattern (calico, chintz, satin). In the process of
Properties of fabrics
Plan: Geometric properties Mechanical properties Physical properties Technological properties Fabrics made from threads and yarns of various types
Geometric properties
These include the length of the fabric, its width, thickness and weight.
The length of the fabric is determined by measuring it in the direction of the warp threads. When laying fabric before cutting, the length of the piece
Mechanical properties
During the use of clothing, as well as during processing, fabrics are subjected to various mechanical influences. Under these influences, tissues stretch, bend, and experience friction.
Physical properties
The physical properties of fabrics are divided into hygienic, heat-protective, optical and electrical.
Hygienic properties are considered to be the properties of fabrics that significantly affect whom
Wear resistance of fabric
The wear resistance of fabrics is characterized by their ability to withstand destructive factors. In the process of using garments, they are affected by light, sun, moisture, stretching, compression, torsion
Technological properties of fabrics
During the production process and during the use of clothing, such properties of fabrics appear that must be taken into account when designing clothing. These properties significantly influence technologically
Padding materials
5. Adhesive materials.
1. RANGE OF FABRICS Based on the type of raw material, the entire range of fabrics is divided into cotton, linen, wool and silk. Silk includes
Adhesive materials
Semi-rigid interlining fabric with dotted polyethylene coating is a cotton fabric (calico or madapolam) coated on one side with high-pressure polyethylene powder
Selection of materials for garments
Quality of clothing materials
To make good clothes you need to use high quality materials. What is quality? Product quality is understood as a combination of properties that characterize the degree of suitability
Grade of materials
All materials are subject to control at the final stage of production. At the same time, the quality level of the material is assessed and the grade of each piece is established. A variety is a gradation of product quality
Fabric grade
Determining the grade of fabrics is of great importance.
The fabric grade is determined by a comprehensive method for assessing the quality level. At the same time, deviations of indicators of physical and mechanical properties from the norms,
Defects in the appearance of fabrics
defect Type of defect Description Stage of production at which the defect Zaso occurs
Textile goods
Textile products are products made from fibers and threads. These include fabrics, knitted fabrics, non-woven and film materials, artificial leather and fur.
Factors that shape the consumer properties and quality of textile products include the properties, structure and quality of textile fibers, yarn and threads, production method, material structure and type of finishing.
Classification, range and properties of fibers Fiber is a flexible, durable body, the length of which is several times greater than its transverse dimensions. Textile fibers are used to make yarn, threads, fabrics, knitted fabrics, non-woven materials, artificial leather and fur. Currently, they are widely used in the manufacture of textile products. different kinds
fibers that differ from each other in chemical composition, structure and properties.
The main features of the classification of textile fibers are the method of production (origin) and chemical composition, which determine the basic physical, mechanical and chemical properties of the fibers, as well as products obtained from them. Based on their origin, all fibers are divided into natural and chemical.
Natural fibers are fibers of natural, i.e. plant, animal or mineral origin.
Chemical fibers are fibers manufactured in factories. Chemical fibers are either artificial or synthetic. Artificial fibers are obtained from natural high-molecular compounds. Synthetic fibers are obtained from low molecular weight substances as a result of polymerization or polycondensation reactions, mainly from petroleum and coal processing products.
Natural high molecular weight compounds are formed during the development and growth of fibers. The main substance of all plant fibers is cellulose, animal fibers are protein: in wool - keratin, in silk - fibroin.
Cotton obtained from cotton bolls. It is a thin, short, soft, fluffy fiber that covers the seeds of annual cotton plants. It is the main raw material for the textile industry. Cotton fiber is a thin-walled tube with a channel inside. Cotton is characterized by relatively high strength, heat resistance (130-140°C), average hygroscopicity (18-20%) and a small proportion of elastic deformation, as a result of which cotton products are strongly wrinkled. Cotton is different high stability to the action of alkalis and slightly to abrasion. Recent discoveries in genetic engineering have made it possible to grow colored cotton.
Linen- bast fibers, the length of which is 20-30 mm or more. They consist of elongated cylindrical cells with fairly smooth surfaces. Elementary fibers are connected to each other by pectin substances in bundles of 10-50 pieces. Hygroscopicity ranges from 12 to 30%. Flax fiber is poorly dyed due to the significant content of fatty wax substances. In terms of resistance to light, high temperatures and microbial destruction, as well as thermal conductivity, it is superior to cotton. Flax fiber is used for the manufacture of technical (tarpaulin, canvas, drive belts, etc.), household (linen, suit and dress fabrics) and container fabrics.
Wool is the hair of sheep, goats, camels and other animals. Wool fiber consists of flake (outer), cortical and core layers. The share of keratin protein in the chemical composition of the fiber accounts for 90%. The bulk of wool for textile industry enterprises is supplied by sheep farming. Sheep wool comes in four types: fluff, transition hair, shear hair, and dead hair. Down is a very thin, crimped, soft and durable fiber, without a core layer. Eider, goose, duck, goat and rabbit down are used. Transitional hair is a thicker, coarser fiber than fluff. The awn is a fiber that is stiffer than transitional hair. Dead hair is a very thick and coarse uncrimped fiber covered with large lamellar scales. Moger (angora) fiber comes from Angora goats. Cashmere fiber is obtained from Kashmir goats, which is soft, tender to the touch and predominantly white in color. A special feature of wool is its ability to felt and high heat protection. Thanks to these properties, wool is used to produce fabrics and knitted products for the winter range, as well as cloth, draperies, felt, felted and felted products.
Silk- these are thin long threads produced by the silkworm with the help of silk glands, and wound by it on the cocoon. The length of such a thread can be 500-1500 m. The highest quality type of silk is considered to be twisted silk made from long threads extracted from the middle of the cocoon. Natural silk is widely used in the production sewing threads, dress fabrics and piece goods (head scarves, headscarves and scarves). Silk is especially sensitive to ultraviolet rays, so the service life of natural silk products in sunlight is sharply reduced.
Range and properties of chemical fibers and threads
Man-made fibers
Viscose fiber- the most natural of all chemical fibers, obtained from natural cellulose. Depending on the purpose, viscose fibers are produced in the form of threads, as well as staple (short) fibers with a shiny or matte surface. The fiber has good hygroscopicity (35-40%), light resistance and softness. The disadvantages of viscose fibers are: a large loss of strength when wet, easy creasing, insufficient resistance to friction and significant shrinkage when moistened. These disadvantages are eliminated in modified viscose fibers (polinose, siblon, mtilon), which are characterized by significantly higher dry and wet strength, greater wear resistance, less shrinkage and increased crease resistance. Siblon, compared to conventional viscose fiber, has a lower degree of shrinkage, increased crease resistance, wet strength and alkali resistance. Mtilan has antimicrobial properties and is used in medicine as threads for temporary fastening of surgical sutures. Viscose fibers are used in the production of clothing fabrics, underwear and outerwear, both in pure form and in a mixture with other fibers and threads.
Acetate and triacetate fibers obtained from cotton pulp. Fabrics made from acetate fibers are very similar in appearance to natural silk, have high elasticity, softness, good drape, low creasing, and the ability to transmit ultraviolet rays. Hygroscopicity is less than that of viscose, so they become electrified. Fabrics made from triacetate fiber have low creasing and shrinkage, but lose strength when wet. Due to their high elasticity, the fabrics retain their shape and finishes (corrugated and pleated) well. High heat resistance allows you to iron fabrics made of acetate and triacetate fibers at 150-160°C.
Synthetic fibers
Synthetic fibers are produced from polymer materials. The general advantages of synthetic fibers are high strength, resistance to abrasion and microorganisms, and wrinkle resistance. The main disadvantage is low hygroscopicity and electrification.
Polyamide fibers - nylon, anide, enant, nylon - are distinguished by high tensile strength, resistance to abrasion and repeated bending, have high chemical resistance, frost resistance, and resistance to the action of microorganisms. Their main disadvantages are low hygroscopicity, heat resistance and light resistance, and high electrification. As a result of rapid “aging”, they turn yellow, become brittle and hard. Polyamide fibers and threads are widely used in the production of household and technical products.
Polyester fibers - lavsan - are destroyed by the action of acids and alkalis, the hygroscopicity is 0.4%, therefore it is not used in its pure form for the production of household fabrics. It is characterized by high heat resistance, low shrinkage, low thermal conductivity and high elasticity. The disadvantages of the fiber are its increased rigidity, the ability to form pilling on the surface of products, low hygroscopicity and strong electrification. Lavsan is widely used in the production of fabrics, knitted and non-woven fabrics for household use in a mixture with wool, cotton, flax and viscose fiber, which gives the products increased abrasion resistance, elasticity and dimensional stability. In addition, the fiber is used in medicine to make surgical sutures and blood vessels.
Polyacrylonitrile fibers - nitron, dralon, dolan, orlon - resemble wool in appearance. Products made from it, even after washing, have high dimensional stability and wrinkle resistance. They are resistant to moths and microorganisms, and are highly resistant to nuclear radiation. In terms of abrasion resistance, nitron is inferior to polyamide and polyester fibers. It is used in the production of outer knitwear, fabrics, as well as artificial fur, carpet products, blankets and fabrics.
Polyvinyl alcohol fibers- vinol, ralon - have high strength and resistance to abrasion and bending, exposure to light, microorganisms, sweat, various reagents (acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents, petroleum products). Vinol differs from all synthetic fibers in its increased hygroscopicity, which makes it possible to use it in the production of fabrics for underwear and outerwear. Staple (short) polyvinyl alcohol fibers are used in pure form or mixed with cotton, wool, flax or chemical fibers to produce fabrics, knitwear, felt, felt, canvas, tarpaulins, and filter materials.
Polyurethane fibers- spandex, lycra - have high elasticity: they can be stretched many times and increase in length by 5-8 times. They have high elasticity, strength, wrinkle resistance, resistance to abrasion (20 times more than that of a rubber thread), to light weather and chemical reagents, but low hygroscopicity and heat resistance: at temperatures above 150°C they turn yellow and become rigid. These fibers are used to produce elastic fabrics and knitted fabrics for outerwear, women's toiletries, sportswear, and hosiery.
Polyvinyl chloride fibers- chlorin - they are resistant to wear and the action of chemical reagents, but at the same time they absorb little moisture and are not sufficiently resistant to light and high temperatures: at 90-100°C the fibers “shrink” and soften. Used in the production of filter fabrics, fishing nets, knitted medical underwear.
Polyolefin fibers obtained from polyethylene and polypropylene. They are cheaper and lighter than other synthetic fibers, have high strength, resistance to chemicals, microorganisms, wear and repeated bending. Disadvantages: low hygroscopicity (0.02%), significant electrification, instability to high temperatures (at 50-60°C - significant shrinkage). Mainly used for making technical materials, carpets, raincoat fabrics, etc.
Inorganic threads and fibers
Glass fibers obtained from silicate glass by melting and drawing. They are non-flammable, resistant to corrosion, alkalis and acids, high strength, atmospheric and sound insulating properties. They are used for the production of filters, fire-resistant interior lining of aircraft and ships, and theater curtains.
Metal fibers obtained from aluminum, copper, nickel, gold, silver, platinum, brass, bronze by drawing, cutting, planing and casting. They produce alunit, lurex and tinsel. In a mixture with other fibers and threads, it is used for the production and finishing of clothing, furniture and decorative fabrics and textile haberdashery.
Inorganic yarn is made from compounds of chemical elements (except carbon compounds), usually from fiber-forming polymers. Asbestos, metals and even glass can be used.
This is interesting. The fine-fiber structure of natural asbestos allows it to be used to make yarn for fireproof fabric.
Types and features of production
Thanks to the variety of raw materials from inorganic fibers, it is possible to create different types of yarn. All of them are characterized by high tensile strength, excellent dimensional stability, wrinkle resistance, and resistance to light, water, and temperature.
Metallic, or metallized, yarn is widely used in the textile industry. It is used in combination with other types of material to give products a shiny, decorative look. To produce such yarn, they use either alunit - metal threads that do not tarnish or fade over time. The material is made of aluminum foil coated with polyester film, which protects against oxidation. To obtain a golden hue, copper is added to the raw material, and to add reinforcing properties, it is twisted with nylon thread.
To expand the range of textile products, inorganic fibers can be used in a mixture with other materials, including those of natural origin.
Historical reference. The production of artificial yarn began at the end of the 19th century. The first type of inorganic fiber was nitrate silk, produced in 1890.
Properties
The artificial origin of yarn from inorganic fibers has endowed it with many advantages:
- UV resistance - the yarn does not fade in the bright sun, maintaining its original color;
- good hygroscopicity, that is, the ability to absorb and evaporate moisture;
- hygienic - inorganic fibers are not of interest to moths, microorganisms do not multiply in them.
All products made from inorganic fibers have good wearability and retain their appearance for a long time.
Products made from such yarn require careful washing. The water should not be hot, optimally no more than 30–40 degrees. Otherwise, the item may shrink or lose strength.
It is recommended to use washing liquid of the appropriate type of fabric and an antistatic agent. You cannot squeeze things out of inorganic fibers by twisting them: when wet, they lose up to 25% of their strength, which can lead to damage.
Advice. Do not use a machine spin or dry the product on a radiator. It is better to straighten the item on a flat horizontal surface, placing a towel that will absorb moisture, or oilcloth.
What is knitted from inorganic fibers
Inorganic fiber yarn is ideal for knitting or crocheting. Smooth shiny threads do not tangle or flake; even a beginner can easily handle them. From this yarn you can knit or decorate with metallic thread:
- elegant bolero;
- fashionable top;
- Nice dress;
- bright headdress;
- lace napkin;
- booties or socks for the baby.
Inorganic fibers will allow you to create a beautiful and elegant item. Use your imagination and you will succeed!
Inorganic fibers in branded collections
To knit a quality product, you need to choose suitable material. Yarn with inorganic fibers is offered by Lana Grossa and other manufacturers. They have gained immense popularity among knitters all over the world. Bright, beautiful and original collections of yarn will allow you to choose perfect material for your work.