A Brief History of France. Formation of the French state

The history of France, which is located in the very center of Europe, began long before the appearance of permanent human settlements. Convenient physical and geographical position, proximity to seas, rich reserves natural resources contributed to France throughout its history being the “locomotive” of the European continent. And this is how the country remains today. Occupying leading positions in the European Union, the UN and NATO, the French Republic remains in the 21st century a state whose history is being created every day.

Location

The country of the Franks, if the name of France is translated from Latin, is located in the region Western Europe. The neighbors of this romantic and beautiful country are Belgium, Germany, Andorra, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The shores of France are washed by warm Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The territory of the republic is covered with mountain peaks, plains, beaches, and forests. Hidden among the picturesque nature are numerous natural monuments, historical, architectural, cultural attractions, ruins of castles, caves, and fortresses.

Celtic period

In the 2nd millennium BC. Celtic tribes, whom the Romans called Gauls, came to the lands of the modern French Republic. These tribes became the core of the formation of the future French nation. The Romans called the territory inhabited by the Gauls or Celts Gaul, which was part of the Roman Empire as a separate province.

In the 7th-6th centuries. BC, Phoenicians and Greeks from Asia Minor sailed to Gaul on ships and founded colonies on the Mediterranean coast. Now in their place there are cities such as Nice, Antibes, Marseille.

Between 58 and 52 BC, Gaul was captured by the Roman soldiers of Julius Caesar. The result of more than 500 years of rule was the complete Romanization of the population of Gaul.

During Roman rule, other important events took place in the history of the peoples of future France:

• In the 3rd century AD, Christianity entered Gaul and began to spread.
• Invasion of the Franks, who conquered the Gauls. After the Franks came the Burgundians, Alemanni, Visigoths and Huns, who completely put an end to Roman rule.
• The Franks gave names to the peoples who lived in Gaul, created the first state here, and founded the first dynasty.

The territory of France, even before our era, became one of the centers of constant migration flows that passed from north to south, west to east. All these tribes left their mark on the development of Gaul, and the Gauls adopted elements of various cultures. But it was the Franks who had the greatest influence, who managed not only to drive out the Romans, but also to create their own kingdom in Western Europe.

The first rulers of the Frankish kingdom

The founder of the first state in the vastness of the former Gaul is King Clovis, who led the Franks during their arrival in Western Europe. Clovis was a member of the Merovingian dynasty, which was founded by the legendary Merovey. He is considered a mythical figure, since 100% evidence of his existence is not found. Clovis is considered the grandson of Merovey, and was a worthy successor to the traditions of his legendary grandfather. Clovis led the Frankish kingdom in 481, and by this time he had already become famous for his numerous military campaigns. Clovis converted to Christianity and was baptized in Reims, which happened in 496. This city became the center of baptism for the rest of the kings of France.

Clovis's wife was Queen Clotilde, who together with her husband revered Saint Genevieve. She was the patroness of the capital of France - the city of Paris. The following rulers of the state were named in honor of Clovis, only in the French version this name sounds like “Louis” or Ludovicus.

Clovis The first division of the country between his four sons, who did not leave any special traces in the history of France. After Clovis, the Merovingian dynasty began to gradually fade away, since the rulers practically did not leave the palace. Therefore, the stay in power of the descendants of the first Frankish ruler is called in historiography the period of lazy kings.

The last of the Merovingians, Childeric the Third, became the last king of his dynasty on the Frankish throne. He was replaced by Pepin the Short, so nicknamed for his small stature.

Carolingians and Capetians

Pepin came to power in the mid-8th century, and founded a new dynasty in France. It was called Carolingian, but not on behalf of Pepin the Short, but his son, Charlemagne. Pepin went down in history as a skillful manager who, before his coronation, was the mayor of Childeric the Third. Pepin actually ruled the life of the kingdom and determined the directions of the kingdom's foreign and domestic policies. Pepin also became famous as a skilled warrior, strategist, brilliant and cunning politician, who during his 17-year reign enjoyed the constant support of the Catholic Church and the Pope. Such cooperation ruling house Franks ended with the head of the Roman Catholic Church prohibiting the French from choosing representatives of other dynasties to the royal throne. So he supported the Carolingian dynasty and kingdom.

The heyday of France began under Pepin’s son, Charles, who spent most of his life in military campaigns. As a result, the territory of the state increased several times. In 800 Charlemagne became emperor. He was elevated to a new position by the Pope, who put the crown on the head of Charles, whose reforms and skillful leadership brought France to the TOP of the leading medieval states. Under Charles, the centralization of the kingdom was laid and the principle of succession to the throne was defined. The next king was Louis the First the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, who successfully continued the policies of his great father.

Representatives of the Carolingian dynasty were unable to maintain a centralized unified state, therefore in the 11th century. Charlemagne's state fell apart into separate parts. The last king of the Carolingian family was Louis the Fifth; when he died, Abbot Hugo Capet ascended the throne. The nickname appeared due to the fact that he always wore a mouth guard, i.e. the mantle of a secular priest, which emphasized his ecclesiastical rank after ascending to the throne as king. The reign of representatives of the Capetian dynasty is characterized by:

• Development of feudal relations.
• The emergence of new classes of French society - lords, feudal lords, vassals, dependent peasants. Vassals were in the service of lords and feudal lords, who were obliged to protect their subjects. The latter paid them not only through military service, but also tribute in the form of food and cash rent.
• There were constant religious wars, which coincided with the period of the Crusades in Europe, which began in 1195.
• The Capetians and many French were participants in the Crusades, participating in the defense and liberation of the Holy Sepulcher.

The Capetians ruled until 1328, bringing France to a new level of development. But the heirs of Hugo Capet failed to stay in power. The Middle Ages dictated its own rules, and a stronger and more cunning politician, whose name was Philip VI from the Valois dynasty, soon came to power.

The influence of humanism and the Renaissance on the development of the kingdom

During the 16th-19th centuries. France was ruled first by the Valois and then by the Bourbons, who belonged to one of the branches of the Capetian dynasty. The Valois also belonged to this family and were in power until the end of the 16th century. After them the throne until the mid-19th century. belonged to the Bourbons. The first king of this dynasty on the French throne was Henry the Fourth, and the last was Louis Philippe, who was expelled from France during the period of change from monarchy to republic.

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, the country was ruled by Francis the First, under whom France completely emerged from the Middle Ages. His reign is characterized by:

• He made two trips to Italy to present the kingdom's claims to Milan and Naples. The first campaign was successful and France gained control of these Italian duchies for some time, but the second campaign was unsuccessful. And Francis the First lost territories on the Apennine Peninsula.
• Entered royal loan, which in 300 years will lead to the collapse of the monarchy and the crisis of the kingdom, which no one could overcome.
• Constantly fought with Charles the Fifth, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
• France's rival was also England, which at that time was ruled by Henry the Eighth.

Under this king of France, art, literature, architecture, science and Christianity entered a new period of development. This happened mainly due to the influence of Italian humanism.

Humanism was of particular importance for architecture, which is clearly visible in the castles built in the Loire River valley. The castles that were built in this part of the country to protect the kingdom began to turn into luxurious palaces. They were decorated with rich stucco, decor, and the interior was changed, which was distinguished by luxury.

Also, under Francis the First, book printing arose and began to develop, which had a huge influence on the formation of the French language, including the literary one.

Francis the First was replaced on the throne by his son Henry the Second, who became the ruler of the kingdom in 1547. The policy of the new king was remembered by his contemporaries for his successful military campaigns, including against England. One of the battles, which is written about in all history textbooks dedicated to France in the 16th century, took place near Calais. No less famous are the battles of the British and French at Verdun, Toul, Metz, which Henry recaptured from the Holy Roman Empire.

Henry was married to Catherine de Medici, who belonged to the famous Italian family of bankers. The Queen ruled the country with her three sons on the throne:

• Francis II.
• Charles the Ninth.
• Henry the Third.

Francis reigned for only a year and then died of illness. He was succeeded by Charles the Ninth, who was ten years old at the time of his coronation. He was completely controlled by his mother, Catherine de Medici. Karl was remembered as a zealous champion of Catholicism. He constantly persecuted Protestants, who became known as Huguenots.

On the night of August 23-24, 1572, Charles the Ninth gave the order to purge all Huguenots in France. This event was called St. Bartholomew's Night, since the murders took place on the eve of St. Bartholomew. Two years after the massacre, Charles died and Henry III became king. His opponent for the throne was Henry of Navarre, but he was not chosen because he was a Huguenot, which did not suit most of the nobles and nobility.

France in the 17th-19th centuries.

These centuries were very turbulent for the kingdom. The main events include:

• In 1598, the Edict of Nantes, which was issued by Henry the Fourth, ended the religious wars in France. Huguenots became full members of French society.
• France took an active part in the first international conflict - the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1638.
• The kingdom experienced its "golden age" in the 17th century. under the reign of Louis the Thirteenth and Louis the Fourteenth, as well as the “gray” cardinals – Richelieu and Mazarin.
• The nobles constantly fought with the royal power to expand their rights.
• France 17th century constantly faced dynastic strife and internecine wars, which undermined the state from within.
• Louis the Fourteenth dragged the state into the War of the Spanish Succession, which caused the invasion of foreign countries into French territory.
• Kings Louis the Fourteenth and his great-grandson Louis the Fifteenth devoted enormous influence to the creation of a strong army, which made it possible to conduct successful military campaigns against Spain, Prussia and Austria.
• At the end of the 18th century, the Great French Revolution began in France, which caused the liquidation of the monarchy and the establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon.
• At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon declared France an empire.
• In the 1830s. An attempt was made to restore the monarchy, which lasted until 1848.

In 1848, a revolution called the Spring of Nations broke out in France, as in other countries of Western and Central Europe. The consequence of the revolutionary 19th century was the establishment of the Second Republic in France, which lasted until 1852.

Second half of the 19th century. was no less exciting than the first. The Republic was overthrown, replaced by the dictatorship of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled until 1870.

The Empire was replaced by the Paris Commune, which brought about the establishment of the Third Republic. It existed until 1940. At the end of the 19th century. The country's leadership pursued an active foreign policy, creating new colonies in different regions of the world:

• North Africa.
• Madagascar.
• Equatorial Africa.
• West Africa.

During the 80s - 90s. 19th centuries France constantly competed with Germany. Contradictions between states deepened and aggravated, which caused the separation of countries from each other. France found allies in England and Russia, which contributed to the formation of the Entente.

Features of development in the 20-21st centuries.

The First World War, which began in 1914, became a chance for France to regain lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, was forced to give this region back to the republic, as a result of which the borders and territory of France acquired modern contours.

During the interwar period, the country actively participated in the Paris Conference and fought for spheres of influence in Europe. Therefore, she actively took part in the actions of the Entente countries. In particular, together with Britain, it sent its ships to Ukraine in 1918 to fight against the Austrians and Germans, who were helping the government of the Ukrainian People's Republic drive the Bolsheviks out of its territory.

With the participation of France, peace treaties were signed with Bulgaria and Romania, which supported Germany in the First World War.

In the mid-1920s. were installed diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, a non-aggression pact was signed with the leadership of this country. Fearing the strengthening of the fascist regime in Europe and the activation of far-right organizations in the republic, France tried to create military-political alliances with European states. But France was not saved from the German attack in May 1940. Within a few weeks, Wehrmacht troops captured and occupied all of France, establishing the pro-fascist Vichy regime in the republic.

The country was liberated in 1944 by the forces of the Resistance Movement, the underground movement, and the allied armies of the United States and Britain.

The Second War hit the political, social and economic life of France hard. The Marshall Plan and the country's participation in economic European integration processes, which in the early 1950s, helped to overcome the crisis. unfolded in Europe. In the mid-1950s. France abandoned its colonial possessions in Africa, granting independence to the former colonies.

Political and economic life stabilized during the presidency of Charles de Gaulle, who led France in 1958. Under him, the Fifth Republic of France was proclaimed. De Gaulle made the country a leader on the European continent. Progressive laws were adopted that changed the social life of the republic. In particular, women received the right to vote, study, choose professions, and create their own organizations and movements.

In 1965, the country elected its head of state for the first time by universal suffrage. President de Gaulle, who remained in power until 1969. After him, the presidents in France were:

• Georges Pompidou – 1969-1974
• Valeria d'Estaing 1974-1981
• Francois Mitterrand 1981-1995
• Jacques Chirac – 1995-2007
• Nicolas Sarkozy - 2007-2012
• Francois Hollande – 2012-2017
• Emmanuel Macron – 2017 – until now.

After World War II, France developed active cooperation with Germany, becoming with it the locomotives of the EU and NATO. The government of the country since the mid-1950s. develops bilateral relations with the USA, Britain, Russia, countries of the Middle East, Asia. The French leadership provides support to former colonies in Africa.

Modern France is an actively developing European country, which is a member of many European, international and regional organizations, influences the formation of the global market. There are internal problems in the country, but the well-thought-out successful policy of the government and the new leader of the republic, Macron, is helping to develop new methods of combating terrorism, the economic crisis, and the problem of Syrian refugees. France is developing in accordance with global trends, changing social and legal legislation so that both the French and migrants feel comfortable living in France.

200,000 - 35,000 years ago, all of present-day France was inhabited by Neanderthals who had the skills of stone processing using the “Levallois technique”. At sites dating back to this period of history, found near the French cities of Les Eyzies (fr. Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil ) and Moustier (fr. Moustier ), in the Dordogne department numerous stone tools were found: side scrapers, handaxes, hammers, chisels. From the drawings left on the walls of the caves, it can be concluded that people of that time hunted bison, bison, wolves, horses and deer. The oldest French burials were also discovered here: the dead were buried in pits measuring 1.4 x 1 x 0.3 meters along with offerings in the form of stone tools, food, etc.

Celtic period

The increasing density of settlement of the territory and the inevitable contacts of nomadic tribes with their neighbors led to the mixing and mutual enrichment of their cultures. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, in the center of Europe (see map), a stable community of tribes of Indo-European origin, similar in language and material culture and currently called “Celts”, had formed. It is believed that the spread of Celtic tribes in Europe occurred in two major stages. In the first stage, which took place from 1500 to 700. BC e., the advance of the Celts to the eastern part of modern France was predominantly peaceful. Initially nomadic with their herds of domestic animals, in 1200-900 BC. e. The Celts began to settle on the occupied land and began to cultivate it. It was at this time that the Celts had their first permanent settlements, fortified from attacks by hostile tribes.

At the end of the 8th century BC. e. the Celts mastered iron processing techniques (see article Iron Age). With the advent of iron swords and war horses, a layer of military aristocracy emerged among the Celts, which led to colossal changes in the social structure of tribes that had previously only been engaged in cultivating the land and were built on the principles of general equality. In the graves of noble warriors, such as in the village of Vix (Fr. Vix ) in the Côte d'Or department (fr. Cote-d'Or) in the French region of Burgundy (fr. Bourgogne)), archaeologists found luxurious carts. In these same burials, scientists have discovered luxury items made in different parts of the Mediterranean (in particular, from Egypt), which gives an idea of ​​the scale of the wealth of the Celtic aristocracy and the level of development of trade of that era.

The further development of trade led to the creation of Greek sailors of their “representative offices” along the entire Mediterranean coast. So, around 600 BC. e. Phocian Greeks founded the city of Massalia (lat. Massilia, Greek Μασσαλία ), in our time - Marseille (fr. Marseille). The rapid growth of this settlement was ensured by the massive migration of Greeks from Phokis during its siege by the Persians around 550 BC. e. Massalia became one of the centers of trade and widespread Greek influence on the European part of the continent.

The second stage of the spread of the Celts to the western part of Europe began with the period of the La Tène culture in the 6th century BC. e. This time is characterized by significant changes in the way of life of the Celtic tribes. The divided military nobility gives way to soldiers recruited from ordinary peasants and under the leadership of a tribal leader, and the wooden plow is replaced by the plow with an iron coulter, which made it possible to cultivate the hard soil of the central and northern part of modern France. These changes made it possible to conquer and develop new lands, which, in turn, led to an increase in population and the need for new conquests. The military activity of the Celts interrupted trade ties centered on Marseille for a whole century, but by the end of the 4th century BC. e. the city regained its former influence in the trade sphere, as evidenced by ancient Greek pottery and coins discovered by archaeologists throughout the Rhine Valley, the Alps and even Lorraine.

At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. the Celtic lands were invaded by Belgian tribes who came from the south and west of modern Germany, and by 250 BC. e. captured the Massif Central and Languedoc. Despite the territorial losses, the Celtic civilization was experiencing rapid development at this time and was approaching highest point its heyday: fortified cities (oppidum - lat. oppidum, plural oppida), which in their power and size cannot be compared with previous structures, and money is actively circulated within the state.

For the 2nd century BC. e. characterized by the dominance in Europe of the Celtic tribe of the Arverni, distinguished by their military power and the wealth of their leaders, as well as the deep penetration, initially only economic, of the Romans into the southern part of Gaul: according to the results of archaeological excavations, it can be seen that during the 2nd century BC. e. Greek amphorae are almost going out of use, giving way to Italian ones, and the inhabitants of the Greek colony of Marseille are increasingly turning to Rome for protection from Celto-Ligurian raids and Arverni oppression. However, the Romans did not limit themselves to trade relations with the Gauls and organized military expansion into their lands.

Roman Gaul

Historical maps of France. Table I. I. Gaul under Yu. Caesar. II. Gaul under Augustus. III. Gaul in 476 IV. Frankish kingdom. V. Formation of the monarchy of Charlemagne.

The territory of present-day France in ancient times was part of Transalpine Gaul, as the Romans called the country bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel, the Rhine and the Alps. The Romans established themselves first in the southern, coastal strip of this vast territory, to unite Italy with Spain, and gave the conquered area the name Narbonese Gaul (about 120 BC). From here in 58-50. BC e. Julius Caesar conquered the other three parts, which were called Aquitaine (according to the Garonne), Celtic Gaul (according to the Loire and Seine) and Belgian (from the Seine to the Rhine; see Table I, Map I).

Medieval France

The Merovingians (late 5th century - 751) are considered the first royal dynasty in the Frankish state. The dynasty was named after the semi-legendary founder of the family - Merovey. The most famous representative is Clovis I (ruled from 481 to 511, from 486 king of the Franks). The last is considered to be Childeric III (ruled from 743 to 751, died in 754). Their capital from 561 was Metz. Since 751, the Frankish state was ruled by the Carolingians. Despite being called Roman emperors since 800, the capital of the Carolingians was the city of Aachen. The Frankish Empire split into three parts in 843.

Historical maps of France. Table II. VI. France in 987 VII. France in 1180 VIII. France in 1328 IX. France in the 14th and 15th centuries.

France also had a region outside Gaul - south of the Pyrenees (Spanish Mark of Charlemagne). During the last Carolingians, France began to split into feudal possessions, and with the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne (in 987; see Table II, Map VI) there were nine main possessions in the kingdom: 1) County of Flanders, 2) Duchy of Normandy, 3 ) Duchy of France, 4) Duchy of Burgundy, 5) Duchy of Aquitaine (Guienne), 6) Duchy of Gascony, 7) County of Toulouse, 8) Marquisate of Gothia and 9) County of Barcelona (Spanish Mark). Over time, fragmentation went even further; From the named possessions, new ones emerged, of which the most significant were the counties of Brittany, Blois, Anjou, Troyes, Nevers, and Bourbon.

The immediate possession of the first kings of the Capetian dynasty was a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris and very slowly expanding in different directions; during the first two centuries (987-1180) it only doubled (cf. Table II, maps VI and VII). At the same time, most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.

The era of the estate monarchy

The era of absolute monarchy

France in 1789-1914

Main article: History of France (1789-1914)

The French Revolution ( -)

Since the last third of the 18th century, Europe entered a period of revolutions (Belgium, the Netherlands). Previously, the revolution in France was considered bourgeois, but in the 60-70s. XX century began to believe that different segments of the population participated in it. Capitalism began to develop earlier. Many seigneurial farms have already switched to the capitalist mode. The industrial bourgeoisie itself was economically weak. It is sometimes said that this was a movement for civil liberty against the tyranny of the Bourbons.

The monarchy tried to adapt to the emerging conditions, but this caused discontent among the nobility. Louis XVI carried out reforms for freedom of capitalist relations. For example, in the mid-80s he adopted tax reforms that included the elimination of tax benefits for the nobility and clergy. In 1787, a meeting of the Notables was convened, at which the Comptroller General of Finance (the head of the executive branch) proposed the introduction of a unified land tax. The notables demanded his resignation. Necker was appointed, who suggested that Louis XVI convene the Estates General, which had not been convened since 1614, to support the reforms. They opened on May 5, 1789. The first conflict arose over the procedural issue of how to vote.

First stage of the revolution: June 17, 1789 - October 5-6, 1789

Second Empire (1852-1870)

After Napoleon III was captured by the Germans near Sedan (September) during the Franco-Prussian War, the National Assembly meeting in Bordeaux deposed him (September Revolution), and the Second Empire ceased to exist.

Third Republic (1870-1914)

An attempt to resist German troops advancing on the French capital led to the establishment of the Paris Commune between March 18 and May 28, 1871, which was defeated after 72 days of existence.

At the end of the 19th century. France made major colonial conquests, taking part in the "Race for Africa", and became the owner of the world's second largest colonial empire. The Fashoda crisis in 1898 brought France to the brink of war with Great Britain, but war was avoided. French Indochina was created. In 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia, in 1893 over Laos, and in 1912 over most of Morocco.

In 1891, an agreement was signed to create a Franco-Russian union. In 1904, an agreement on the alliance between France and Great Britain was signed. This is how the Entente came to be.

World War I

Interwar period

In 1924, a new coalition government of socialists and radicals, chaired by Edouard Herriot, came to power in France. The country began an economic recovery.

On May 13, 1958, there was a military mutiny in Algeria led by General Jacques Massu, who demanded the transfer of power to de Gaulle. On June 1, 1958, de Gaulle formed a new government. That same year, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted in a referendum, expanding the rights of the executive branch. De Gaulle was elected president.

see also

• France in 2000 (Future World cards)
• History of France (1789-1914)

Notes

1. Catalog of the main human sites in the Stone Age
2. Here is the most widely used translation of the city name. In some cases, the city name is translated Shiyak(see article Communes of the Charente department). In relation to the name of the ancient site, the term is used Shiyak(see article Europe in the Stone Age and the work of V. S. Titov)
3. Some scientists question the man-made nature of the objects found there.
4. This name is given by TSB. According to some sources the correct name is Gyuntskoe
5. MEMO - History resource (French)
6. "Knowledge is power". 1978 No. 3
7. See also Combarel's article
8. See also the article Mousterian culture
9. Bernard Vandermeersh, "Cro-Magnon (homme de)" in Dictionnaire de la Préhistoire, ed. André Leroi-Gourhan, Presses universitaires de France, Paris, (French)
10. For example, in the French city of Carnac (fr. Carnac ) 2,935 menhirs stretched over 4 kilometers.
11. Jan Philip. Celtic civilization and its heritage
12. Here is the most widely used translation of the village name. In some cases, the city name is translated In and(see article Communes of the Côte d'Or department)
13. One of the most important political forces of that time were the Romans, from whose written heritage modern scientists draw the most accurate information about the culture and life of Europe. In Roman sources, the Celts are called Gauls, and the lands, according to the Romans, occupied by these tribes are called Gaul. And despite the fact that Gaul, whose borders are described by the Romans, is much more extensive than the Celtic possessions, in modern literature (especially popular science) these concepts are accepted as identical.
14. French court recognizes French participation in the Holocaust

Literature

The most complete bibliography on the history of pre-revolutionary France was published in 1888 by G. Monod (see), under the title “Bibliographie de l’histoire de France” (cf. Historiography in France). Wed. also M. Petrov, “National historiography in France, Germany and England” (1861).

General essays. Simonde de Sismondi, "Histoire des Français" (1821-44); Monteil, "Histoire des Français des divers états"; Michelet, "Histoire de France" (1845-67); H. Martin, “Histoire de France” (1856 sq.); Guizot, “Histoire de France, racontée à mes petits enfants” (1870-75); Rambaud, "Hist. de la civilization française" and "Histoire de la civilization contemporaine" (1888); E. Lavisse (in collaboration with a number of scientists), “Histoire de France depuis les origines jusqu"à la révolution” (1901 et seq.; this work has just begun to appear).

Atlas: Lognon, “Atlas historique de la France” (1888); general historical atlases by Droysen, Schrader and others. In German literature - E. A. Schmidt, “Geschichte von Frankreich” (1839-49), with continuation by Wachsmuth.

Earliest period - see Gaul and Gauls. Frankish period - see Frankish Kingdom, Merovingians and Carolingians. Feudalism - see the article about it for historiography and bibliographical information. The era of growth of royal power - see Capetians, Communes, Third Estate, Parliaments, Government officials, Hundred Years' War. The era of reformation of the Catholic religion and the wars of religion - see Huguenots and Reformation. Age of royal absolutism - see Richelieu, Louis XIII, XIV, XV and XVI.

History of France in the 19th century: Gregoire, “History of France in the 19th century.” (1893 et ​​seq.); Rochau, “History of France from the overthrow of Napoleon I to the restoration of the empire” (1865); N. Kareev, “Political history of France in the 19th century.” (1901; this work contains a detailed bibliography of all books and articles in Russian).

The era of consulate and empire - see Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon as commander. Restoration - see

The man who founded France is considered to be King Clovis, who held power since four hundred and eighty-one. He was from the Merovingian dynasty, which was named after the mythical ruler Merovian. According to legends, Clovis was the grandson of Merovey. King Clovis became famous for his military campaigns, and was also known as the first French ruler to convert to Christianity. He accepted the new faith in the city of Reims in the year four hundred and ninety-six. Since then, it was in Reims that all the monarchs of France began to be crowned. Together with his wife Clotilde, Clovis was a devotee of Saint Genevieve, who is considered the patroness of Paris. In honor of this ruler, seventeen French kings would later be named after Louis (or Louis).

After Clovis died, the country was divided among his four sons, but neither they nor their descendants became capable rulers. Their dynasty began to slowly fade away. The Merovingian dynasty even received the nickname “lazy kings”, since most of the time these rulers did not leave the palace. Childeric III became the last king from this dynasty. He was replaced by the first representative from the Carolingian dynasty - Pepin, nicknamed Short because of his small stature. It was about him that Dumas wrote his short story entitled “Le chronique du roi Pepin”.

Pepin the Short was the ruler of France from the mid-eighth century, for seventeen years. Prior to this, for ten years he held the position of mayor - the king's adviser, who is endowed with enormous power at the royal court. Pepin was not only a brilliant politician, but also a very skilled warrior and strategist. Thanks to his constant support of the Catholic Church, he managed to gain the favor of the Pope, who eventually forbade the French to choose their kings from other dynasties on pain of excommunication from the Catholic Church.

The name of the Carolingian dynasty came from Charles, nicknamed the Great, who was the son of Pepin the Short. Over time, Dumas will write his famous short story “Les Hommes de fer Charlemagne” about him. Charlemagne was a remarkable commander - during his reign, the territories of France were significantly expanded due to constant military campaigns, and the state occupied almost the entire territory of modern Western Europe. In the year eight hundred in Rome, Charlemagne was crowned with the imperial crown by the Pope himself.

Charlemagne's heir was his eldest son, Louis I, who received the nickname "The Pious". From that moment on, the tradition according to which the state was divided into parts among all the heirs was abolished, and the throne was inherited by the eldest son of the king.

Charlemagne's grandchildren fought bitter wars for the crown, which weakened the empire and ultimately led to its collapse. The last of the Carolingian dynasty to ascend the throne was Louis V. After his death, power passed to Abbot Hugh, who was nicknamed "Capet" due to the fact that he often appeared in a cape, the robe of a secular priest, even as king. During the reign of the Capetian dynasty in France, feudal relations - lords and feudal lords protected their vassals, and they, in turn, swore allegiance to their masters and paid them tribute.

During the reign of the Capetians, for the first time in history, religious wars acquired unprecedented proportions. In one thousand ninety-five, the first Crusade begins. A huge number of brave and strong nobles from all over Europe go to distant Jerusalem in order to free a relic called the Holy Sepulcher from Muslims. On the fifteenth of July one thousand ninety-nine the city fell. The direct heirs of the first king from the Capetian dynasty, Hugo Capet, ruled until one thousand three hundred and twenty-eight, in which power from the last representative of this dynasty, Charles (Charles) the Fair, passed to the representative of the Valois dynasty - Philip VI.

The Valois dynasty, which is also a sister dynasty to the Capetians, ruled France until the end of the sixteenth century, when Henry (Henri) IV, representing the Bourbon branch of the Capetian dynasty, ascended the throne. This dynasty would remain in power until the mid-nineteenth century, when the last representative of the Orléans branch of the Bourbons, Louis Philippe, was expelled from France.

During the reign of Francis I, at the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, France would leave the Middle Ages. At this time, the appearance of the country will change in many ways. He became famous for two of his deeds. Firstly, like his father, Francis I made a military campaign into Italian territory, laying claim to Naples and Milan. Ten years later, he will make a campaign against Italian lands again, but it will end in failure. And, secondly, he introduced a royal loan, which three centuries later would play a fatal role in the life of the country. Francis I was called the true embodiment of the era - the new spirit of the Renaissance. This French king remained for a quarter of a century one of the main characters in the political arena of Europe. His main rivals at that time were Charles V, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire, and King Henry VIII of England.

At that most interesting time, thanks to the influence of Italian humanism, French literature, art, and architecture began to develop in a new way. Science, the morals of society and even, famous for its foundations, the Christian faith. The influence of this new culture for the French is clearly visible in the Loire Valley, in the new appearance of royal castles and other buildings. Now they became not so much well-fortified castles, but rather luxurious and beautiful palaces. During these years, book printing appeared on French territory, which contributed to the development of the French literary language.

Henry II, who came to power after the death of his father in the forty-seventh year of the sixteenth century, seemed at that time a strange anachronism against the background of the Renaissance. He headed the state for twelve years and died during one of the tournaments, in a duel with a nobleman. Being a good military leader, Henry II made several daring and lightning attacks against England, as a result of which the lands of Calais were recaptured from the British, and control was established over Verdun, Toul and Metz, which had previously been subordinate to the Holy Roman Empire. Henry's wife was the famous beauty Catherine de' Medici, a representative of one of the most famous Italian banking dynasties. After the death of the king, it was Catherine who became the main character in the political arena of France, despite the fact that the state was officially ruled by her sons - Henry III, Charles IX and Francis II.

The sickly Francis II, who ascended the throne after the death of his father, was strongly influenced by the Duke of Guise, as well as his brother, who held the post of cardinal. They were related to Queen Mary Stuart (of Scotland), to whom the French king was engaged in his childhood. But a year after coming to power, Francis II died of illness.

His ten-year-old brother, Charles IX, who was entirely controlled by his mother at that time, ascended the throne. During the reign of the child king, who depended on the decisions of Queen Catherine, the power of the monarchs in France suddenly wavered. This is partly due not only to the lack of firm royal authority, but also to the complicating situation in the country as a whole. The policy of persecuting Protestants, begun several decades ago, at this time ceased to justify itself. Calvinism became widespread throughout the country. The French Calvinists, who called themselves Huguenots, were predominantly citizens and nobles, often rich and influential. A sharp decline in the authority of the royal power and numerous violations of public order were among the consequences of such a religious split for France at that time.

Since the nobles were deprived of the opportunity to wage wars abroad, taking advantage of the absence of a strong monarch, they began to encroach on the rights of the king and even try to get out of the power of the French crown. The unrest that began in the country led to a split in France into two camps - the Guise family became defenders of the Catholic faith, and several opponents opposed it. These are moderate Catholics, for example, Montmorency, and Huguenots, such as Coligny and Condé. In the sixty-second year, open struggle began between the opposing camps, occasionally stopping due to truces and agreements, according to which the Huguenots could stay in certain territories of the country and create their fortifications there.

On the night of the twenty-third to twenty-fourth of August one thousand five hundred and seventy-two, on the eve of St. Bartholomew's Day, Charles IX carried out a real massacre of his opponents. Since this event occurred during the preparation for the signing of another peace agreement, none of the victims expected such an insidious act on the part of the royal family. Henry of Navarre only miraculously escaped the fate of thousands of his companions who died that night.

Charles IX died two years later, and his younger brother, Henry III, ascended the throne. At that moment, Henry of Navarre had the greatest chance of seizing the throne, but since he was the leader of the Huguenots, his candidacy would not suit most of the country's population. Against his supporters, Catholics founded a “league”, the purpose of which was to try to seize the throne by Heinrich Guise, who led the Catholics. Unable to resist the “league,” Henry III treacherously kills not only Guise, but also the Cardinal of Lorraine, who was the brother and closest ally of the leader of the Catholics. Even for that bloody time in history, this was an unforgivable act, which was the reason for general indignation. Henry III had to ask for asylum from another of his rivals, Henry of Navarre, in whose camp the king was killed by a Catholic monk, an ardent supporter of Catholicism.

The nobles reacted very emotionally to such religious strife in France. Catherine de Medici did not support the anarchy that had engulfed the country, periodically taking the side of one of the warring camps, but, in general, the queen sought to restore the authority of the royal family through negotiations and maintaining neutrality in the religious conflict. But her numerous attempts were never successful. After the death of Catherine in one thousand five hundred and eighty-nine, the country was on the verge of destruction. The same year, Catherine de' Medici's third son, Henry III, also died.

Despite the military superiority of Henry of Navarre, who also enlisted the support of moderate Catholics, he occupied Paris only after renouncing his Protestant faith. He was crowned in the tent, in one thousand five hundred and ninety-four. Six years later, the signing of the Edict of Nantes put an end to the religious wars, and the Huguenots were officially recognized by France as a minority with the right to work and protection from their enemies in some regions and cities of the country.

After Henry IV came to power, assisted by the famous minister, the Duke of Sully, order was restored in France and a new period of prosperity for the country began. In the tenth year of the seventeenth century, during preparations for a new military campaign in the Rhineland, Henry IV was killed by an unknown fanatic. The whole country was plunged into deep mourning, but thanks to the death of the king, France delayed its entry into the Thirty Years' War for some time.

With Louis XIII barely nine years old and no other clear contenders for the throne, France was once again engulfed in anarchy. One of the central political figures of that time was the mother of the heir, Queen Marie de' Medici, who was later supported by the Bishop of Luzon, Duke Armand Jean du Plessis, better known as Cardinal Richelieu. He was not only a mentor for the young king, but also represented his interests and, in fact, ruled the state until his death in the sixty-second year of the seventeenth century.

Cardinal Richelieu is rightfully considered one of the greatest statesmen in the history of France. He was a consistent, far-sighted and very skillful politician who ruthlessly suppressed the rebellious nobles. It was he who took almost all of their fortresses from the Huguenots, including La Rochelle, the siege of which lasted fourteen months. The cardinal is also known as a patron of the arts and sciences, who founded the famous French Academy. He managed to force the entire population to respect royal power. This became possible largely thanks to the intendants - royal agents who represented a truly large network. At the same time, Richelieu managed to very significantly undermine the power of noble families.

A year after his death, Louis XIV ascended the throne, despite the fact that the newly-crowned king had only recently turned five years old. The guardian functions under the new ruler were performed by his mother, Queen Anne of Austria. She was helped and assisted in every possible way by Cardinal Richelieu's protege, the new French Cardinal Mazarin, who continued to pursue foreign and domestic policy in the same direction as his predecessor.

In the mid-seventeenth century, Mazarin signed the Treaty of Westphalia and the Pyrenees, which were very successful for France. peace treaties, which became, in fact, its peak political career. At the same time, the country was experiencing an uprising of the nobility, which went down in history as the Fronde and lasted for five years. The main goal of this uprising is not considered to be the overthrow of the French monarchy, but the devastation of the royal treasury of benefits, which was a very tasty morsel at that time.

After the death of Cardinal Mazarin, Louis XIV, who at that time was already twenty-three years old, began to govern the country independently. His comrades-in-arms were the greatest in French history, the famous statesmen, like Jean Baptiste Colbert, who served as Minister of Finance, the Marquis de Louvois, who was Minister of War, Sebastian de Vauban, who was Minister of Defense Fortifications, as well as generals Prince of Condé and Viscount de Turenne.

After Jean Baptiste Colbert raised enough funds, the king created a large and well-trained army, which, thanks to the merits of Vauban, owned superbly fortified fortresses that were considered the best in the world at that time. Throughout four wars this army would glorify the French crown. By the end of his life, Louis XIV would repeatedly hear a large number of reproaches addressed to him precisely because this monarch “loved war too much.” His last, extremely unsuccessful military campaign against almost all of Europe, which was waged at the beginning of the eighteenth century for the right to possess the Spanish inheritance, led to the invasion of French territory by troops of other states. In a matter of years, the royal treasury was depleted and the French people were practically impoverished. The country was deprived of almost all its conquests during previous wars. Only a split in the camp of France's enemies and the last few victories of its army saved the country from complete defeat. In the fifteenth year of the eighteenth century, being a decrepit old man, the king died, and his heir was the five-year-old Louis XV, who was the great-grandson of Louis XIV.

The country began to be ruled by a self-appointed regent and not a very successful politician, the Duke of Orleans. His name in the history of France is known thanks to the Mississippi Project of John Law - an incredible speculative scam with the help of which the authorities during the Regency era tried to replenish the royal treasury. In general, many historians call the years of the reign of Louis XV a pathetic parody of the reign of his predecessor.

But, despite a number of difficulties for the country, Louis XV continued to pay great attention to the French army. His troops took part in the war against Spain and then in two major military campaigns against Prussia. The first was the struggle for the Austrian inheritance, and the second was the Seven Years' War.

The events of the Seven Years' War caused the loss of almost all French colonies, loss of prestige in the international arena and a deep social crisis. All this led to the Great French Revolution in the seventy-ninth year of the eighteenth century, which freed the country from a number of social relics.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Napoleon came to power in France. France becomes a state with a bourgeois system and a powerful army, thanks to which it achieved unprecedented greatness. But, as a result of the war against Russia, the Napoleonic empire suffered a number of defeats and took a secondary position on the world political arena.

By the mid-nineteenth century, several bourgeois revolutions would once again return France to its place among world leaders, but the strengthening of neighboring Germany would once again relegate the country to a secondary role. The desire to return the state to its former greatness will force France to participate in the two world wars of the last century, victory in which will significantly strengthen the country’s authority.



Completion of the main process of feudalization by the middle of the 11th century. led to the political collapse of the empire Charlemagne (Charlemagne), which began after his death (814). Large feudal lords became almost independent of the central government; small and medium feudal lords, becoming their vassals, were much more connected with the magnates than with the head of state - the king. The peasantry was basically already enslaved.

Son and successor of Charlemagne Louis the Pious(814-840), so called for his particularly zealous commitment to the church and generous gifts in its favor, in 817 divided the empire between his sons, retaining only supreme power.

In 843, after the death of Louis, his sons, having gathered in, concluded an agreement on a new division of the empire. Due to the fact that the new division corresponded to the boundaries of settlement of the French, German and Italian nationalities, Treaty of Verdun actually laid the foundation for the existence of three modern states of Western and Central Europe - France, Germany, Italy.

According to the Treaty of Verdun, the youngest son of Louis the Pious, Charles, nicknamed the Bald, received lands west of the Scheldt, Meuse and Rhone rivers - the West Frankish Kingdom, which included the main territories of the future France.

France in the 9th-11th centuries

After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire, the eastern border of France ran mainly along the rivers Meuse, Moselle and Rhone.

In the 10th century, internecine wars between the German and French Carolingians were fought almost continuously. The constant raids of the Normans brought many disasters. In a fierce struggle with them, the rich and influential came to the fore - in contrast to the Carolingians, who were weakened and had lost almost all their estates. Counts of Paris(Robertina). They successfully defended their cities from the enemy - and became the main rivals of the last Carolingians in the fight for the crown. In 987, the largest secular and spiritual feudal lords elected Robertin as king, and from then until late XVIII century (the French crown remained with the descendants of the Capetians.

In the 10th century, feudal relations were established in the French kingdom and the long process of merging heterogeneous ethnic elements. On the basis of the Gallo-Roman people who mixed with the Germans, two new ones emerged that became the core of the future French nation: Northern French and Provençal. The border between them ran somewhat south of the Loire River.

In the 10th century the country acquired its current name. It began to be called not Gaul or the West Frankish Kingdom, but France (after the name of the region around Paris - Ile-de-France).

In the territory occupied by the Northern French people, several large feudal estates were formed: Duchy of Normandy, County of Blois, Touraine,Anjou, Poitou. The Capetian lands (royal domain) were concentrated around Paris and Orleans.

On the territory of the Provençal people, the counties of Poitou, Auvergne, Toulouse and the duchies of Aquitaine, Gascony, Burgundy and others were formed.

The first kings of the Capetian house were not much different from the major feudal lords. They did not have a permanent residence; they moved with their retinue from one estate to another. In the 11th century, the Capetians slowly accumulated land holdings, extracting income mainly from their own estates, that is, from the direct exploitation of dependent and serf peasants who were in personal, land and judicial dependence on them.

The peasants resisted feudal exploitation in every possible way. In 997, the uprising spread. The peasants demanded the restoration of their former rights to free and free use of communal lands. In 1024, a peasant uprising broke out in. As the chronicle says, the peasants rebelled “without leaders or weapons,” but managed to provide heroic resistance to the knightly detachments. In defending their rights, peasants usually acted in entire communities.

France in the XI-XIII centuries

In the 11th-13th centuries, agriculture developed significantly in France: three-field farming became widespread, the plow was improved, and wheat took first place among grain crops. Thanks to the new harness system, it became possible to use horses instead of oxen. In the 12th century, massive clearing of fallow lands and forests began for arable land. The practice of fertilizing fields became more widespread. New varieties of vegetables began to be grown in gardens. At the end of the 12th century, windmills appeared in France.

Labor productivity grew mainly in peasant farming. On his allotment the peasant worked much harder and better than on the corvée. It became more profitable for lords to collect feudal rent not in the form of forced corvee labor, but from the harvest taken by peasants from their plots. The victory of food rent over labor rent was also facilitated by other circumstances, in particular, the clearing of forests. The main role in these works belonged to fugitive peasants who settled on new lands, personally free, but dependent on the feudal lords in land and judicial matters. Some peasants remained in serfdom in the 11th-12th centuries.

With the final establishment of feudalism, the fragmentation of France reached its completion, and the feudal hierarchy was distinguished by its greatest complexity. The king was a lord only for his immediate vassals: dukes, counts, as well as barons and knights of his domain. The norm of feudal law was in force: “The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal.”

The feudal fragmentation of France was further aggravated by significant differences in the socio-economic and political development of the northern and southern parts of the country, as well as the presence on its territory of two nationalities - northern French and southern French (Provencal). As in an earlier period, these peoples spoke local dialects of various languages: in the south of France - Provencal, in the north - Northern French. Due to the different pronunciation of the word “yes” in these languages ​​(“os” - in Provençal, “oil” - in northern French), later, in the 13th-14th centuries, the northern regions of France received the name “ Langedouil", and the southern ones - " Languedoc».

In the 10th century, based on the separation of crafts from agriculture, feudal cities began their lives - economic centers of crafts and trade. Old cities flourished and numerous new ones emerged. In the 13th century, the entire country was already covered with many cities. Southern cities became virtually independent republics. The nobles also lived and traded in them. The independent wealthy southern cities had little connection with each other. Therefore, even at the time of their greatest prosperity in the 12th century, a single economic and political center was not created in the south. The power of large feudal lords was weakened by the independence of large cities.

The cities of the North suffered a more difficult fate, as their economic activities encountered many obstacles along the way. The cities were in the power of lords, mainly bishops, who mercilessly robbed the townspeople under various pretexts, often resorting to violence. The townspeople had no rights; their property was constantly under threat of appropriation by the feudal lords. Therefore, the fight against lords became a matter of paramount importance for the cities of the North. Usually the townspeople organized a secret conspiracy and attacked the lord and his knights with weapons in their hands. If the uprising was successful, the feudal lords were forced to provide the city with a greater or lesser degree of self-government.

The growth of cities has accelerated the socio-economic differentiation of the urban population. The merchants and craftsmen of some workshops (butchers, clothmakers, jewelers, etc.) became rich and became very powerful; in the communes they completely seized power, neglecting the interests of the masses of artisans and small traders. A fierce internal struggle began in the cities. Taking advantage of this, the kings interfered in the internal affairs of the communes and, from the beginning of the 14th century, began to gradually deprive them of their former rights and privileges.

The city economically subordinated a fairly extensive rural area. Fugitive serfs flocked to it and found freedom there. Strong walls and armed guards now protected the cities from the encroachments of feudal lords.

In the 12th century, the process of state centralization began in France. Initially, it unfolds in Northern France, where there were economic and social prerequisites for it. The policy of royal power, aimed at subordinating feudal lords to it, was dictated primarily by the interests of the feudal class as a whole. Its main goal was to strengthen the central government to suppress the resistance of the peasants. Small and medium-sized feudal lords, who did not have sufficient means of non-economic coercion, especially needed this. They were also interested in strengthening royal power because they saw in it protection from the violence and oppression of stronger, larger feudal lords.

The opponents of this policy were the large feudal lords, who valued their political independence most of all; they were supported by part of the higher clergy. The strengthening of royal power was favored by the continuous enmity of large feudal lords among themselves. Each of them sought to strengthen itself at the expense of the others. The kings took advantage of this and fueled the fight.

The turning point in the growth of royal power corresponds to the beginning of the 12th century, when the resistance of the feudal lords in the royal domain was put to an end. The importance of royal power grew greatly in early XIII centuries after, following Anjou, Maine, Touraine, it entered the domain. By this time, the royal possessions had approximately quadrupled.

In the 13th century, the strengthening of royal power was consolidated by a number of important reforms. For example, on the territory of the royal domain, judicial duels (that is, resolving litigation through a duel between the parties), which were widely used in seigneurial courts, were prohibited; litigants were given the opportunity to transfer the case to the royal court. The decision of any feudal court could be appealed to the royal court, which thus became the supreme authority for judicial matters of the entire kingdom. A number of the most important criminal cases were removed from the jurisdiction of feudal courts and were considered exclusively by the royal court.

There was further development of central administration. A special judicial chamber emerged from the Royal Council, called the “parliament”. To connect central authorities with local authorities, royal auditors were appointed, who controlled the activities of the local administration and reported to the king about all abuses.

In the royal domain, wars between feudal lords were prohibited, and in domains not yet annexed to the domain, the custom of “40 days of the king” was legalized, that is, the period during which the person who received the challenge could appeal to the king. This weakened feudal strife. A unified coinage system was introduced in the royal domain, and the royal coin was to be accepted throughout the country along with the local one. This contributed to the economic cohesion of France. Gradually, the royal coin began to displace the local coin from circulation.

Thus, education feudal state in France in the XI-XIII centuries a number of stages passed. Feudal fragmentation was first overcome in the northern part of the country on the basis of urban development and strengthening economic ties between regions. Paris, which became a major trade, craft and political center, became the capital of France. Part of the southern regions was annexed to the Capetian possessions later, when the northern part of the country was already quite firmly united around Paris and royal power.

France is a state in Western Europe. The motto of the Republic is “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”, its principle is government of the people, by the people and for the people. The capital is the city of Paris. The name of the country comes from the ethnonym of the Germanic tribe of the Franks, despite the fact that the majority of the population of France is of mixed Gallo-Roman origin and speaks a Romance language.

Geography

France is the largest country in Western Europe, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay and English Channel) and the Mediterranean Sea (Gulf of Lyon and Ligurian Sea). In the east it has borders with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, with Spain and Andorra in the southwest, with Monaco and Italy in the southeast.

The French Republic includes the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea, overseas departments: Guadeloupe and Martinique (Caribbean Sea), Reunion Island (in the Indian Ocean) and French Guiana (north-eastern South America), Overseas Communities: Mayotte Islands (Indian Ocean), Saint-Pierre and Miquelon (Mayotte, Saint-Pierre, Miquelon) and overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean: French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna Islands. The topography of France is dominated by plains. The Pyrenees Mountains, the Jura Massif and the Alps form natural borders with Spain, Switzerland and Italy respectively.

Climate

Summer is quite hot (in July-August from +20 C to +25 C), winter is mild (in January from 0 C to +3 C), and it rarely snows. Perfect time for tourism - spring and early autumn.

Language

The official language is French. Many residents speak Spanish. It should be taken into account that in the provinces household level Local languages ​​and dialects that differ significantly from each other are used: Basque and Catalan in the Pyrenees, Breton in Brittany, Provençal in Provence, German dialects in Alsace and Lorraine. Mini-phrases are sold everywhere, and, as a rule, tourists do not skimp on them, wanting to make it easier for themselves to communicate with the hospitable residents of France.

Visa

Russian citizens need a Schengen visa to visit France. Requirements are “general Schengen”: passport validity reserve - 3 months, ticket reservation, hotel reservation and documents confirming financial solvency. One of the features is the mandatory presence of three blank pages in the passport. Submission of documents is possible only by prior appointment online. In addition to the visa fee of 35 EUR, you will also have to pay a service fee - a thousand rubles and kopecks.

about country

The French authorities encourage the birth of children in the family. After the birth of their first child, a working family is provided with preferential municipal housing. When buying a house or car, families with children are given significant discounts. After the birth of a child, the family receives an impressive cash allowance, which, if desired, can be used to purchase household appliances, furniture, garage, car. This is a purely local, French law, and you must agree, it is very interesting.

The country's population is about 66 million people, largest cities: Paris, Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse, Nice, Strasbourg. The average population density is about 107 people per sq. km. Ethnic groups: French - 94%, Portuguese, Algerians, Italians, Moroccans, Turks. Average life expectancy: 74 years for men, 82 years for women. The number of immigrants is constantly growing, and today this process is of concern to the native French. Often people belonging to a different culture cannot adapt to European realities due to a different mentality. As a result, many immigrants do not work, and therefore they are often the ones who cause problems for the police. Tourists can be advised to be more careful and try not to unnecessarily enter areas populated predominantly by immigrants.

The French are very hospitable, spontaneous, and optimistic. To the question “Koman sava?” (“How are you?”) they invariably answer: “Sava bien” (“Good”). They combine internal freedom and emancipation with law-abidingness. External openness does not mean that an outsider is allowed to pry into other people’s personal affairs. The French have a ritualistic attitude towards food and conversation during meals. For example, a day off is often spent entirely in a gourmet restaurant or on some farm 100-200 km from where you live.

The French are sophisticated in their clothing and, like children, love gifts. It is customary to unwrap a gift immediately upon receipt, thereby showing interest in it and gratitude for your attention. It is best to give flowers and sweets. If there are children in the house, then gifts for the kids are mandatory, otherwise far-reaching conclusions will be drawn. You can only come to visit with your own wine if the wine is of the highest category, otherwise you may even offend the hosts. In a restaurant, the inviter is paid, but then they will repay him in kind. An invitation to 17.00 means “to tea”, and you should not stay until dinner (after 19.00). The best gifts from Russia are matryoshka dolls, caviar, vodka, and modern Russian painting.

There are always a lot of police on the streets and everywhere. They are ready to help any passerby, including tourists, suffering from an attack of topographical inferiority. You can contact them with any question.

The first floor in France is called “re-de-chausse” (in elevators it is designated “0” or “rez”). The French 1st floor corresponds to the Russian 2nd: in other words, if the apartment you need is on the 5th floor, then in fact it is on the 6th.

Kitchen

France is famous for its cuisine and fine wines. A human life is probably not enough to try all the dishes of this cuisine. The processes of preparing and eating food are as important here as love and the ability to carry on a conversation. Cooking is undoubtedly also a kind of art. beautiful and tasty dish It's a source of pride for any chef. By the way, many names of dishes came to Russia from France: roll, cutlet, meatballs, entrecote, mayonnaise, omelet.

Alsace and Lorraine are the birthplace of the delicious choucroute (sauerkraut with boiled smoked meats). Shukrut is made from special light cabbage combined with fatty brisket, slices of bacon and ham. Alsatian sausages enjoy well-deserved fame, especially those with pate filling or baked in dough (according to the recipe of Careme, Talleyrand's cook). Snails from Burgundy (“escargot”) have been widely known since the 3rd century! They are prepared with butter, garlic, onion, parsley, and lemon juice. It is impossible not to mention red crayfish sprinkled with lemon juice, and a real delicacy - French gray frogs (only their thighs - “cuiss”) are eaten. The province of Brittany has its own National dish- pancakes (crepe). The word "crepe" in various variations found on the menu of almost every restaurant. Often savory pancakes are offered as a main course, followed by sweet pancakes with whipped cream for dessert. Charente-Maritime is famous for its greenish, fattest and most delicious oysters. Province of Charron - mussels. In addition, specialties in France are mouklade (mussels in a thick curry sauce) and eclade (mussels fried on pine needles). Provence is the birthplace of delicious soups. Exotic fish are used to prepare bouillabaisse soup: sultana, monkfish, trigla. The local fish soups - “burrida”, “aioli”, “pistu” - received national status. But only in Provence, according to honest local fishermen, are they prepared according to all the rules. Parisians are proud of their onion soup. An asparagus dish is an expected surprise at any dinner or reception in the capital. When, for example, lightly baked asparagus appears on the table, served with béchamel sauce and grated cheese, guests tend to start salivating.

In cooking, the term “Parisian style” (or “Parisian”) has a specific semantic meaning. This is the name given to traditional French cuisine based on butter, mayonnaise, aromatic herbs and “maceduan” (a mixture of pieces of vegetables or fruits). In France they prepare a huge number of sauces. The top 100 in popularity lists are headed by bordelaise, béchamel and bercy, which contain shallots and white wine.

There is an opinion that it is pleasant to comprehend the geography of France by the names of the wines and cognacs drunk here. Pourquois pa? Is this why the vineyards of Champagne, Bordeaux, Burgundy, and the Rhone and Loire valleys are so widely known? We must remember that repetition is the mother of learning, and then you will remember everything firmly. The process of learning about France is thus facilitated by the rules of good manners: for example, it is customary to wash down steak, beef or turkey with certain brands of red wine. White wines are always served with salads and fish. Red wine goes with pheasant. As is well known, they only serve young rosé with chicken.

There are several categories of wines, on the labels they are indicated:

<+>“Vin de table” table wine

<+>“Vin de...“ (follows the name of the province) Local vintage wine

<+>“appellation d' origine controlee” vintage of the highest quality

Each province produces its own signature wine, rich in rare and vital enzymes. In Aquitaine there are famous brands of “castle” wines “chateau”, which cost a little less than a trip around the world! But many tourists can afford exquisite wines like “Cotes-de-Blaue”, “Cotes-de-Castillon”, “Cotes-de-Burg”. In Bordeaux, wines are bottled in special bottles with a capacity of 0.75 liters or in barrels with a capacity of 225 liters. Medoc wines entered the classification in 1955, but have already gained popularity. Rare and expensive wine - “Chateu Petrus” (“Chateau Petrus”).

Burgundy produces red and white wines, liqueurs, as well as “kira” - an aperitif that has an amazing taste and is made up of one-third blackcurrant syrup and two-thirds Aligote wine (I wonder if this is where the Russian word “kiryat” comes from? ). The classic brandy in Burgundy is “Marc de Bourgogne”. The Loire Valley impresses with its variety of white Anjou wines (“Chenin”). The Nantes region is famous for the Muscadet and Pro-Plan brands. Alsace is also rich in wines - people usually take it from here as a souvenir wooden box with seven tasting bottles of the most common brands, among which you will definitely find: dry lung - “Sylvaner”; with fruity taste – “Pinot Blanc” and “Klevner”; very strong vintage – “Tokay Pinot-Gris”; strong, with pear aroma – “Gewurztraminer”; pink light – “Pinot Noir”.

In Poitou and Charente, don't miss out on the pineau aperitif, which consists of grape juice and cognac. There you will certainly be invited to visit the houses of the main cognac companies - “Hennessy”, “Remi Martin”, “Camus” (the products of the latter were widely known in narrow circles of admirers in the USSR).

The truth is not only in wine - France can also be studied through cheeses, without which local cooking is indispensable. Cheese is always and everywhere served for dessert. “Camembert”, “Roquefort” are words known throughout the world. The number of varieties of this product probably exceeds the number of stars in the southern night sky.

In Aquitaine, processed and sheep cheeses are used. In Burgundy they boast that their “Comte” and “Morbier” have a bluish vein, and this is supposedly a sure sign proper preparation. The exquisitely flavored “Mondor” is prepared on high alpine pastures. Uncooked crushed cheese “Cantal” has a 2000-year history; its best varieties are distinguished by their ivory color. The Auvergne “Bleu d’Auvergne” has been known since the 19th century. - uncooked, with large holes in which blue mold thrives. Mountain “Saint-Nectaire” has absorbed the aromas of herbs. The viscous yellowish “Brie” and “Coulommier” are recognized as works of art.

In Poirtoux and Charente, the best are “Cayad” (cow), “Cabeco” (goat), “Tomme de Braches” (sheep). Pas de Calais is famous for its aged Boulette d'Aven and Coeur d'Aven cheeses. “Vieux-Lille” is the most difficult to prepare, but its taste is simply unearthly! The Champagne-Ardenne region is represented by Chaurs cheese with a memorable aroma. Both Chaumont and Trappist d’Iny are excellent. The masterpiece of these provinces is “Capri de Dieu” (“Caprice of the Gods”). The Pyrenees is the birthplace of the ancient Roquefort. Among the “historical” cheeses, the sheep’s “Fourmat le beau de cosse” stands out, the recipe of which is owned by only a few noble families. In Normandy they make “Camembert”, the most famous varieties of which are “President”, “Henry IV”, “Livaro” (the latter is always tied with reeds, for which it received the nickname “Colonel”), “Pont-evêque” (in the 12th century, monks -the manufacturers called it “Angelot”). In Normandy, Neufchatel is considered the most famous; it is made only at home. In Provence, all cheeses are made from sheep and goat milk. The most famous of them is “Pikodon”. In the Marseille area they make white “Brousse du Rove” from sour goat milk - the smell is guaranteed to be killer. In the Rhône department, cheeses are matured in special tubs covered with cherry or spruce bark, and, in principle, are made only from fatty cow's milk. The most delicious of them are “Raciette” and “Reblochon”.

Entertainment

Ernest Hemingway, who settled in Paris in the 1920s, called it “a holiday that is always with you.” The French call their capital the "City of Light". The play of light and shadow here is truly incredible, both day and night. The light either flashes like lightning, then floods everything around like a hot midday sun, then timidly hides in the fog, then twinkles like an unattainable star. The darkness thickens briefly, then retreats, grumbling like a wise old cat, before a burst of rays, then flies up in the wind, like a veil on the hat of a charming Parisian woman. To feel this eternal holiday and take it with you, to bask in the Parisian light or go into the flowing shadow, you need to walk around Paris.

Of course, be sure to take a ride along the Seine on a bateau-mouche, a “fly ship” - a tourist “river bus”. It’s best to do this after dark: the “fly” spotlights magically illuminate the embankments of the Seine, gliding along the river sparkling with reflected lights. Be sure to climb the Eiffel Tower - don't be afraid, you won't have to climb on foot. The elevator will quickly take you to the observation deck, from where - if the day is clear - you will see the entire panorama of the wonderful city. Don't miss out on a walk to the top of Montmartre, to the steps of the Sacre Coeur temple. It is better to do this at the end of the day, closer to dusk: it is at this time that Paris, spread out under your feet, is especially beautiful. After this, of course, walk through the streets of Montmartre, hang out in Place Tertre, densely packed with artists who, for a few tens of francs, will quickly make your more or less believable portrait. But don’t be upset that Japanese, English, German, Swedish, whatever you like, and certainly Russian, will be heard around you. Parisians prefer to meddle here as little as possible.

Then, of course, you will descend into the vicinity of Place Pigalle, into the “nest of debauchery.” Here is the realm of sex shops, peep shows, cheap electronics stores and fake Vuitton leather goods, dark criminal bars and "private clubs", cafes for foreign tourists and famous rock and roll and jazz concert halls. However, real “Parisian debauchery” is not practiced here. Where? Ask the first Pigalle policeman. It is inevitable to walk along the Champs Elysees, this Parisian “New Arbat”. But it’s better to do it this way: after visiting the Louvre, leaving the glass pyramid behind you, walk under the triumphal arch “Carousel”, leisurely stroll through the Tuileries Garden, exit onto the Place de la Concorde, without turning anywhere (although on the right is the Place Vendôme, and on the left is beckoning Champs de Mars), pass the "Round Place des Champs Elysees" and go up the Champs Elysees to the Arc de Triomphe. The road is straight as an arrow. At the Arc de Triomphe you can take the metro to the futuristic La Défense district. There, in “Parisian New York,” rises the “Great Ark of Defense,” a skyscraper in the shape of the same triumphal arch. From its roof there is a breathtaking view of the whole of Paris and almost half of France.

There are several more obligatory tourist routes: a walk along the alleys around Place Saint-Michel, in the Latin Quarter, huddling at the foot of Notre Dame and climbing its belfry, shopping (or, if the wallet is not very plump, “window licking”, as they call it French) on Rue de Rivoli, Boulevard de la Madeleine, Rue Saint-Honoré or Boulevard d'Italia. It is worth walking along the shopping streets of the Left Bank - Busy, Dauphine, Boulevard Saint-Michel, along the embankments near Notre Dame, and gawking at the stalls of second-hand bookstores. There is no need to give up all this under any circumstances.

This is Paris. But if you have free time, use a few of our tips that will allow you to feel even better what “eternal holiday” means. Firstly, you should move away from the center. For example, for starters, to the Bois de Boulogne. Firstly, this is a very beautiful park, where you can understand the “modest charm of the bourgeoisie”: discreet, but incredibly comfortable restaurants with the highest cuisine, horse riding paths, flower beds and lawns. Secondly, the Bois de Boulogne (we reveal the secret of the police) is still a “nest of debauchery.” Here, along the roads, there are crowds of “corrupt women” - mostly male or individuals who have undergone surgical and medicinal operations.

It is worth going in the opposite direction from the center, to the east, to Vincennes. There is a very beautiful castle and palace of Louis XIV, as well as relaxation for the soul - a magnificent botanical garden, one of the best in the world, and a Flower Park, where amazing plants are fragrant and beautiful at any time of the year. Lovers of American pleasures in France can head further east to EuroDisney. We would advise going towards America, to the west, and visiting Versailles. At least in order to compare the Russian masterpieces of palace architecture, Tsarskoe Selo, Peterhof and Arkhangelskoye with the residence of the “Sun King”. All the places mentioned are very beautiful.

But even in the heart of Paris there are paths that are still almost unexplored by domestic tourists. We advise you to break away from the tourist crowd at the feet of the Eiffel Tower and stroll along the Champs of Mars. It’s just very beautiful there, and secondly, if you’re lucky, you’ll be able to admire a tanned lady in a Lanvin (or Lacroix) outfit walking a pink piglet (or a dwarf horse) in a collar decorated with emeralds. It’s not a bad idea to go around Notre Dame and go down to the embankments of the Island of St. Louis. These are real Parisian embankments, with clochards, lovers, fishermen and amazing panoramas of the Seine. You can also go in a different direction, admire the flower market near the Palais de Justice, have a coffee on the wonderful Place Dauphine, watch pensioners play the national game "petanque" (which consists of leisurely rolling metal balls), go to the tip of the Ile de la Cité, to the public garden " Ver Galan." There, admiring the branches of weeping willows creeping along the water, it is so pleasant to realize that you are also a poet. This was one of the favorite places of Turgenev and Tarkovsky.

Or you can spend an hour in the Luxembourg Gardens, admiring how children launch boats in a large round pool, how charming students of the nearby Sorbonne, sitting on green openwork chairs, pretend to be studying a Roman law textbook. Or, to understand that Paris still retains its rural features, go up, after passing the exotic Arab-Chinese Belleville, to the Chaumont hill, and watch how the grass makes its way through the cobblestone courtyards of Rue Musaya. Otherwise, plunge into the youth madness raging in the seemingly unremarkable streets around the Place de la Bastille.

The history of France goes back thousands of years, it is full of secrets and mysteries, it has experienced periods of prosperity and obscurantism, wealth and poverty, freedom and oppression. If we talk about the history of France briefly, it is the history of five republics, a long journey during which the country has become one of the most powerful powers in the world, dictating its will to others, having great authority on the political stage and being one of the main forces in the modern world order.

The history of the emergence of France - from the Gauls to the Franks

On the territory of modern France from the 5th century. BC e. Celtic tribes of Gauls lived. In ancient times, the country was called Gaul, but there was no unity, each tribe strived for freedom, they never managed to unite to resist the conquerors. In the 1st century BC e. The Roman Empire conquered the land. Revolts by the Gauls and the invading Germanic Frankish tribes brought an end to 5 centuries of Roman rule. It was the Franks, who initially settled in the north and then conquered all of Gaul, who gave their name to the people and the country.

History of medieval France - history of royal dynasties

King Clovis, who converted to Christianity, is considered the founder of France. Under him, the country took shape as an independent European state, Paris became the capital, the Franks adopted the Christian faith, which later became the state religion. The Frankish Empire lasted for 4 centuries, becoming the predecessor of the future France.

The history of the Middle Ages of France is a time of absolute monarchy, the royal dynasties of the Capetians, Valois, Bourbons, hundred years war with Britain, religious wars between Catholics and Protestants, the flourishing of troubadour poetry, sculpture, architecture, painting, construction of palaces. In 1328, the Capetian dynasty reigned on the throne, consolidating royal power and annexing many lands. The country experienced a significant rise under Louis XIV, becoming a leading European power, conquering colonies in India, Africa, Canada, and the Antilles.

The storming of the Bastille is a turning point in the history of France

In the 17th century, popular discontent reached its limit. Monarchical tyranny, the unbridled extravagance of the aristocracy, chaos in politics, and a decline in the economy became the causes of the revolution of 1789. With the storming of the Bastille, a new period in history began - the feudal system was destroyed and a constitutional monarchy was established.

In 1799, General Napoleon Bonaparte came to power and conquered Europe. The empire he created was governed according to the principles of the French Revolution and even managed to impose them on its enemies. Although his life ended ingloriously in exile, he left behind the Napoleonic Code, which remains the basis of French legislation to this day.

Modern history France - General de Gaulle's greatest legacy

In 1944, after the fall of the Third Republic, there was a difficult period in history, when a series of government crises continued unabated, decolonization began, and the loss of colonies in Africa and Indochina. In 1958, with the election of de Gaulle as president, the era of the Fifth Republic began, which continues to this day. The strong power of the president in the 60s strengthened the country's position in the international arena and granted autonomy to overseas territories.

Recent history France echoes the period when, after the liberation of the colonies, many Algerians came here to work. In the 2000s, the country erupted in flames of cars set on fire, riots, and pogroms carried out by young people - the descendants of those emigrants. Today, the country's entire population is a motley patchwork of which less than half are ethnic French. This is one of the most pressing problems that becomes decisive in the presidential elections.

Modern France, despite general globalization and modernization, has not lost its unique charm, remaining the most romantic country in the world. She is just as changeable, mysterious, attractive, beckons with exquisite aromas of perfume, sounds of chanson, fashionable outfits, expensive wine, delicious dishes.

Policy

An independent republic with a presidential form of government. Higher legislature belongs to a bicameral parliament. France includes the “overseas departments” - Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guiana, Reunion, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, N. Caledonia, French Polynesia, etc.