> The article briefly describes the reforms of Peter I-the greatest transformation in the history of Russia. In general, the reforms played a positive role, accelerated the development of Russia, directed it along the European path of development.
The reforms of Peter I have not yet received an unambiguous assessment in historiography. The debate revolves around two questions: were the reforms necessary and justified; whether they were natural in the course of Russian history or were Peter's personal whim. The need for reforms is recognized in principle, but the methods by which they were carried out are condemned. Peter I acted like an oriental despot in achieving his goals. Cruelty and inexorability in the demands of Peter I is undeniable. However, the established traditions of Russian society, most likely, did not give the opportunity to act differently. The conservatism that permeated the entire state stubbornly resisted all necessary reforms.
- Introduction
- Social reforms of Peter I
- The significance of the reforms of Peter I
- Video
Regarding the regularity of the reforms, it should be said that they did not arise from scratch. The prerequisites and the first attempts to carry out transformations were made under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In the development of Russia, a lagging behind the West was indeed manifested. The actions of Peter I should not be considered unnecessarily revolutionary, since they were nevertheless caused by necessity. They became radical thanks to the very personality of Peter I - a passionate and immoderate man in his actions.
Reform government controlled
- The activity of Peter I was aimed at strengthening state power.
- His adoption in 1721 of the title of emperor became the apogee of this process and was reflected in Russian culture. The state apparatus inherited by Peter I was imperfect, embezzlement and bribery flourished.
- It cannot be said that Peter I managed to completely get rid of this traditional Russian misfortune, but there were certain positive developments in this area.
- In 1711 he established a new supreme authority - the Governing Senate.
- At the head of the Senate was the Prosecutor General. At this body there was an institution of fiscals who controlled the actions of officials. After some time, control over the activities of the Senate itself was introduced.
- The old system of Orders, no longer meeting the requirements of the time, was replaced by colleges.
- In 1718, 11 colleges were formed, dividing the main branches of government in the state among themselves.
- Russia was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors and 50 provinces headed by governors. Smaller areas were called districts.
- The state structure took the form of a clearly organized mechanism, the management of which was strictly hierarchical and directly subordinate to the emperor.
- Power acquired a military-police character.
- The creation of an extensive network of state control was, according to the plan of Peter I, to put an end to the abuses of officials. In fact, the country was permeated with the spirit of surveillance and espionage. Executions and harsh methods of reprisals did not lead to significant results.
- The overgrown bureaucratic system constantly failed.
Economic reforms Peter I
- The Russian economy lagged far behind the West.
- Peter I resolutely undertakes to correct this situation. Heavy and light industry is developing at a rapid pace by improving old and opening new factories and manufactories.
- It is debatable whether these processes were the beginning of capitalist relations in Russia. Instead of hired labor in Russia, the labor of serfs was used.
- The peasants were massively bought up and assigned to factories (possession peasants), which did not make them workers in the full sense of the word.
- Peter I adhered to a policy of protectionism, which consisted in supporting and marketing products of his own production.
- To provide finance for large-scale reforms, the emperor introduces a state monopoly on the production and sale of certain types of goods. Of particular importance was the monopoly on exports.
- A new system of taxation was introduced - the poll tax. A general census was held, which increased the revenues of the treasury.
Social reforms of Peter I
- In the social sphere, the decree on single inheritance (1714) was of great importance.
- According to this decree, only the eldest heir had the right to own property.
- Thus, the position of the nobility was consolidated and the fragmentation of landowners' lands was stopped. At the same time, the decree erased the differences between local and patrimonial land tenure.
- In 1722, a decree was issued, which for a long time became the basic law of Russia in the field of public service ("Table of Ranks").
- In the civil, military service and in the navy, 14 parallel ranks or classes were introduced - a clear hierarchical system of positions.
- The first eight classes gave the right to hereditary nobility.
- Thus, the former system of occupying higher positions on the basis of origin and birth was completely eliminated.
- From now on, any person in the public service could apply for the nobility.
- The "Table of Ranks" contributed to an even greater bureaucratization of the state structure, but it really opened wide opportunities for talented and capable people.
- There was a clear division of urban residents.
- According to the regulations of 1721, the "regular" (industrialists, merchants, small traders and artisans) and "irregular" (all the rest, "mean people") population of cities were distinguished.
The significance of the reforms of Peter I
- The reforms of Peter I radically influenced all areas of the life of the Russian state.
- In social terms, the formation of the main estates ended, came from consolidation.
- Russia became a centralized state with the absolute power of the emperor.
- Support for domestic industry, the use of the experience of Western countries put Russia on a par with the leading powers.
- The country's foreign policy successes also increased its prestige.
- The proclamation of Russia as an empire was a natural result of the activities of Peter I.
Introduction
1. Russia in late XVII in. Prerequisites for the Petrine reforms
1.1The position of Russia at the end of the 17th century
2Internal prerequisites for transformations
3Reason for the need for reform
4The need for access to the seas
2. Reforms of Peter I
2.1 Public administration reforms
2 Administrative reforms and reforms local government
3 Military reforms
4 Social policy
5 Economic reforms
6 Financial and fiscal reforms
7 Church reform
3.Results and significance of Peter's reforms
3.1 General assessment of Peter's reforms
2 The meaning and price of reforms, their impact on the further development of the Russian Empire
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
I believe that this topic is very relevant today. Currently, Russia is going through a period of reforming economic and socio-political relations, accompanied by contradictory results and polar opposite assessments in various strata of Russian society. This causes a heightened interest in the reforms in the past, in their origins, content and results. One of the most turbulent and most fruitful reform eras is the era of Peter I. Therefore, there is a desire to delve into the essence, the nature of the processes of a different period of breaking up society, to study in more detail the mechanisms of change in a huge state.
For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers and writers have been arguing about the significance of the Petrine reforms, but regardless of the point of view of one or another researcher, everyone agrees on one thing - it was one of the most important stages in the history of Russia, thanks to which all of it can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras . In Russian history, it is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter in terms of the scale of interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved.
In my work, I would like to consider in detail the reasons for the reforms of Peter I, the reforms themselves, and also highlight their significance for the country and society.
1. Russia at the end of the 17th century Prerequisites for Peter's reforms
.1 Russia's position at the end 17th century
In the countries of Western Europe in the XVI-XVII centuries, important historical events took place - the Dutch bourgeois revolution (XVI century) and the English bourgeois revolution (XVII century).
Bourgeois relations were established in Holland and England, and both of these countries were far ahead of other states in their socio-economic and political development. Many European countries were backward compared to Holland and England, but Russia was the most backward.
The reasons for the historical backwardness of Russia were due to the fact that:
1.In the era of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the principalities were saved Western Europe from the hordes of Batu, but they themselves were ruined and fell under the yoke of the Golden Horde khans for more than 200 years.
2.The process of overcoming feudal fragmentation due to the vast territory to be united, it took about three hundred years. Thus, the unification process in the Russian lands was much slower than, for example, in England or France.
.Commercial, industrial, cultural and, to a certain extent, diplomatic relations between Russia and Western countries were hampered due to Russia's lack of convenient sea harbors in the Baltic.
.Russia at the end of the 17th century had not yet fully recovered from the consequences of the Polish-Swedish intervention at the beginning of the century, which devastated a number of regions in the northwest, southwest and center of the country.
.2 Internal prerequisites for change
In the XVII century. As a result of the activities of the first representatives of the Romanov dynasty, the socio-economic and political crisis of the state and society, caused by the events of the Time of Troubles, was overcome. At the end of the 17th century, there was a tendency for the Europeanization of Russia, and the prerequisites for future Peter's reforms were outlined:
The trend towards absolutization supreme power(liquidation of activities Zemsky Sobors as class-representative bodies), the inclusion of the word "autocrat" in the royal title; registration of national legislation (Sobornoe Code of 1649). Further improvement of the code of laws associated with the adoption of new articles (in 1649-1690, 1535 decrees were adopted supplementing the Code);
Activation of foreign policy and diplomatic activity of the Russian state;
Reorganization and improvement of the armed forces (creation of regiments of a foreign system, changes in the order of recruitment and recruitment into regiments, distribution of military corps by districts;
Reforming and improving the financial and tax systems;
The transition from handicraft production to manufacturing with the use of elements of hired labor and the simplest mechanisms;
The development of domestic and foreign trade (the adoption of the "Statutory customs charter" in 1653, the "New Trade Charter" in 1667);
The delimitation of society under the influence of Western European culture and Nikon's church reform; the advent of the Nazis onal-conservative and Westernist currents.
.3 Reasons for reform
reform policy diplomatic
Speaking about the reasons for Peter's reforms, historians usually refer to the need to overcome Russia's lag behind the advanced countries of the West. But, in fact, not a single class wanted to catch up with anyone, did not feel an internal need to reform the country in a European manner. This desire was present only among a very small group of aristocrats, headed by Peter I himself. The population did not feel the need for transformations, especially such radical ones. Why, then, did Peter “raise Russia up”?
The origins of Peter's reforms must be sought not in the internal needs of the Russian economy and social strata, but in the foreign policy sphere. The impetus for the reforms was the defeat of the Russian troops near Narva (1700) at the beginning of the Northern War. After him, it became obvious that if Russia wants to act as an equal partner of the major world powers, it must have a European-style army. It could be created only through a large-scale military reform. And this, in turn, required the development of their own industry (to provide troops with weapons, ammunition, uniforms). It is known that manufactories, factories and factories cannot be built without large investments. The government could receive money for them from the population only through fiscal reform. People are needed to serve in the army and work in enterprises. In order to provide the necessary number of "military ranks" and labor force, it was necessary to restructure the social structure of society. All these transformations could only be carried out by a powerful and efficient apparatus of power, which did not exist in pre-Petrine Russia. Such tasks arose before Peter I after the military catastrophe of 1700. It remained either to capitulate or to reform the country in order to win in the future.
Thus, the need for military reform that arose after the defeat near Narva turned out to be the link that, as it were, pulled the entire chain of transformations along with it. All of them were subordinated to a single goal - strengthening the military potential of Russia, turning it into a world power, without whose permission "not a single gun in Europe could fire."
In order to put Russia on a par with the developed European states, it was necessary:
1.To achieve access to the seas for trade and cultural communication with the countries of Europe (in the north - to the coast of the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic; in the south - to the shores of the Azov and Black Seas).
2.Develop national industry faster.
.Create a regular army and navy.
.Reform the state apparatus, which did not meet the new needs.
.Catch up on the lost in the field of culture.
The struggle for the solution of these state tasks unfolded in the 43-year reign of Peter I (1682-1725).
.4 Need for access to the seas
hallmark Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the XVIII century was its high activity. The almost continuous wars that were waged by Peter I were aimed at solving the main national problem - gaining Russia the right to access the sea. Without solving this problem, it was impossible to overcome the technical and economic backwardness of the country and eliminate the political and economic blockade by the Western European states and Turkey. Peter I sought to strengthen the international position of the state, to increase its role in international relations. It was the time of European expansion, the capture of new territories. In the current situation, Russia had to either become a dependent state, or, having overcome the backlog, enter the category of Great Powers. It was precisely for this that Russia needed access to the seas: shipping routes were faster and safer, the Commonwealth in every possible way interfered with the passage of merchants and specialists to Russia. The country was cut off from both the northern and southern seas: Sweden prevented access to the Baltic Sea, Turkey held the Azov and Black Seas. Initially, the foreign policy of the Petrine government had the same direction as in the previous period. It was the movement of Russia to the south, the desire to eliminate the Wild Field, which arose in very ancient times as a result of the onset of the nomadic world. It blocked Russia's road to trade in the Black and Mediterranean Seas, hindered the economic development of the country. Vasily Golitsyn's campaigns against the Crimea and Peter's "Azov" campaigns were a manifestation of this "southern" foreign policy line. The wars with Sweden and Turkey cannot be considered as alternatives - they were subordinated to one goal: to establish large-scale trade between the Baltic and Central Asia.
2. Reforms of Peter I
In the history of the Petrine reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715 (V. I. Rodenkov, A. B. Kamensky).
At the first stage, the reforms were mostly chaotic and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state associated with the conduct of the Northern War. They were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active state intervention in the affairs of the economy (regulation of trade, industry, tax, financial and labor activities). Many reforms were ill-conceived, hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war, and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power.
At the second stage, when hostilities had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. There was a further strengthening of the apparatus of power, manufactories not only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy was somewhat weakened, merchants and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action.
Basically, the reforms were subordinated not to the interests of individual estates, but to the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and familiarization with Western European civilization. The main goal of the reforms was the acquisition by Russia of the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries in the military and economic terms.
.1 Public Administration Reforms
Initially, Peter tried to make the old order system more efficient. Reitarsky and Inozemsky orders were merged into the Military. The Streltsy order was liquidated, Preobrazhensky was established instead. The collection of money for the Northern War in the early years was carried out by the Town Hall, the Izhora Chancellery, and the Monastic Order. The mining department was in charge of the Mining Order.
However, the competence of the orders was increasingly reduced, and the fullness of political life was concentrated in the Near Office of Peter, formed in 1701. After the foundation of the new capital - St. Petersburg (1703), the term "office" began to be applied to the St. Petersburg branches of the Moscow orders, to which all managerial prerogatives were transferred. As this process developed, the Moscow order system was eliminated.
The reforms also affected other central authorities. Since 1704, the Boyar Duma no longer met. Nobody dispersed it, but Peter simply stopped giving new boyar ranks, and the Duma members physically died out. Since 1701, its role was actually performed by the Council of Ministers, which met in the Near Chancellery.
In 1711 the Senate was established. At first, it existed as a temporary governing body, created during the absence of the sovereign (Peter was on the Prut campaign). But upon the return of the king, the Senate was retained as a government agency that carried out supreme court dealing with financial and fiscal problems, staffing the army. The Senate was also in charge of personnel appointments in almost all institutions. In 1722, under him, the prosecutor's office was created - the highest control body that monitored the observance of laws. The special position of fiscals introduced in 1711, professional scammers who controlled the work of state institutions, was closely connected with the prosecutor's office. Above them was the Chief Fiscal, and in 1723 the position of General Fiscal was established, who led the entire network of "sovereign eyes and ears."
In 1718 - 1722. following the model of the Swedish state system (a noteworthy fact: Russia was at war with Sweden and at the same time “borrowed” the concept of some reforms from it), colleges were established. Each collegium was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management: the Foreign Affairs Collegium - foreign relations, the Military Collegium - the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - revenue collection, the Staff Office Collegium - state expenditures, the Audit Collegium - budget control, The Collegium of Justice - with legal proceedings, the Votchinnaya - with noble land ownership, the Manufactory Collegium - with industry, except for the metallurgical one, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium, the Commerce Collegium - with trade. In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate who was in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Survey Office were operating.
The principle of cameralism was put at the basis of the new authorities. Its main components were: the functional organization of management, collegiality in institutions with exact definition duties of each, the introduction of a clear system of clerical work, the uniformity of bureaucratic states and salaries. The structural subdivisions of the collegium were offices, which included offices.
The work of officials was regulated by special rules - regulations. In 1719 - 1724. the General Regulations were drawn up - a law that determined the general principles of the functioning of the state apparatus, which had a very great resemblance to the military charter. For employees, an oath of allegiance to the sovereign was even introduced, similar to the military one. The duties of each person were recorded on a special paper called "position".
Faith in the omnipotence of circulars and instructions was quickly established in the new state institutions, and the cult of bureaucratic orders flourished. It is Peter I who is considered the father of the Russian bureaucracy.
2.2 Administrative and local government reforms
Pre-Petrine Russia was divided into districts. In 1701, Peter took the first step towards administrative reform: a special district was established from Voronezh and the recently conquered Azov. In 1702 - 1703. a similar territorial unit arose in Ingria, annexed during the Northern War. In 1707 - 1710. started provincial reform. The country was divided into large lands called provinces. In 1708, Russia was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberia. Each of them was ruled by a governor appointed by the king. The provincial office and the following officials were subordinate to him: chief commandant (in charge of military affairs), chief commissar (collected taxes) and landricht (responsible for legal proceedings).
The main goal of the reform was to streamline the financial and fiscal system to meet the needs of the army. The painting of the regiments was introduced in the provinces. Each regiment had Kriegs commissars who were in charge of raising funds for their units. A special Kriegs-commissioner's office, headed by the ober-stern-kriegs-commissioner, was established under the Senate.
The provinces turned out to be too large for effective administration. At first they were divided into counties, headed by commandants. However, these territorial units were also too cumbersome. Then in 1712 - 1715. The provinces were divided into provinces headed by chief commandants, and the provinces were divided into districts (districts) under the command of zemstvo commissars.
In general, the system of local government and administrative structure was borrowed by Peter from the Swedes. However, he excluded its lower component - the Swedish zemstvo (kirchspiel). The reason for this is simple: the tsar felt disdain for the common people and was sincerely convinced that “in the county from the peasantry smart people No".
Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of government was formed for the whole country, in which the monarch, who relied on the nobility, played a decisive role. The number of officials has increased significantly. The cost of maintaining the administrative apparatus has also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 Introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country.
2.3 Military reforms
New types of troops are being established in the army: engineering and garrison units, irregular troops, in the southern regions - the landmilitia (militia of the same palaces). Now the infantry consisted of grenadiers, and the cavalry consisted of dragoon regiments (dragoons were soldiers who fought both on foot and on horseback).
The structure of the army has changed. The tactical unit was now the regiment. Brigades were recruited from regiments, divisions from brigades. Headquarters were established to control the troops. A new system of military ranks was introduced, the highest steps in which were occupied by generals: general of infantry (in infantry), general of cavalry and general feldzeugmeister (in artillery).
A unified system of education was established in the army and navy, military educational institutions (navigation, artillery, engineering schools) were opened. The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served for the training of officers.
The internal life of the army was regulated by special documents - the "Military Charter" (1716) and the "Marine Charter" (1720). Their main idea was the strict centralization of command, military discipline and organization: so that "the commander was beloved and terrible to the soldier." The “Military Article” (1715) determined the military criminal process and the system of criminal penalties.
The most important part of the reforms was the creation by Peter in Russia of a powerful navy. The first warships built in 1696 for the Second Azov campaign in Voronezh, along the river. Don descended into the Sea of Azov. Since 1703, the construction of warships in the Baltic has been going on (the Olonets shipyard was opened on the Svir River). In total, during the years of Peter's reign, more than 1,100 ships were built, including the largest 100-gun battleship "Peter I and II" laid down in 1723.
In general, the military reforms of Peter I had a positive impact on the development of Russian military art, were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and navy in the Northern War.
.4 Social policy
The goal of Peter's reforms was "the composition of the Russian people." The reforms were accompanied by large-scale social breakdown, "shaking up" of all classes, often very painful for society.
Dramatic changes took place among the nobility. Peter destroyed the Duma aristocracy physically - he stopped making new appointments to the Boyar Duma, and Duma ranks died out. Most of the service people "in the fatherland" were turned into the gentry (as the nobility was called under Peter). Some of the service people "according to the fatherland" in the south of the country and almost all the service people "according to the instrument" became state peasants. At the same time, a transitional category of odnodvortsev arose - personally free people, but owning only one yard.
The purpose of all these transformations was to consolidate the nobility into a single estate, bearing state duties (odnodvortsy in 1719 - 1724 were rewritten and subject to poll tax). No wonder some historians even talk about the "enslavement of the nobility" by Peter I. The main task was to force the aristocrats to serve the Fatherland. To do this, it was necessary to deprive the nobility of material independence. In 1714, the "Decree on Single Succession" was issued. Now the local form of land ownership was eliminated, only the patrimonial remained, but the patrimony was henceforth called the estate. Only the eldest son received the right to inherit the land. All the rest turned out to be landless, deprived of their livelihood, and had the opportunity to choose only one life path- to enter the civil service.
However, this was not enough, and in the same 1714 a decree was issued that a nobleman could acquire property only after 7 years of military service, or 10 civil, or 15 years of being in the merchant rank. Persons who were not in the public service could never become owners. In the event of a nobleman's refusal to enter the service, his estate was immediately confiscated. The most unusual measure was the ban on the children of the nobility from marrying until they had learned the sciences necessary for service.
The service introduced a new criterion for the nobility: the principle of personal length of service. In the clearest form, it is expressed in the "Table of Ranks" (1722 - 1724). Now the basis of career growth was the rule of gradual rise through the ranks from rank to rank. All ranks were divided into four categories: military, naval, civil and court. Those who reached the 8th grade received hereditary nobility (this corresponded to approximately 10 years of service and the ranks of major, chief fiscal, chief secretary of the collegium.
"Table of Ranks".
ClassesMilitary ranksCivilian ranksCourt ranksMarineLandIAdmiral GeneralGeneralissimo Field MarshalChancellor (Secretary of State) Active Privy Councilor IIAdmiralGeneral of the Artillery General of the Cavalry General of the InfantryActual Privy Councilor Vice-ChancellorOber Chamberlain Ober-Schenk IIIVice AdmiralLieutenant GeneralPrivy Councilor Chamberlain IVRear AdmiralMajor GeneralActual State CouncilorChamberlain VCaptain-CommanderBrigadierState Councilor VICaptain 1st RankColonelCollegiate CouncilorChamber Fourier VIICaptain 2nd RankLieutenant ColonelOutdoor Counselor VIIIFleet Lieutenant Commander Artillery Captain 3rd RankMajor Collegiate Assessor IXArtillery Captain-LieutenantCaptain (in the infantry) Captain (in the cavalry)Titular CounselorChamber Juncker XFleet Lieutenant Artillery Lieutenant Staff Captain Staff Captain Collegiate Secretary XISenate Secretary XIINavy midshipmanLieutenantProvincial SecretaryValet XIIIArtillery constapelLieutenantSenate Registrar XIVEnsign (in the infantry) Cornet (in the cavalry) Collegiate registrar
Theoretically, any personally free person could now rise to become an aristocrat. On the one hand, this made it possible for people from the lower strata to climb the social ladder. On the other hand, the autocratic power of the monarch and the role of state-bureaucratic institutions sharply increased. The nobility turned out to be dependent on the bureaucracy and the arbitrariness of the authorities, who controlled any promotion through the ranks.
At the same time, Peter I made sure that the nobility was, although serving, but - the highest, privileged class. In 1724, a ban was issued on the entry of non-nobles to the clerical service. The highest bureaucratic institutions were staffed exclusively from the nobility, which made it possible for the gentry to remain the ruling class of Russian society.
Simultaneously with the consolidation of the nobility, Peter carried out the consolidation of the peasantry. He eliminated various categories of peasants: in 1714, the division of peasants into local and patrimonial peasants was abolished; in the course of church reforms, there were no church and patriarchal peasants. Now there were serfs (owners), palace and state peasants.
important event social policy was the liquidation of the institution of serfdom. Even when recruiting troops for the Second Azov campaign, the serfs who signed up for the regiments were declared free. In 1700 this decree was repeated. Thus, having enlisted as a soldier, the slave could be freed from the owner. During the census of the population of serfs, it was ordered to “write in salary”, i.e. in legal terms, they approached the peasants. This meant the destruction of servility as such. On the one hand, Peter's merit in eliminating slavery in Russia, a legacy of the early Middle Ages, is undeniable. On the other hand, it hit the serf peasantry: the lordly plowing increased sharply. Prior to that, the master's lands were mainly cultivated by arable serfs, but now this duty fell on the peasants, and the size of the corvée approached the limits of a person's physical capabilities.
In relation to the townspeople, the same tough policy was carried out. In addition to a sharp increase in the tax burden, Peter I actually attached the inhabitants of the settlement to the cities. In 1722, a decree was issued on the return to the settlements of all fugitive taxpayers and on the prohibition of unauthorized departure from the settlement. In 1724 - 1725. the country introduces a passport system. Without a passport, a person could not move around Russia.
The only category of townspeople that escaped attachment to the cities was the merchant class, but the merchant class also underwent unification. On the morning of January 16, 1721, all Russian merchants woke up as members of guilds and workshops. The first guild included bankers, industrialists and wealthy merchants, the second - small entrepreneurs and merchants, retailers, artisans.
Under Peter I, the merchants bore the brunt of the fiscal oppression of the state. During the census, officials, in order to increase the number of the taxable population, called "merchants" even those who had nothing to do with them. As a result, a large number of fictitious "merchants" appeared in the census books. And the total amount of taxes levied on the urban community was calculated precisely according to the number of wealthy citizens, which merchants were automatically considered to be. These taxes were distributed among the townspeople "according to strength", i.e. the main part for their impoverished countrymen was made by real merchants and wealthy townspeople. This order hindered the accumulation of capital, hindered the development of capitalism in the cities.
So, under Peter, a new structure of society developed, in which the class principle, regulated by state legislation, is clearly traced.
.5 Economic reforms
Peter was the first in Russian history to create a system of state regulation of the economy. It was carried out through bureaucratic institutions: the Berg Collegium, the Manufactory Collegium, the Collegium of Commerce and the General Magistrate.
A state monopoly was introduced on a number of goods: in 1705 - on salt, which gave the treasury 100% of the profit, and on tobacco (800% of the profit). Also, on the basis of the principle of mercantilism, a monopoly was established on the foreign trade in bread and raw materials. By 1719, by the end of the Northern War, most of the monopolies had been abolished, but they played their role - they provided war time mobilization of material resources of the state. However, private domestic trade was hit hard. Merchants were excluded from the most profitable industries commercial activities. In addition, fixed prices were introduced for a number of goods supplied by merchants to the treasury, which deprived merchants of the opportunity to receive income from their sale.
Peter widely practiced the forced formation of cargo flows. In 1713 it was forbidden to trade through Arkhangelsk, and goods were sent through St. Petersburg. This almost led to a halt in commercial operations, since St. Petersburg was deprived of the necessary trading infrastructure (exchanges, warehouses, etc.). Then the government softened its ban, but according to the decree of 1721, trade duties for trade through Arkhangelsk became three times higher than for the transport of goods through the Baltic capital.
Petersburg generally played a fatal role in the fate of the Russian merchants: in 1711-1717. the best merchant families of the country were forcibly sent there. This was done for the economic strengthening of the capital. But few of them managed to establish their business in a new place. This led to the fact that the "strong" merchant class in Russia was halved. Some eminent families have disappeared forever.
The centers of trade were Moscow, Astrakhan, Novgorod, as well as large fairs - Makarievskaya on the Volga, Irbitskaya in Siberia, Svinskaya in Ukraine and smaller fairs and fairs at the crossroads of trade roads. The government of Peter paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main mode of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was carried out: the Volga-Don, Vyshnevolzhsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.
After 1719, the state somewhat relaxed its mobilization measures and its intervention in economic life. Not only were monopolies abolished, but measures were taken to encourage free enterprise. A special Berg privilege is established for the extractive industry. The practice of transferring manufactories to private individuals is spreading. However, the foundations of state regulation remained. Enterprises still had to fulfill the huge state order for fixed prices. This ensured the growth of Russian industry, which was supported by the state (over 200 new manufactories and factories were built during the years of Peter's reign), but at the same time, the Russian industrial economy was initially devoid of competition, focused not on the market, but on state orders. This gave rise to stagnation - why improve quality, expand production, if the authorities will still buy the goods at a guaranteed price?
Therefore, the evaluation of the results economic policy Peter I cannot be unambiguous. Yes, Western, bourgeois-type industry was created, which allowed the country to become an equal participant in all political processes in Europe and the world. But the similarity with the West affected only the technological sphere. In social terms, Russian manufactories and factories did not know bourgeois relations. Thus, Peter, to a certain extent, solved the technical problems of the bourgeois revolution without its social components, without creating classes of bourgeois society. This circumstance has led to serious distortions in economic development countries that took many decades to overcome.
The most striking example of such economic "perversions" is the establishment in 1721 of "possession manufactories" - enterprises where serfs assigned to this manufactory worked instead of hired workers. Peter created an economic monster unknown to the capitalist mode of production. According to all market laws, slaves cannot work in factories and factories instead of hired workers. Such an enterprise is simply not viable. But in Petrine Russia, it successfully existed, using the support of the state.
.6 Financial and fiscal reforms
Under Peter I, these areas were subject to the same tasks: building a strong state, a strong army, expropriation of estates, which caused a sharp increase in duties and taxes. Such a policy solved its task - the mobilization of funds - but it led to an overstrain of the state's forces.
Another goal of the fiscal reforms was to create a material base for maintaining the army in peacetime. At first, the government planned to establish something like labor armies from units returning from the fronts of the Northern War. But this project was not carried out. But a standing duty was introduced. The soldiers settled in the villages in proportions: one infantryman for 47 peasants, one cavalryman for 57 peasants. For the first time in the history of Russia, the country was covered by a network of military garrisons fed by the local population.
However, the most effective way replenishment of the treasury was the introduction of the poll tax (1719 - 1724). From 1718 to 1722, a census was conducted (audit). Special officials collected information about potential taxpayers, entered them into special books - "revision tales". The rewritten people were called "revision souls". If before Peter the taxes were paid from the yard (households), now they had to be paid by each "revision soul".
.7 Church reform
The activities of Peter I in this area were distinguished by the same characteristics: the mobilization and expropriation of church resources for the needs of the state. The main task of the authorities was the demolition of the church as an independent social force. The sovereign was especially afraid of an alliance between the anti-Petrine opposition and Orthodox priests. Moreover, there were rumors among the people that the reformer tsar was the Antichrist or his forerunner. In 1701, a ban was even issued to keep paper and ink in the monastery cells in order to stop the writing and distribution of anti-government works.
In 1700 Patriarch Andrian died. Peter did not appoint a new one, but established the position of "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." It was occupied by the Metropolitan of Ryazan and Murom Stefan Yavorsky. In 1701, it was restored liquidated in the 1670s. The monastic order, which regulated the issues of church land ownership, and the monks were attached to their monasteries. A norm of funds was introduced, relying in the monasteries for the maintenance of the brethren, - for one monk 10 rubles and 10 quarters of bread per year. Everything else was confiscated in favor of the treasury.
The ideology of further church reform was developed by the Pskov Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich. In 1721, he created the Spiritual Regulations, the purpose of which was "to correct the order of the spiritual." The patriarchate in Russia was liquidated. The Spiritual College was established, later renamed the Synod. He was in charge of purely church affairs: the interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church service, censorship of spiritual books, fight against heresies, management educational institutions and removal of church officials, etc. The synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. The presence of the Synod consisted of 12 higher church hierarchs, appointed by the king, to whom they swore an oath. For the first time in Russian history, a secular bureaucratic institution was placed at the head of a religious organization. Control over the activities of the Synod was carried out by the chief prosecutor, a specially created staff of church fiscals - inquisitors was subordinate to him. In 1721 - 1722. the parish clergy were put on a per capita salary and rewritten - an unprecedented case in world practice for tax duties to be imposed on clergy. States were established for priests. There was a proportion: one priest for 100 - 150 parishioners. The "superfluous" were turned ... into serfs. In general, the clergy as a result of these reforms was reduced by one third.
However, at the same time, Peter I raised the other side church life, which met the tasks of state building. Going to church was seen as a civic duty. In 1716, a decree was issued on compulsory confession, and in 1722, a decree was issued on violating the secrecy of confession if a person confessed to state crimes. Now the priests were obliged to denounce their parishioners. The clergy widely practiced anathemas and sermons "on occasion" - thus, the church became an instrument of the propaganda machine of the state.
At the end of Peter's reign, a monastic reform was being prepared. It was not carried out because of the death of the emperor, but its direction is indicative. Peter hated the black clergy, arguing that "the monks are parasites." It was planned to ban monastic tonsure for all categories of the population, except for retired soldiers. This showed Peter's utilitarianism: he wanted to turn the convents into giant nursing homes. At the same time, it was supposed to keep a certain number of monks to serve the veterans (one for 2 - 4 invalids). The rest were waiting for the fate of serfs, and the nuns - work in the possession of manufactories.
3. The results and significance of the Petrine reforms
.1 Overall assessment of the reforms
With regard to the Petrine reforms, beginning with the dispute between the Slavophiles and the Westerners in the 19th century, there are two points of view in the scientific literature. Supporters of the first (S. M. Solovyov, N. G. Ustryalov, N. I. Pavlenko, V. I. Buganov, V. V. Mavrodin and others) point to the undoubted successes of Russia: the country has strengthened its international position, built an industry , army, society, culture of a new, European type. The reforms of Peter I determined the face of Russia for many decades to come.
Scientists who share a different point of view (V. O. Klyuchevsky, E. V. Anisimov and others) ask the question about the price that was paid for these transformations. Indeed, in 1725, the commission of P.I. Yaguzhinsky, which conducted an audit of the results of the reforms, came to the conclusion that they must be immediately stopped and proceed to stabilization. The country is overstressed and overstrained. The population could not withstand the fiscal oppression. At the end of the reign of Peter I, famine began in a number of counties due to unbearable requisitions. The objections of this group of historians are also caused by the methods of implementing the reforms: they were carried out "from above", through rigid centralization, mobilization of Russian society and bringing it into the service of the state. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, Peter's decrees "as if written with a whip."
There was no support for reforms in society: not a single social stratum, not a single estate acted as the bearer of reforms and was not interested in them. The reform mechanism was purely statist. This gave rise to serious distortions in the economic and social infrastructure, which Russia had to overcome for many years.
3.2 The value and price of Peter's reforms, their impact on the further development of the Russian Empire
The reign of Peter I opened a new period in Russian history. Russia has become a Europeanized state and a member of the European community of nations. Management and jurisprudence, the army and various social strata of the population were reorganized in a Western way. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements appeared in technical education and science.
Assessing the Petrine reforms and their significance for the further development of the Russian Empire, the following main trends must be taken into account:
The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, unlike the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, balancing the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.
The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for modernizing the country.
In terms of their scale and swiftness in carrying out the reforms of Peter the Great, they were unparalleled not only in Russian, but at least in European history.
A powerful and contradictory imprint was left on them by the features of the previous development of the country, extreme foreign policy conditions and the personality of the king himself.
Based on some trends emerging in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also brought it to a qualitatively higher level in a minimal historical period of time, turning Russia into a powerful state.
The payment for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations, and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population.
Despite the inconsistency of Peter's personality and his transformations, in Russian history his figure has become a symbol of decisive reformism and selfless, sparing neither himself nor others, service to the Russian state. Among the descendants, Peter I - practically the only one of the kings - rightfully retained the title of Great granted to him during his lifetime.
Changes in the first quarter of the 18th century are so grandiose in their consequences that they give grounds to speak of pre-Petrine and post-Petrine Russia. Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. Reforms are inseparable from the personality of Peter I - an outstanding commander and statesman.
Contradictory, explained by the peculiarities of that time and personal qualities, the figure of Peter the Great constantly attracted the attention of the largest writers (M. V. Lomonosov, A. S. Pushkin, A. N. Tolstoy), artists and sculptors (E. Falcone, V. I. Surikov, M. N. Ge, V. A. Serov), theater and film workers (V. M. Petrov, N. K. Cherkasova), composers (A. P. Petrova).
How to evaluate Peter's perestroika? The attitude towards Peter I and his reforms is a kind of touchstone that determines the views of historians, publicists, politicians, scientists and cultural figures. What is it - a historical feat of the people or measures that doomed the country to ruin after the reforms of Peter?
Peter's transformations and their results are extremely contradictory, which is reflected in the works of historians. Most researchers believe that the reforms of Peter I were of outstanding importance in the history of Russia (K. Valishevsky, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, N. I. Kostomarov, E. P. Karpovich, N. N. Molchanov, N. I. Pavlenko and others). On the one hand, the reign of Peter went down in Russian history as a time of brilliant military victories, it was characterized by rapid economic development. It was a period of a sharp breakthrough towards Europe. According to S. F. Platonov, for this purpose, Peter was ready to sacrifice everything, even himself and his loved ones. Everything that went against the good of the state, he was ready to exterminate and destroy as a statesman.
On the other hand, some historians consider the creation of a “regular state” to be the result of the activities of Peter I. state bureaucratic in nature, based on surveillance and espionage. Authoritarian rule is being established, the role of the monarch, his influence on all spheres of society and the state are extremely increasing (A. N. Mavrodin, G. V. Vernadsky).
Moreover, the researcher Yu. A. Boldyrev, studying the personality of Peter and his reforms, concludes that “Peter's transformations aimed at the Europeanization of Russia did not achieve their goal. The revolutionary nature of Peter turned out to be false, as it was carried out while maintaining the basic principles of the despotic regime, universal enslavement.
The ideal state structure for Peter I was a "regular state", a model similar to a ship, where the captain is the king, his subjects are officers and sailors acting according to the maritime charter. Only such a state, according to Peter, could become an instrument of decisive transformation, the purpose of which is to turn Russia into a great European power. Peter achieved this goal and therefore went down in history as a great reformer. But what at the pricehave these results been achieved?
The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social actions - the rebellion of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 - 1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region were directed personally against Peter I and even not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.
Carrying out the reform of public administration, Peter I was guided by the principles of cameralism, i.e. introduction of bureaucracy. In Russia, a cult of institutions has developed, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.
The desire to catch up with Europe in economic development, Peter I tried to realize with the help of forced "manufactory industrialization", i.e. through the mobilization of public funds and the use of the labor of serfs. The main feature of the development of manufactories was the fulfillment of state, primarily military, orders, which freed them from competition, but deprived them of free economic initiative.
The result of the Petrine reforms was the creation in Russia of the foundations of a state-monopoly industry, feudal and militarized. Instead of a civil society with a market economy emerging in Europe, Russia by the end of Peter's reign represented a military-police state with a state-owned monopolized feudal economy.
The achievements of the imperial period were accompanied by deep internal conflicts. The main crisis is ripening in the national psychology. The Europeanization of Russia brought with it new political, religious and social ideas that were adopted by the ruling classes of society before they reached the masses. Accordingly, a split arose between the top and bottom of society, between the intellectuals and the people.
The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church - at the end of the 17th century. was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its significance, from 1700 until the revolution of 1917. The church reform of the beginning of the 18th century. meant for the Russians the loss of a spiritual alternative to the state ideology. While in Europe the church, separating from the state, drew closer to the believers, in Russia it moved away from them, became an obedient instrument of power, which was contrary to Russian traditions, spiritual values, and the whole age-old way of life. It is natural that many of his contemporaries called Peter I the Antichrist Tsar.
There was an aggravation of political and social problems. The abolition of Zemsky Sobors (which removed the people from political power) and the abolition of self-government in 1708 also created political difficulties.
The government acutely felt the weakening of contacts with the people after Peter's reforms. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly, as Peter the Great did. And later the concept of prohibitions became familiar. Meanwhile, Western political thought influenced the Europeanized circles of Russian society, which absorbed the ideas of political progress and gradually prepared for the fight against absolutism. Thus, Peter's reforms set in motion political forces that the government later could not control.
In Petra, we can see before us the only example of successful and, on the whole, completed reforms in Russia, which determined its further development for almost two centuries. However, it should be noted that the price of the transformations was prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the tsar did not consider either the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, or national traditions, or the memory of ancestors.
Conclusion
The main result of the totality of Peter's reforms was the establishment of an absolutist regime in Russia, the crowning achievement of which was the change in 1721 of the title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.
Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion.
The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how one relates to the methods and style of carrying out transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history. Many historical studies and works of art are devoted to the transformations associated with his name. Historians and writers assessed the personality of Peter I and the significance of his reforms in different, sometimes directly opposite ways. Peter's contemporaries were already divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his reforms. The dispute continues to this day.
Some experts say that Peter's reforms led to the conservation of the feudal-serf system, the violation of the rights and freedoms of the individual, which caused further upheavals in the life of the country. Others argue that this is a major step forward in the path of progress, albeit within the feudal system.
It seems that in the specific conditions of that time, Peter's reforms were of a progressive nature. The objective conditions of the country's development gave rise to adequate measures to reform it. Great A.S. Pushkin most sensitively guessed and understood the essence of that time and the role of Peter in our history. For him, on the one hand, Peter is a brilliant commander and politician, on the other, an "impatient landowner", whose decrees are "written with a whip."
The extraordinary personality of the emperor, his lively mind, contributed to the sharp rise of the country, strengthening its position on the world stage. Peter reformed the country proceeding directly from the needs of this time in the history of Russia: in order to win, you need a strong army and navy - as a result, a large-scale military reform. To provide the army with weapons, ammunition, uniforms, it is necessary to develop our own industry, etc. Thus, having carried out a series of reforms, sometimes spontaneous, dictated only by a momentary decision of the emperor, Russia strengthened its international position, built industry, received a strong army and navy, a society, and a culture of a new type. And, despite the serious distortions in the economic and social infrastructure that the country had to overcome for many years, brought to completion, Peter's reforms are undoubtedly one of the outstanding periods in the history of our state.
Bibliography
1. Goryainov S.G., Egorov A.A. History of Russia IX-XVIII centuries. Textbook for students of secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums and colleges. Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix Publishing House, 1996. - 416 p.
2. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Velby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2005. - 560 p.
Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. Textbook. Second edition, revised and enlarged. - M. "PBOYUL L.V. Rozhnikov", 200. - 528 p.
Filyushkin A.I. History of Russia from ancient times to 1801: A guide for universities. - M.: Bustard, 2004. - 336 p.: map.
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Peter I remained in the history of our country as a cardinal reformer who abruptly turned the course of life in Russia. In this role, only Vladimir Lenin or Alexander II can compare with him. For 36 years independent government autocrat, the state not only changed its status from a kingdom to an empire. All spheres of the life of the country have changed. The reforms affected everyone - from the homeless to the nobleman from St. Petersburg under construction.
The Church was not left out. Possessing infinite authority among the population, this organization was distinguished by its conservatism and inability to change and interfered with the growing power of Peter. Inertia and adherence to the traditions of the priests did not prevent the emperor from making changes in religious circles. First of all, it is, of course, an Orthodox synod. However, it would be erroneous to say that this is where the changes ended.
The State of the Church on the Eve of the Reforms
The highest church body under Peter 1 at the beginning of his reign was the patriarchate, which still had great power and independence. The crown bearer, of course, did not like this, and on the one hand he wanted to subordinate all the higher clergy directly to himself, and on the other, he was disgusted with the prospect of the appearance of his own Pope in Moscow. The guardian of the throne of St. Paul did not at all recognize anyone's authority over himself. In addition, Nikon, for example, strove under Alexei Mikhailovich.
The young tsar's first step in relations with the Orthodox clergy was a ban on the construction of new monasteries in Siberia. The decree is dated 1699. Immediately after this, the Northern War with Sweden began, which constantly distracted Peter from clarifying his relationship with Orthodoxy.
Creation of the title of locum tenens
When Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, the tsar appointed a locum tenens of the patriarchal throne. They became the Metropolitan of Ryazan. Adrian's successor was allowed to deal only with "works of faith." That is to engage in heresy and worship. All other powers of the patriarch were divided between orders. This concerned, first of all, economic activity on the lands of the Church. The war with Sweden promised to be long, the state needed resources, and the tsar was not going to leave extra funds to the “priests”. As it turned out later, it was a prudent move. Soon the parish bells began to be sent to be melted down for new cannons. The highest church body under Peter 1 did not resist.
The locum tenens had no independent power. On all important issues, he had to consult with the rest of the bishops, and send all reports directly to the sovereign. At the time of the reform were frozen.
At the same time, the importance of the monastic order increased. In particular, he was instructed to take control of the ancient Russian tradition - begging. Fools and beggars were caught and taken to the order. Those who gave alms were also punished, regardless of rank and position in society. As a rule, such a person received a fine.
Creation of the Synod
Finally, in 1721, the Holy Governing Synod was created. At its core, it became an analogue of the Senate of the Russian Empire, which was responsible for the executive power, being the highest body of the state, directly subordinate to the emperor.
The synod in Russia meant positions such as president and vice president. Although they were soon canceled, such a step perfectly shows the habit of Peter I to use the practice of the Table of Ranks, that is, to create new ranks that have nothing to do with the past. Stefan Yarovsky became the first president. He had no prestige or power. The position of Vice President served as an oversight function. In other words, it was an auditor who informed the tsar about everything that happened in the department.
Other positions
The post of chief prosecutor also appeared, which regulated the relationship of the new structure with society, and also had the right to vote and lobbied for the interests of the crown.
As in secular ministries, the Synod has its own spiritual fiscals. In their sphere of influence was all spiritual activity on the territory of the country. They monitored the implementation of religious norms, etc.
As noted above, the Synod was created as an analogue of the Senate, which means that it was in constant contact with it. The link between the two organizations was a special agent who delivered reports and was responsible for the relationship.
What was the Synod responsible for?
The responsibility of the Synod included both the affairs of the clergy and matters related to the laity. In particular, the highest church body under Peter 1 was supposed to monitor the performance of Christian rites and eradicate superstition. Here it is worth mentioning education. The synod under Peter 1 was the last authority responsible for textbooks in all kinds of educational institutions.
Secular clergy
According to Peter, the white clergy was to become an instrument of the state, which would influence the masses and monitor their spiritual state. In other words, the same clear and regulated estate was created, like the nobility and merchants, with their own goals and functions.
The Russian clergy throughout its previous history was distinguished by its accessibility to the population. It was not a caste of priests. On the contrary, almost everyone could enter there. For this reason, there was an overabundance of priests in the country, many of whom ceased to serve in the parish, and became vagabonds. Such ministers of the Church were called "sacral". The lack of regulation of this environment, of course, became something out of the ordinary during the time of Peter 1.
A strict charter was also introduced, according to which the priest in the service had only to praise the new reforms of the king. The synod under Peter 1 issued a decree obliging the confessor to inform the authorities if a person confessed in confession to a state crime or blasphemy against the crown. Disobedient were punishable by death.
church education
Numerous audits were carried out, checking the education of the clergy. Their result was a mass deprivation of dignity and a reduction in class. The highest church body under Peter 1 introduced and systematized new norms for obtaining the priesthood. In addition, now each parish could only have a certain number of deacons and no more. In parallel with this, the procedure for leaving one's dignity was simplified.
Speaking of church education in the first quarter of the 18th century, one should note the active opening of seminaries in the 1920s. New educational institutions appeared in Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov, Tver, Kazan, Kolomna, Pskov and other cities of the new empire. The program included 8 classes. Boys with primary education were accepted there.
Black clergy
The black clergy also became the object of the reforms. In short, the changes in the life of the monasteries boiled down to three goals. First, their number has steadily decreased. Secondly, access to ordination was hampered. Thirdly, the remaining monasteries were to receive a practical purpose.
The reason for this attitude was the personal hostility of the monarch to the monks. This was largely due to childhood experiences in which they remained rebels. In addition, the way of life of a schemnik was far from the emperor. He preferred fasting and prayer practical activities. Therefore, it is not surprising that he built ships, worked as a carpenter, and did not like monasteries.
Wanting these institutions to bring some benefit to the state, Peter ordered them to be converted into infirmaries, factories, factories, schools, etc. But the life of the monks became much more complicated. In particular, they were forbidden to leave the walls of their native monastery. Absences were severely punished.
The results of the church reform and its further fate
Peter I was a convinced statesman and, according to this conviction, made the clergy a cog in the general system. Considering himself the sole bearer of power in the country, he deprived the patriarchate of any power, and over time completely destroyed this structure.
Already after the death of the monarch, many excesses of the reforms were canceled, however, in general terms, the system continued to exist until the revolution of 1917 and the Bolsheviks came to power. Those, by the way, actively used the image of Peter I in their anti-church propaganda, praising his desire to subordinate Orthodoxy to the state.
The church reform of Peter I should be considered not only in the context of his other state reforms, which created new Russia, but also in the context of church-state relations of the previous period.
First of all, within the framework of that conflict, between the royal and patriarchal authorities, which unfolded almost throughout the entire 17th century. And above all, which included Peter's father, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. This conflict itself had quite deep and understandable reasons. The 17th century is the time when the Russian state turns from a monarchy based on the representation of the estates, when the sovereigns of the Russian land relied on bodies, one way or another chosen by the estate representatives, turns into an absolute monarchy. The absolute monarch relies on professional bureaucracy, not necessarily associated with any official class groups, and on the same more or less permanent army. This process of transformation into an absolutist type of state took place throughout Europe. Earlier or later, all European states passed this path - England in the 16th century, France in the 16th-17th centuries, and so on. And an indispensable circumstance, an indispensable attribute of this transformation of the state into a new state formation was the conflict with the Church, which took on more or less severe and even bloody forms for the Church.
We may recall in this case the Reformation in England under Henry VIII, or milder forms of the same interaction between the absolutist state and the Church in France. Russia followed the same path, and already in the second quarter of the 17th century, under the first Romanovs, the state in one way or another set the task of limiting church independence. One of the first acts of this kind was the Council Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich of 1649, when the state took away from the hierarchy certain judicial functions over people who settled church estates. This was perceived by all as one of the first steps towards secularization, towards the selection of these same church estates in favor of the state, which happened later in the 18th century. It was the Council Code that became the main reason for the conflict between the royal and patriarchal authorities in the 17th century.
For Peter, this experience of conflict relations was very relevant. He perfectly remembered the relationship of his father with Patriarch Nikon, and in this case, the reform to abolish the patriarchate should have been understood in this vein. Another thing is that Peter, apparently, did not immediately come to those forms of relations between the Church and the state that became characteristic of the entire subsequent imperial period. After the death of the last patriarch XVII - Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter takes a break at the age of 21. True, already in 1701, he recreates the monastery order, abolished several decades earlier, which just managed the church estates from the state and had judicial functions in relation to the people who inhabited these church estates. That is, at the very beginning, Peter is interested in the fiscal aspect, he is interested in the income of church property, which is brought by the patriarchal region and other dioceses, respectively - primarily the patriarchal region, those possessions that were at the disposal of the patriarch, it is they that are controlled by the monastery order. But somewhere towards the end of the Great Northern War, which had just been going on for 21 years, Peter was gradually groping for a new form of state-church relations. Because during this twenty years it was not clear whether Peter would convene the Council, give sanctions on the choice of a new patriarch, or something else. Peter apparently himself at first was not sure of the decision he would make. But in 1721 he finds an employee who can offer him a new scheme of state-church relations - Bishop of Pskov and Narva Feofan Prokopovich, whom Peter instructs to draw up new document- A spiritual regulation that would describe the new relationship between the Church and the state. According to the Spiritual Regulations, the patriarchate is abolished, and instead of the patriarch, a collegiate body is established - the Most Holy Governing Synod.
Moreover, the Spiritual Regulations is a rather interesting document, it is not so much a law as such, but a journalistic work that substantiates the new relationship between the Church and the state in imperial Russia. The synod is a collegiate body whose members are appointed by the emperor, he depends on him, and is not elected Church Council The Synod depends on him, on the imperial power. The composition of the Synod at first was supposed to be mixed - it was supposed to include both representatives of the monastic clergy and the white clergy, that is, married priests, and bishops. And its head under Peter was called the president of the spiritual college. This later, as a rule, only bishops will be appointed to it, and the first member will lead the Synod. Thus the patriarchate is abolished, and with it, for almost 200 years, the Russian Church will also forget about Church Councils.
A year later, in 1722, Peter supplements the synodal structure with one very important decree, according to him, the position of Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod is formed. Moreover, Peter's initial decree on the approval of this position was formulated quite in general terms - this should be an officer of sober behavior, who should keep order in the Synod. But what is order in the Synod? Should this officer interfere in the proceedings of the Synod, oversee the proceedings, or should he, first of all, ensure that the synodals do not get into a fight if they have some kind of sharp disagreement? This was not stated in Peter's decree. And so throughout the 18th century, chief prosecutors interpreted the provisions of the decree in accordance with their inclinations. Someone who was determined to interfere actively enough in church affairs interpreted it in favor of expanding their functions, and those who perceived the chief prosecutor's position as a kind of honorary pension, an honorary sinecure, sought not to interfere in these affairs.
The 19th century will be the century of the real flourishing of the chief prosecutor's office. But that will be a different story.
Convenient article navigation:
Church transformations of Peter I. The abolition of the patriarchate. Creation of the Holy Synod.
Causes, prerequisites and purpose of the church reform of Peter I
Historians note that the church transformations of Peter the Great must be considered not only in the context of other government reforms which made it possible to form a new state, but also in the context of past church-state relations.
First of all, we should remember the actual beginning of the confrontation between the patriarch and royal power, which unfolded almost a century before the reign of Peter. It is worth mentioning the deep conflict in which his father, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, was also included.
The seventeenth century is the period of the transformation of the Russian state from a monarchy into an absolute monarchy. At the same time, the absolute ruler had to rely on a standing army and professional officials, limiting and "suppressing" other authority, independence and power in his own state.
One of the very first such acts in Russia was the signing of the Council Code in 1649, when the tsar actually limited church power, which was regarded as the first signs that sooner or later the tsar would nevertheless take away church lands, which happens in the eighteenth century.
Peter the Great, despite his young age, had experience of conflict relations. He also remembered the tense relationship between his father and Nikon, who was patriarch with him. However, Peter himself did not immediately come to the need for reforms regulating relations between the state and the church. So, in 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, the ruler stops this foundation for twenty-one years. At the same time, a year later, he approves the monastery order, canceled a few years earlier, the essence of which was precisely the management of all church changes by the state and the possession of judicial functions that extended to people living in church estates.
As you can see, at the very beginning, Tsar Peter was only interested in the fiscal aspect. That is, he is interested in how big the church revenues are brought by the patriarchal sphere and other dioceses.
Before the end of the long Northern War, which lasted just twenty-one years, the ruler again tries to clarify the form of state-church relations. Throughout the entire period of the war, it was not clear whether the Council would be convened and whether sanctions would be given by Peter to choose the patriarch.
The abolition of the patriarchate and the creation of the Holy Synod
At first, the king himself, apparently, was not completely sure of the decision that he should take. However, in 1721 he elects a man who was to offer him a completely different new system of state-church relations. This man was Bishop of Narva and Pskov Feofan Prokopyevich. It was he who, at the time set by the tsar, was to create a new document - the Spiritual Regulations, which fully included a description of the new relationship between the state and the Church. According to the regulations signed by Tsar Peter the Great, the patriarchate was completely abolished, and a new collegial body called the Holy Governing Synod was established instead.
It is worth noting that the Spiritual Regulation itself is a rather interesting document, representing not so much a law as journalism, substantiating the renewed relations between the state and the Church in imperial Russia.
The Holy Synod was a collegiate body, all members of which were appointed to positions exclusively by Emperor Peter himself. He was entirely dependent on imperial decisions and power. At the very beginning of the formation of the body, its composition should have been mixed. It was to include bishops, monastic clergy, and white clergy, that is, married priests. Under Peter, the head of the Synod was called nothing more than the president of the spiritual college. However, later on, for the most part, it will include only bishops.
Thus, the tsar succeeded in abolishing the patriarchate and erasing Church Councils from Russian history for two centuries.
A year later, the emperor makes an addition to the structure of the Synod. According to the decree of Peter the Great, the post of chief prosecutor appears in the Synod. At the same time, the original text of the decree approving this position was formulated in general terms. It said that it should be an officer in charge of keeping order. But what exactly he should do to ensure it and what the wording “order in the Synod” generally means was not said.
For this reason, such chief prosecutors had the right to interpret the text of the royal decree, according to their interests and inclinations. Some interfered rather harshly in the affairs of the Church, trying to maximize their own powers in this position, while others did not want to deal with the details of the work at all, expecting a fairly paid pension.
Table: church reform of Emperor Peter I
Scheme: reforms of Peter I in the spiritual sphere
