Section - I - Short description ancient india
Section - II -Culture and religion

Ancient India is one of the first civilizations in the world, which brought the world culture the largest number of various spiritual values. Ancient India is quite the richest subcontinent with a turbulent and complex history. It was here that the greatest religions were once born, empires appeared and collapsed, but from century to century the “enduring” identity of the Indy culture was preserved. This civilization built large and very well-planned cities with bricks with running water and built a pictographic script, which to this day cannot be deciphered.

India got its name from the name of the Indus River, in the valley of which it is located. "Indus" in the lane. means "river". With a length of 3180 kilometers, the Indus originates in Tibet, flows through the Indo-Gangetic lowland, the Himalayas, flows into the Arabian Sea. Various finds of archaeologists indicate that in Ancient India there was a human society already during the Stone Age, and it was then that the first social relations arose, art was born, permanent settlements appeared, prerequisites arose for the development of one of the ancient world civilizations - the Indian Civilization, which appeared in Northwest India (today almost the entire territory of Pakistan).

It dates back approximately to the XXIII-XVIII centuries BC and is considered the 3rd civilization of the Ancient East in time of appearance. Its development, as well as the first two - in Egypt and Mesopotamia - was directly connected with the organization of high yields of irrigated agriculture. The first archaeological finds of terracotta figurines and pottery date back to the 5th millennium BC, they were made in Mehrgarh. From this it follows that Mehrgarh can already be considered a real city - this is the first city in Ancient India, which we became aware of through excavations by archaeologists. The primordial deity of the indigenous population of ancient India - the Dravidians, was Shiva. He is one of the 3 main deities of Hinduism - Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva. All 3 gods are considered a manifestation of a single divine essence, but each is assigned a specific “field of activity”.

So, Brahma is considered the creator of the world, Vishnu was his keeper, Shiva was his destroyer, but it is he who recreates it. Shiva among the indigenous people of Ancient India was considered the main god, was considered a model who had achieved his spiritual self-realization, the ruler of the world, the demiurge. The Indus Valley extends to the NW of the subcontinent adjacent to ancient Sumer. Between these civilizations, of course, there were trade relations, and it is quite possible that it was Sumer who had a huge impact on Indian civilization. Throughout Indian history, the northwest has remained the main route for the invasion of new ideas. All other routes to India were so closed by the seas, forests and mountains that, for example, the great ancient Chinese civilization left almost no traces in it.

Nature and population of ancient India

India occupies part of the Asian continent and a huge peninsula in the south of Asia - Hindustan, washed by the waters of the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea. In the north of India, the Himalayas mountain range passes, separating India from other countries.
The nature and climate of India are very diverse. Almost the entire Hindustan peninsula is occupied by a plateau with a hot, arid climate. Between this plateau and the Himalayas there is a vast lowland, where two mighty rivers flow: the Indus and the Ganges. Both originate in the Himalayas
and together with their many tributaries form fertile valleys separated from one another by tropical forests and deserts. In the river valleys there is a lot of land suitable for cultivation and pastures.
The fauna of India is very rich and varied. The population had to wage a continuous struggle with predators - tigers, panthers, bears, destroying people and livestock, as well as with elephants, trampling crops.
India has been inhabited since ancient times. IN various parts india found rough stone tools used by ancient people. In the third millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley, slave-owning states with a peculiar culture arose. Scientists have unearthed the ruins of cities in the desert big buildings from brick and stone. The population of these cities was engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. Skillful artisans made various utensils and luxury items from stone, ivory and metal. Trade was developed, both internal and external. In the cities there were covered markets. Trade relations were maintained with Indochina and Mesopotamia. At ancient population India had a letter that has not yet been read.

In the second millennium BC. e. from the northwest, numerous tribes penetrated into India, calling themselves the Aryans, which in the language of the ancient Indians means “noble”. The Aryans were nomadic herders. Their main wealth is cattle, and their main food is dairy products. Subsequently, the cow was considered a sacred animal by the Indians. The Aryans knew a horse that appeared in India at the same time as them. Horses were harnessed to wagons and chariots adapted for fast driving and combat with enemies. At the head of the tribes of the Aryans were tribal leaders - rajas. Their power was limited by the council of elders.
From the end of the second millennium, with the spread of iron tools, the Indians began to develop the Ganges valley, clearing the jungle, draining the swamps. They sow barley and rice and cultivate cotton. Semi-nomadic pastoralism is giving way to agriculture.

Formation of slave states.

The development of agriculture and crafts, as well as aggressive wars, led to the appearance of property inequality among the Aryans. The rajas who led the predatory campaigns accumulate a lot of wealth. With the help of warriors, they strengthen their power, make it hereditary. The Rajas and their warriors turn the captives into slaves. From the peasants and artisans they demand the payment of taxes and work for themselves. Rajas are gradually turning into kings of small states. During wars, these small states are united into one, and then the ruler becomes a maharaja (“big king”).
Over time, the council of elders loses its significance. From the tribal nobility, military leaders and officials are recruited who are in charge of collecting "taxes, organizing deforestation and draining swamps. Brahmin priests begin to play a significant role in the emerging state apparatus .. They taught that the king is higher than other people, that he is "like the sun , burns eyes and heart and no one on earth can even look at him.

Castes and their role.

In the slave-owning states of India in the first millennium BC. e. The population was divided into four groups, called castes. The first caste consisted of Brahmins. Brahmins did not engage in physical labor and lived on income from sacrifices. The second caste, the Kshatriyas, was represented by warriors; they also controlled the administration of the state. Power struggles often took place between Brahmins and Kshatriyas. The third caste - the Vaishyas - included farmers, shepherds and merchants. All the local population conquered by the Aryans made up the fourth caste - the Shudras. Shudras were servants and did the hardest and dirtiest work. Slaves were not included in any caste.
The division into castes broke the old tribal unity and opened up the possibility of uniting people who came from different tribes within the same state. Caste was hereditary. The son of a brahmin was born a brahmin, the son of a sudra was born a sudra. To perpetuate castes and caste inequality, the Brahmins created laws. They say that the god Brahma himself established inequality between people. Brahma, according to the priests, created Brahmins from his mouth, warriors from his hands, Vaishyas from his thighs, and Shudras from his feet, which were covered with dust and dirt.
Caste division doomed the lower castes to hard, humiliating work. It closed the way for capable people to knowledge and state activities. Caste division hindered the development of society; it played a reactionary role.

Mauryan state in ancient India

In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. important changes took place in the economic life of the country. By this time, the main part of the Ganges valley had been developed. Artificial irrigation is widely used in agriculture. Trade and usury flourish; cities grow and prosper.
There was a need for a single strong state capable of organizing irrigation or other works on a large scale and pursuing an aggressive policy in the interests of the ruling class. In the 5th century BC e. in the course of a long and stubborn struggle between small states, the state of Magadha acquires the predominant influence. It extends its dominion over all the regions between the Ganges and the Himalayas. At the end of the IV century. BC e. all of northern and part of southern India united under the rule of King Chandragupta. He was the founder of the Mauryan dynasty. In the state of Chandragupga and his successors, there was strong army, consisting of infantry, cavalry, war chariots and elephants. The king ruled the country, relying on officials and military leaders.
The upkeep of troops and officials was a heavy burden on the working population of the country. The exploitation of communal peasants, artisans and slaves increased. Slaves were not only foreigners captured, but also Indians who were indebted to rich people.
Large cities are becoming centers of life in Indian society. Officials, priests, merchants, artisans, as well as servants and slaves of rich people live in cities. The life of the townspeople begins to differ greatly from the life of the rural population.
The Mauryan state reaches its greatest prosperity under the grandson of Chandragupta, King Ashoka (273-236 BC). Continuing the aggressive policy of Chandragupta, Ashoka annexes a number of neighboring regions to his possessions.

The Gupta state and its fall.

In the first half of the 4th c. Magadha again becomes the center of a large slave state - Gupt. The kings of this state made a number of successful campaigns of conquest in the Ganges valley and in Central India. The rulers of small kingdoms paid tribute to them.
In IV-V centuries. the development of agriculture, crafts and trade continues. The Indians have mastered new lands formerly occupied by the jungle; artificial irrigation was used more widely than before. They grew cotton and sugarcane. From India, the cultivation and processing of cotton spread to other countries.
Artisans have achieved great success in the manufacture of jewelry, weapons, dressing the finest cotton and silk products. India carried on extensive land and sea trade with other countries.

The rise of the economy in India in the IV-V centuries. associated with the use of the labor of free farmers, who were given plots for temporary use on the terms of their payment of a share of the harvest. The slave-owning nobility is gradually refusing to use the labor of slaves in its economy.

The final fall of the slave order in India is facilitated by an invasion in the middle of the 5th century. northern tribes of the Huns, who formed their state in India.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

S W №43

Abstract on the topic:

"ANCIENT INDIA"

Pupils 10 "B" class

Kutuzova Elena

Mogilev, 2002

Bibliography :

1.G.I. Dovgyalo "What is History?"

2. O.V. Perzashkevich and A.A. Prokhorov "Countries of the Ancient East"

Minsk

"People's Asveta"

1996
Content:

1. List of references……………………………………………2p

3. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………...4page

4. ANCIENT STATE OF INDIA…………………………….5str

4.1. Location and nature of Ancient India…………..5str

4.2. The formation of states in ancient India.………………6str

4.3. Economic life. ……………………………………...7page

5. CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIA ………………………………………………………………9str

5.1. Languages ​​and writing of ancient India. …………………..9str

5.2. Literature. …………………………………………….……9str

5.3. Religion of Ancient India.…………………………………...10str

6. INTERESTING ABOUT INDIA……………………………………… 11str

6.1. Excavations in Mahenjo-Daro……………………..…………11str

6.2. The social structure of the Indian according to ancient laws ... 12str

7. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………….

Introduction

India is an ancient country about 8 thousand years old. The amazing Indian people lived on its territory. which were divided into several public classes. Where priests played an important role. Although historians do not know who ruled such an amazing state. The Indians had their own language and script. Their letters cannot be deciphered by scientists to this day.

The ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They made a thin fabric of chintz. They have tamed the world's largest animal, the elephant.

They worshiped and believed in different gods. Animals were deified. Along with the gods, the Vedas, the Sanskrit language and the Brahmins were revered as the guardians of culture and sacred knowledge. Brahmins were considered living gods.

This is a very interesting state and people.

ancient state of india

Location and nature of ancient India .

In the south of Asia, behind the Himalayan range, there is an amazing country - India. Its history goes back almost 8 thousand years. However, modern India differs in size from the ancient country of the same name. In terms of area, Ancient India was approximately equal to Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Iran, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine combined.

This vast territory had a variety of natural conditions. In the west, the Indus River flowed, it rained relatively infrequently, but in summer there were large floods. Vast steppes spread out here.

In the east, the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers carried their waters to the Indian Ocean. It always rained heavily here, and the whole land was covered with marshy swamps and impenetrable jungle. These are dense thickets of trees and shrubs, where twilight reigns even during the day. There were tigers, panthers, elephants in the jungle, Poisonous snakes and a wide variety of insects.

The central and southern parts of India in ancient times were mountainous spaces, where it was always hot and there was a lot of rain. But the abundance of moisture was not always a blessing. Dense vegetation and swamps were a big obstacle for ancient farmers armed with stone and copper axes. Therefore, the first settlements appear in India in the less wooded north-west of the country. The Indus Valley had another advantage. It was closer to the ancient states of Western Asia, which facilitated communication and trade with them.

State formation in ancient India .

While scientists have little information about social order and culture of Indian cities. The fact is that the writing of the ancient Indians has not yet been deciphered. But today it is known that in the III and the first half of the II millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley there was a single state with two capitals. This Harappa in the north and mohenjo-daro on South. The inhabitants were divided into several public classes. It is not known exactly who ruled the state. But they played a big role priests.

With the decline of the Indian state, the public organization also collapsed. Writing has been forgotten.

Appearing in the middle II millennium BC. e., the arias brought with them their social organization. It was based on the division of society into "their own" (Aryans) and "strangers" (dasov). Using the right of the conquerors, the Aryans gave the Dasas a dependent position in society.

There was also a division among the Aryans themselves. They were divided into three classes - varnas. The first and highest brew were Brahmins - priests, teachers, guardians of culture. Second varna - kshatriyas. It was military nobility. In the third varna - vaishyas- included farmers, artisans and merchants. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the fourth varna appeared - sudras. It means "servant". This varna included all non-arii. They were obliged to serve the first three varnas. The lowest position was "untouchables". They did not belong to any of the varnas and were obliged to do the dirtiest work.

With the development of the craft, the growth of population and the complication public life, in addition to varnas, an additional division by profession. This division is called division into castes.

And in a certain varna, like a caste, a person fell by birthright. If you are born in a brahmin family, you are a brahmin; if in a sudra family, you are a sudra. Belonging to one or another varna and caste determined the rules of behavior for every Indian.

The further development of Indian society led in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. to the emergence of kingdoms headed by rajas. (In ancient Indian "raja" means "king".)

At the end of the IV century. BC e. formed in India mighty empire. Its founder was Chandragupta, who stopped the advance of the army of Alexander the Great. This power reached its highest power under the grandson of Chandragupta Ashok (263-233 BC).

Thus, already in the III-beginning of the II millennium BC. e. India had a state. It not only was not inferior in its development, but at times surpassed Egypt and Mesopotamia. After the decline of Indian culture and the arrival of the Aryans, the social structure of ancient Indian society became more complicated. Its culture was created by the Aryans with the participation of the local population. At this time, a caste system is formed. A mighty empire arose. changing, ancient Indian culture has survived to the present day.

Economic life.

Already in the III millennium BC. e. The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley was agriculture. They grew wheat, barley, peas, millet, jute and, for the first time in the world, cotton and sugar cane.

Animal husbandry was well developed. The Indians raised cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, elephants. The horse came later.

The Indians were well acquainted with metallurgy. The main tools of labor were made of copper. Knives, spear and arrowheads, hoes, axes and much more were smelted from it. Artistic casting, masterful stone processing, alloys, among which bronze occupied a special place, were no secret to them. The Indians knew gold and lead. But iron at that time they did not know.

The craft was also developed. Spinning and weaving played an important role. The craftsmanship of the jewelers is impressive. They worked precious metals and stones, ivory and shells.

Maritime and land trade reached a high level. In 1950, archaeologists found the first port in history for anchoring ships at low tide.

The most active trade was with the Southern Mesopotamia. Cotton and jewelry were brought here from India. Barley, vegetables, fruits were brought to India. There were trade links with Egypt and the island of Crete. Probably, the Indians also exchanged with neighboring nomadic peoples and even built a city on the Amu Darya River.

With the decline of Indian culture, economic life came to a standstill. Appeared in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. The Aryans were nomads and lagged far behind the Indians in economic development. The only thing in which the Aryans were ahead of the Indians was in the use of the horse.

Only at the turn of II - I millennia BC. e. the new population of India - the Indians - again switched to agriculture. Crops of wheat, barley, millet, cotton and jute appeared. The farmers of the Ganges River valley gathered especially large crops.

Along with a horse and a large cattle An important place in the economy was occupied by an elephant. With its help, people successfully fought the impenetrable jungle.

Metallurgy is developing. Having quickly mastered bronze, already at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Indians learned how to mine iron. This greatly facilitated the development of new lands previously occupied by swamps and jungles.

The craft is also being revived. Again, a prominent place in the economy is occupied by pottery and weaving. Indian cotton fabrics were especially famous, products from which could be threaded through a small ring. These fabrics were very expensive. In honor of the goddess of arable land Sita they were named chintz. There were also simpler cheap fabrics.

Only trade remained at a low level. It was limited to the exchange of goods between neighboring communities.

Thus, the ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They have tamed the world's largest animal, the elephant.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIA

Languages ​​and writing of ancient India.

At the end of the III millennium BC. e. India was a major power with a highly developed culture. But it is not yet known what language the inhabitants of the Indus Valley spoke. Their writing is still a mystery to scientists.

India is located in South Asia, on the Hindustan Peninsula. The peninsula is washed by the waters of the Indian Ocean. From the north, India is limited by the Himalayas - the highest mountains in the world. In the Himalayas take the source of the rivers Indus and Ganges. The Ganges valley is covered with impenetrable forests - the jungle.

In the river valleys, the inhabitants of India grew: rice, wheat, barley; cotton; sugarcane.

Developments

III millennium BC - the first cities appear in the Indus Valley (the city of Mohenjo-Daro).

II millennium BC - Ancient Indian cities are dying.

II millennium BC Aryan tribes appear in India. They are spread throughout Hindustan.

I millennium BC - In India, there are many kingdoms.

6th-5th centuries BC. - The emergence of Buddhism.

3rd century BC. - Almost all of India was united under the rule of the kings of the Mauryan dynasty. The Mauryan Empire reached its peak during the reign of King Ashoka.

ancient indian gods

Ganesha - the god of wisdom with the head of an elephant,

Brahma - creator god (creator of the universe and ruler of the world),

Vishnu is the guardian god who helps people,

Shiva is the destroyer god, he can destroy, but he can also save.

Members

Ashoka is an ancient Indian king from the Maurya dynasty. Ruled in the III century. BC..

Conclusion

The Indians believed in the transmigration of souls, that after death a person is reborn into another being, and they believed that a person can be born as an animal and vice versa. What a person will be born in the next life depends on his (good or evil) deeds.

The position of a person in a society in which the caste system was adopted also depended on birth.

Nature and people of ancient India

India is a huge peninsula, almost a mainland in southern Asia. It is separated from the rest of the world Indian Ocean and the greatest in the world mountain range- The Himalayas. Only a few mountain passes, gorges and valleys connect this country with neighboring states and peoples. The central part of India is occupied by the Deccan Plateau. It is the birthplace of ancient civilizations. Two great rivers, the Ganges and the Indus, originate in the Himalayas. The country got its name from the name of the Indus River. The waters of the Ganges are still considered sacred by the inhabitants of India. In today's lesson, we will get acquainted with the amazing civilization of antiquity - Indian.

The climate of the peninsula is very hot and humid. Therefore, most of the country's territory is covered with impenetrable forests - jungles. Huge elephants, terrible tigers and panthers, clever monkeys, poisonous snakes live in the jungle.

The main occupation of the ancient Indians was settled agriculture. Usually people built their villages along the rivers, because the river banks were covered with fertile land. Here the Indians plowed fields, grew wheat, barley, and vegetables. Where there was a lot of water, rice was bred. From the sugar cane growing along the swampy banks of the rivers, a sweet powder was obtained - sugar. It was the oldest sugar in the world. People also learned how to grow cotton. Yarn was spun from it and then light fabrics, comfortable in hot climates, were woven. In the northern regions of the country, where little rain falls, the Indians in ancient times built irrigation systems similar to those of Egypt.

Since ancient times, when people were gathering, the ancient Indians knew different plants and flowers that could be eaten and from which various spices and incense could be obtained. The rich and generous nature of India gave people plants that were not found anywhere else. The Indians learned how to cultivate and use them. Much later, spices and incense became the commodity for which merchants from different countries rushed to India.

The beginning of civilization in India dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. e., when great cities with high culture and accomplishment arose in the Indus Valley - Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. At the beginning of the twentieth century. English archaeologists discovered the ruins of these cities. They were especially struck by Mohenjo-Daro (Fig. 2). The city was probably built over several centuries. Its size reached 250 hectares. Straight streets were found here, with houses built of burnt bricks. The walls of some buildings towered 7 and a half meters. Most likely, the townspeople lived in the 2nd and 3rd storey buildings. The houses did not have decorations and windows facing the street, but, apart from living quarters, there was a room for ablutions, where water was supplied from a special well.

The streets were located from north to south and from east to west, the width of each of them reached 10 m. Probably, the ancient inhabitants of this city used carts on wheels. In the center of Mohenjo-Daro stood a building with a huge pool. The purpose of this building is not exactly known, but scientists have suggested that this building was ancient temple dedicated to the god of water. Not far from the temple there were large craft workshops, a market and granaries. The central part of the city was surrounded by a fortress wall. Behind it, the inhabitants of Mohenjo-Daro hid during the wars.

As can be seen from the sacred books of the Indians, they deified animals and worshiped many gods. One of the main gods was the wise Ganesha with the head of an elephant (Fig. 3). The Indians treated the cow with love and respect. She gave people milk, curdled milk, butter, and therefore she was called the mother, the divine nurse.

Indian civilization is one of the most ancient on the planet. The religious and ethical teachings and works of art created here are distinguished by their extraordinary beauty and originality. At the same time, the political history of India, full of incredible turns and events, is of great interest.

ancient india

Harappan civilization (3000-1500 BC)

About 5000 years ago, the Harappan civilization arose in the Indus Valley in what is now Punjab. Scientists believe that ethnically the Harappans belong to the Dravidian peoples who still inhabit the south of India. There were suggestions that the first civilization in India was created by settlers from Sumer or Aryan tribes. But recent archaeological research suggests that, apparently, the Harappans were the indigenous inhabitants of this region, and their culture was quite original.

Around 2500 B.C. e. the "golden age" of the Harappan civilization began. Large cities with thoughtful and clear layouts were built here. In the two largest cities - Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, according to some estimates, from 30 to 100 thousand inhabitants could live at a time. The houses of the townspeople were different, depending on the wealth of the owners. The poor lived in small one-room buildings, while the houses of the rich could be real multi-story palaces. Each courtyard had its own well, and archaeologists also discovered the remains of a sewer system in the Harappan cities.

Artifacts found in the Indus Valley indicate that the Harappans were a peaceful people. They preferred trade and crafts to conquests. Excavations of the city of Lothala showed that the locals were talented seafarers. The city was both a port and a center of crafts and trade. There were entire streets, consisting of workshops where they made dishes, jewelry and fabrics. From Lothala, boats loaded with goods were sent to northeast Africa and Western Asia. Archaeologists have found many tablets and ceramics with inscriptions that testify to the existence of writing already at that time. But, unfortunately, scientists have not yet been able to decipher the language of the Harappans.

The main occupations of the Harappans, like most peoples of the Bronze Age, were agriculture and cattle breeding. They were familiar with many agricultural crops. Complex irrigation systems were created to irrigate the fields. The Harrapians also managed to tame sheep, goats, cows, cats, dogs and elephants.

Religious ideas of the inhabitants of the Harappan civilization are still little studied. Apparently, their religion already contained some elements of the future Hinduism. Archaeological finds allow us to conclude that the cult of the mother goddess was popular among the Harappans, and mythological subjects borrowed from the Sumerian-Akkadian religion were also widespread.

Around 1500 B.C. e. Harappan cities began to decline. Crafts become more crude and primitive, public buildings and palaces fall into disrepair, sewerage and irrigation systems are destroyed. Scientists express a number of hypotheses explaining the barbarization of the Harappan culture: soil salinization, changes in the course of the Indus, floods and droughts. Shortly after the final decline of the Harappan civilization, new tribes came to these lands.

Aryan conquest of India. Vedic civilization (1500 - 500 BC)

Approximately in the XII-VII centuries BC. e. Aryan conquerors came to the territory of modern India. modern science can already give an answer to the question, where was the ancestral home of the Aryans. Once upon a time, Indians and Iranians were one people. Their ancestors lived in the region of Central Asia - in the Caspian steppes, Western Siberia, on the territory of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. Most likely, the Indo-Aryans moved from there to Hindustan in several migration waves. The newcomers settled in the north of the peninsula, while the Harappans and other local tribes were forced to move south. However, in many regions, settlers and natives coexisted peacefully, adopting each other's culture and traditions.

Indo-Aryan culture is often also called Vedic, since the Vedas are the main cultural asset of this civilization - scriptures which outlines the foundations of Hinduism. The most famous Veda is the Rig Veda, dating back to the 11th-10th centuries BC. e. Thanks to the Rigveda, scientists were able to learn a lot about the philosophical and religious picture of the world of the Indo-Aryans and get an idea of ​​the social structure, life and main occupations of the local population. The Indo-Aryans were polytheists. Their pantheon included:

• Indra - thunderer and warrior;
• Varuna - the god of heavenly bodies and the legislator;
• Vishnu is the god of the sun;
• Agni is the god of fire;
• Soma is the deity of the intoxicating drink of immortality;

In addition, the Indo-Aryans believed in the existence of many evil and good small spirits.

Vedic culture belongs to iron age. Thanks to iron tools, the Indo-Aryans were able to explore the rugged areas of Hindustan, cultivate the soil efficiently and achieve a high level in many crafts.

Unlike the Harrapians, where the basis of social organization was popular assemblies, among the Indo-Aryans, the king played a key role, whose person the subjects deified. From Iran, the ancient Indians borrowed the varno-caste system, which developed here precisely in the Vedic era.

Buddhist (Magadh-Maurian) period (V - II centuries BC)

Revolutionary in the history of India was the era of the Mauryan dynasty. These powerful rulers:

• created a united state with a developed infrastructure on the Hindustan Peninsula;
• contributed to the flourishing of local culture, the spread of writing, the deepening of scientific knowledge;
• did a lot to develop trade.

During this period, Buddhism spread in India and such religious teachings like Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. the Ganges valley became a battlefield between many small states. Each of them sought to establish their influence in the region. Gradually began the rise of Magadha - a strong and rich kingdom located in the northeast of modern India, with its capital in Pataliputra. In the course of a stubborn struggle, the kings of Magadha managed to crush most of their political opponents.

The northwestern regions of India in the VI century. BC e. became part of the Achaemenid Empire, who ruled in Persia. In the IV century. BC e. the state of the Achaemenids fell under the onslaught of the troops of Alexander the Great. After the victory, the Macedonian ruler immediately advanced to India. However, the tired army demanded that Alexander return home. Alexander the Great was forced to turn around before reaching Magadha.

In 322 BC. e. Chandragupta, a representative of the new Mauryan dynasty, becomes the king of Magadha. In order to get the throne, Chandragupta had to not only fight the kings of the former dynasty - the Nandas, but also the Greek garrisons left in India by Alexander the Great. The Mauryan kings managed to unite under their rule all the principalities of northern India and maintained close ties with Egypt and the Seleucid Empire. The Mauryan Empire stretched from the Himalayas to the central part of Hindustan.

The Mauryas did a lot to spread Buddhism on the peninsula, managed to strengthen the vertical of power and created a complex bureaucratic system. Thanks to the appearance of the coin, credit and banking and trade began to develop in the country.

The end of the Mauryan Empire was the conspiracy of Pushyamirta Shunga (185 BC), after which a new dynasty came to power.

Classic period (IV-V centuries)

Even under the last Mauryas, the empire began to gradually collapse. The new dynasty - the Shungs - had to face the disobedience of the petty Indian princelings, as well as the Greek and Iranian conquerors.

In the 1st century n. e. The mighty Kushan Empire arose on the territory of Central Asia. The Kushan kings managed to subjugate the lands that were once part of the Mauryan state and some Greek colonies. In the III century. The Kushan Empire fell and a period of fragmentation began in India. Magadha again became the center of the revival of a united India. In 320 on royal throne Magadha was strengthened by the Gupta dynasty. Their reign is considered a "golden age" in Indian history. The Guptas were talented warriors and managed to create the largest empire in terms of area in the Ancient East.

However, in the middle of the 5th century, the Gupta Empire faced a serious opponent - the Iranian-speaking Ephtalite tribes. The aliens occupied almost all of northern India. The later Guptas only managed to maintain control over Magadha.

Middle Ages and Modern Times

The Hephthalites stayed briefly in India. Some of them left, and some assimilated and adopted the culture of the local population. India again plunged into strife and feudal fragmentation. Some principalities for a time towered over others, but literally after a few years they fell into decay. In this chaos, a system of seignioral-vassal relations arose, similar to the European one. Serious changes in the region began in the 11th century, when India began to be subjected to raids by Islamic conquerors. Mired in internecine wars, the Indian princes could not resist the new threat and were forced to submit.

Islamic period

The Turkic conquerors who professed Islam were also very heterogeneous and often competed with each other. In 1206, the Delhi Sultanate arose in India, which quickly became the leader in the region. The local and Muslim nobility preferred to submit to the Delhi rulers, since news of the aggressive campaigns of Genghis Khan had already come from Central Asia. In the XIII century, the Mongols invaded Northern India more than once, each time leaving many victims and destruction.

The sultans pursued a policy of Islamization. According to their decrees, many Hindu temples were destroyed, and mosques were erected in their place. Due to additional taxes imposed on the “infidels”, a certain decline in crafts and trade is noted during this period. Rajas and maharajas from among ethnic Indians could retain their possessions only on the condition of complete submission to the Sultan, providing him with their military detachments and paying tribute.

In the XIV century, the Delhi Sultanate began to weaken. Its final fall occurred at the end of the same century after the invasion of India by Tamerlane. In 1526, one of Tamerlane's descendants, Babur, was forced to flee Central Asia. Babur, together with his army, invaded Northern India and soon subjugated it, thereby laying the foundation for the Mughal Empire.

The descendants of Babur understood that in order to maintain stability within the empire, they needed support in the person of the local nobility. Therefore, they stopped the destruction of Hindu shrines and began to accept Hindus into the bureaucratic corps. The Great Mughals were talented conquerors and wise rulers who did a lot to develop the economy and culture.

However, to XVII century the empire was greatly weakened. This was due to many factors:

• the beginning of the European invasion of India;
• internecine wars between heirs to the throne;
• the actions of the Hindu nobility, determined to overthrow the power of foreigners;
• peasant unrest;
• performances of the Sikhs (the people in northern India who fought for independence).

The final fall of the Mughal Empire took place in 1858, when the British troops captured Delhi and captured the last Mughal ruler.

Europeans in India

For Europeans, India was a rich and attractive land. The European nobility was willing to pay huge sums of money for Indian spices, fabrics and jewelry. The struggle for India began in the 16th century, when the first Portuguese colony appeared on Hindustan. Soon rivalry for Indian wealth and domestic markets unfolded between Portugal, Spain, France, England and the Netherlands.

Europeans, with the help of money or a military threat, lured local nobles to their side, trying to enlist their support. In the middle of the 18th century, France became the most active player in the region, starting the creation of its colonial empire here. Her plans were thwarted by the British. During the conflict, both sides used detachments of sepoys - Indian soldiers who fought under the banner of European powers. The result of the Anglo-French war was the victory of the British, who began the immediate development of India.

To strengthen their power in the occupied territories, the British concluded agreements with the Indian principalities, according to which they had to give up independent foreign policy and a huge part of taxes in exchange for military assistance. Since the British exported from India everything of even minimal value, the principalities were rapidly impoverished and were forced to completely renounce their sovereignty.

Huge taxes, the decline of many crafts, enslaving conditions for renting land led to the impoverishment of the population, the irretrievable death of many crafts and mass starvation. Unlike the previous conquerors, the British were not going to assimilate and adopt local ways. All resources were simply pumped out of India. Moreover, if the Indian feudal lords, interested in a constant influx of taxes, tried not to oppress landowners too much, then the British were absolutely not worried about the standard of living of the population. Therefore, colonial India was much poorer than feudal India. In the 19th century, the colonialists tried to create bourgeois relations and a developed industry in India. In some cities, such as Bombay, this has been successful. But due to the preservation of feudal vestiges, the Indian economy could not develop fully.

The local population tried more than once to oppose the colonialists. The most famous such attempt was the sepoy uprising of 1857-59. However, the rebels failed because:

• the leaders of the uprising were unable to present a united front;
• to know, who led the popular movement, was not ready to make concessions to the peasants;
• the British managed to lure most of the feudal lords to their side;
• the sepoy army was too weak for serious military operations;
• the rebels were unable to create a clear political program and put forward slogans suitable for the entire population.

But, despite the defeat of the rebels, the British administration was forced to make a number of concessions.

Although the colonialists brought the Indian people a lot of grief, they also contributed to the rallying of the Indians in the face of a common threat. In addition, the British built factories, railways and schools. Young people from wealthy families went to study abroad, bringing new knowledge and ideas from there. At the beginning of the 20th century, political parties and circles began to appear in India, promoting independence and freedom. Also, the revolutions in Russia, Germany and China had an impact on the internal situation of India.

Some of the most active public figures of that time were Mahatma Gandhi and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Their ideas became especially popular after the end of the First World War. Gandhi managed to establish contacts not only with the Hindus, but also with the Indian Muslims who started the caliphate movement. The movement of disobedience initiated by the intelligentsia in the early 1920s was also taken up by the peasants. The Indian National Congress, the country's first political party, was responsible for coordinating all actions.

At first, the British were ready to make concessions, but in the context of the aggravated international situation, the British administration took drastic measures, arresting Gandhi and his associates. India soon entered World War II as part of the British Empire.

Throughout the war, actions against the British continued. The situation was aggravated by the growth of mutual hatred between Hindus and Muslims. After the end of the war, the British authorities came to the conclusion that London was no longer able to hold Indian colonies. In order to prevent further religious and ethnic conflicts, it was decided to divide India into two parts - Muslim and Hindu. So in August 1947, two independent countries appeared on the world map at once - Pakistan and, in fact, India.

Independent India

Despite the division of the former British colonies, the conflict between Muslims and Hindus continued for many more years and led to several Indo-Pakistani wars. The border on both sides was flooded with refugees, with occasional regional clashes.

In 1948, Gandhi was assassinated and the government was headed by Jawaharlal Nehru. In the National Congress in the 1950s, the rivalry between the two political factions began. One advocated development along the Western capitalist path, while the other insisted on state management of the economy. As a result, the left opposition broke away from the National Congress and founded its own party.

Today, India's economy can be described as a mixed one. Thanks to the talented leaders of the country, such as Indira Gandhi, Lal Bahadur Shastri and Narasimha Rao, a number of successful economic reforms and many technological innovations have been introduced here. India even became a nuclear power in the 1970s. Today because of the cheapness manual labor and raw materials in India there are branches of many large European and American industrial enterprises.

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