To attendees of lectures in the planetarium who craned their necks to see the stars projected over their heads, I used to repeat: "If you do not see the Big Dipper over your head, do not worry. Rather, those who sees".
Ancient people divided the sky into imaginary figures, for example Big Dipper(Ursa Major), Swan (Cygnus), Perseus (Perseus) and Andromeda (Andromeda). Each figure corresponded to some configuration of stars. Although, to be honest, Andromeda does not at all resemble the silhouette of a chained girl or anything like that to most people (Fig. 1.2).
Rice. 1.2. Is Andromeda chained?
Today the sky is divided into 88 constellations, which include all visible stars. The International Astronomical Union, the highest governing body in astronomy, defines the boundaries of the constellations so that there is a clear distinction as to which constellation each star belongs to. Previously, sky maps were drawn by different astronomers who did not adhere to uniform standards. But it shouldn't be like that. When you read that the Tarantula Nebula is in the constellation golden fish(Dorado) (details in chapter 12), you know that you need to look for it in the constellation Golden Fish, located in the Southern Hemisphere.
The largest constellation is Hydra and the smallest is the Crux. In fact, there is also the Northern Cross, but you will not find it in the list of constellations, because it is an asterism in the constellation Cygnus. There is general agreement about the names of the constellations, but there is no agreement about what each name means. For example, some astronomers call the constellation Dorado "Swordfish", but I am in favor of rejecting this name. And the constellation Serpens (Serpens) is divided into two unrelated parts, located on both sides of the constellation Ophiuchus (Ophiuchus), - the Head of the Serpent (Serpens Caput) and the Tail of the Serpent (Serpens Cauda).
Individual stars in a constellation are usually not connected to each other in any way, they just seem to be located nearby from the Earth. Some stars can be relatively close to the Earth, while others can be at much greater distances. But for an observer from the Earth, they add up to a certain pattern.
As a rule, the ancient Greeks or astronomers of later times assigned some Greek letter to all the bright stars in the constellation. The brightest star in any constellation is usually called "alpha" (the first letter of the Greek alphabet). The second brightest star is called "beta" (the second letter of the Greek alphabet), etc.
Therefore, Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky - which is in the constellation Big Dog(Canis Major) - called Alpha Canis Majoris (Alpha Canis Majoris). (Astronomers add endings to names to get Latin Genitive. What can you do, scientists have always loved Latin.) In Table. 1.1 is a list of letters of the Greek alphabet in order - the names of the letters and their corresponding symbols.
But if today you look at the constellations, it becomes clear that the order of the brightness of the stars does not always exactly correspond to the Greek letters indicated on the star map. These exceptions are caused by the following.
The letters were assigned based on naked eye observations, which are not very accurate.
Many of the minor constellations and constellations of the Southern Hemisphere were mapped not at the time of Ancient Greece, but much later, therefore old rules not always followed.
Many centuries after the ancient Greeks, the brightness of some stars changed.
An example is the constellation Vulpecula, in which only one star is assigned a Greek letter (alpha).
Astronomers do not have special names, such as Sirius, for each star in the constellation Canis Major, so they simply refer to them with Greek letters or other symbols. In fact, there are constellations in which there is not a single named star. (Don't "buy" ads that offer to name a star for a certain amount of money. The International Astronomical Union does not recognize "purchased" star names.) In other constellations, Greek letters were assigned to stars, but they turned out to have more than 24 easily distinguishable stars, and the Greek letters were not enough. Therefore, astronomers assigned numbers and letters of the Latin alphabet to many stars: for example, 236 Cygnus (236 Cygni), b Chanterelles (b Vulpeculae), HR 1516, etc. There are even stars called RU Lupi and SX Sex (honestly, I didn't make it up at all). But like any other stars, they can be identified not by their names, but by their position in the sky (indicated in astronomical tables), brilliance, color, and other characteristics.
If you look in a star atlas, you will see that individual stars in the constellation are not marked as e. When you read about a star in an astronomical magazine that is proposed in the list of objects to observe, then most likely it will not be mentioned either. like Alpha Canis Majoris, not even like Cma; "Cma" is an abbreviation for Canis Majoris. The abbreviated designations of the constellations are given in Table. 1.2.
Since alpha is not always the brightest star in a constellation, another term is needed to describe the "high" status of the brightest star. This term - lucida(lucida). Lucida Canis Major - Sirius (in this case, simply 46 Leo Minoris).
In table. 1.2 lists 88 constellations, their brightest stars and the magnitudes of the latter. Magnitude is a measure of the brightness of a star. (We'll talk about magnitudes a bit later in the section Smaller is Brighter: What is Magnitude.) If a constellation's lucida matches its alpha and has a name, I just list it. For example, the brightest star in the constellation Auriga is Capella, she is
It would be much easier to identify the stars if, like conference delegates, they had small name tags that could be seen through a telescope.
Ancient astronomers, peering into the night sky, noticed that some stars are located close to each other, while others are far away. Nearby luminaries were combined into groups or constellations. They began to play an important role in people's lives. This was especially true for sailors of merchant ships, who determined the direction of movement of their ships by the stars.
The first constellation map appeared in the 2nd century BC. uh. It was created by one of the greatest Greek astronomers, Hipparchus of Nicaea. While working at the Library of Alexandria, he compiled a catalog of 850 stars visible to the naked eye. He distributed all these luminaries into 48 constellations.
The final point on this issue was put by the Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. He wrote his famous monograph Almagest. In it, he outlined all the astronomical knowledge that existed at that time. This work was unshakable for a whole millennium until the appearance of the greatest scientist from Khorezm Al-Bruni at the beginning of the 11th century.
In the 15th century, the German astronomer and mathematician Johann Müller (not to be confused with the biologist Johann Peter Müller) founded one of the first astronomical laboratories in Nuremberg. At the initiative of this respected master, astronomical tables based on the works of Ptolemy saw the light of day.
These first maps of the starry sky were used by such famous navigators as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus. The latter, guided precisely by them, crossed in 1492 Atlantic Ocean and reached the shores of South America.
The German artist and engraver Albrecht Dürer got acquainted with the works of Johann Müller, who is better known under the nickname Regiomontanus. Precisely, thanks to his skill, in 1515 the first printed map of the constellations appeared. Those on it were depicted in the form of figures from Greek mythology. This was the beginning of the publication of celestial atlases.
They tried to reflect the brightness of the stars in descending order. For this they began to use the letters of the Greek alphabet. The brightest luminaries within the constellations were assigned the letter "alpha". Then came the letter "beta", "gamma" and so on. This principle is still used today.
In the 17th century, the Polish astronomer and telescope designer Jan Hevelius compiled a catalog that included 1564 stars. He also indicated their coordinates on the celestial sphere.
The modern names of the constellations and their boundaries were finally approved by an international agreement in 1922. There are 88 constellations in total, and most of their names are borrowed from ancient Greek mythology. Each cluster of stars also has a common Latin name. This is so that astronomers speaking different languages understand each other.
constellation map,
located in the sky of the Northern Hemisphere
The figure above shows sky map of the northern hemisphere. It includes the following constellations: Andromeda (1), Ursa Major (2), Charioteer (3), Bootes (4), Hair of Veronica (5), Hercules (6), Hounds Dogs (7), Dolphin (8), Dragon (9), Giraffe (10), Cassiopeia (13), Swan (14), Lyra (15), Chanterelle (16), Ursa Minor (17), Lesser Horse (18), Lesser Lion (19), Pegasus (21 ), Perseus (22), Lynx (23), Northern Crown (24), Arrow (25), Triangle (26), Cepheus (27), Lizard (29), Hydra (33), Unicorn (35), Whale ( 43), Small Dog (47), Orion (53).
In white circles are the numbers of the Zodiac constellations: Aries (77), Taurus (78), Gemini (79), Cancer (80), Leo (81), Virgo (82), Pisces (88).
The figure below shows sky map of the southern hemisphere. It includes: Ophiuchus (11), Serpent (12), Eagle (20), Shield (28), Big Dog (30), Wolf (31), Raven (32), Dove (34), Altar (36), Painting (37), Crane (38), Hare (39), Goldfish (40), Native American (41), Keel (42), Compass (44), Stern (45), Flying Fish (46), Microscope (48 ), Fly (49), Pump (50), Square (51), Octant (52), Peacock (54), Sails (55), Furnace (56), Bird of Paradise (57), Cutter (58), Sextant ( 59), Grid (60), Sculptor (61), Table Mountain (62), Telescope (63), Toucan (64), Phoenix (65), Chameleon (66), Centaurus (67), Compass (68), Clock (69), Chalice (70), Eridanus (71), Southern Hydra (72), Southern Crown (73), Southern Fish (74), Southern Cross (75), Southern Triangle (76).
The white circles show the numbers corresponding to the following Zodiac constellations: Libra (83), Scorpio (84), Sagittarius (85), Capricorn (86), Aquarius (87).
constellation map,
located in the sky of the southern hemisphere
by the most known constellation The northern hemisphere is Ursa Major. These are 7 bright stars forming a bucket. If a straight line is drawn through its "wall", opposite to the "handle" (the stars Dubhe and Merak), then it will rest against the North Star, that is, it will indicate the northern direction. As the centuries pass, the position of these stars in the sky changes. Therefore, several millennia ago, the outline of the bucket did not look like it does today.
A constellation map would lose a lot without Orion. Its brightest star is called Betelgeuse. And the second brightest is called Rigel. Three stars of the second magnitude form the belt of Orion. To the south you can find the brightest star in the night sky, which is called Sirius. It is part of the constellation Canis Major. Yet the diversity and beauty of the night sky is impossible to describe. This must be seen and admired by the cosmic forces that are capable of creating such splendor.
A beginner starting to study the starry sky is first of all surprised by the names of the constellations. As a rule, in the arrangement of stars, even a person with a rich imagination cannot see what the name of the constellation is talking about. Ursa Major, for example (at least the main part of "that constellation") resembles rather a bucket, but randomly
scattered in the neighborhood groups of faint stars, called the constellations Giraffe and. Lynxes are not at all like a giraffe or a lynx. No less strange is the variety of names. The constellations of Bootes (or Shepherd) and Sextant, Hydra and Fly, Microscope and Lizard easily get along in the sky! What caused this completely chaotic at first glance set of names?
The starry sky reflected different eras and creativity different peoples. Modern universally recognized, so to speak, official, star charts with their 88 constellations have completed
centuries-old attempts to perpetuate objects in the sky that are far from always deserving. In the history of the constellations, there is a lot of arbitrary, and sometimes simply ridiculous. Often not so
just to find out for what reasons this or that constellation appeared in the sky, and even until now, in some cases, it remains controversial what the names of individual constellations mean,
Even the final, definitive list of 88 constellations is compiled not so much according to some logical principle, but from the desire to finally preserve the existing
by this time a picture of the sky. Ursa Major, Orion, Taurus, Big Dog, Small
Dog, Bootes, Ursa Minor, Dragon, Hercules, Aquarius, Capricorn, Sagittarius, Arrow, Dolphin, Hare, Eri Dan, Whale, Southern Fish, Little Horse, Centaurus, Wolf, Hydra, Bowl, Raven, Libra,
Hair of Veronica, Southern Cross, Northern Crown, Ophiuchus, Scorpio,. Virgo, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Charioteer, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Pegasus, Aries, Triangle, Pisces, Perseus,
Lyre, Swan, Eagle. Most of these 46 constellations are of mythological origin - they depict characters ancient Greek myths and legends. Another group of constellations was first mentioned by the astronomer Jean Bayer, who published in 1603 a magnificently designed atlas of the starry sky. It includes Peacock, Toucan, Crane, Phoenix, Flying Fish, Southern Hydra, Golden Fish, Chameleon, Bird of Paradise, Southern Triangle, Indian.
By the end of the XVII century. In the list of constellations compiled by the famous Gdansk astronomer Hevelius, one can find a number of new constellations that have appeared over the course of a century. These are the Giraffe, the Fly, the Unicorn, the Dove, the Hounds, the Chanterelle, the Lizard, the Sextant, the Lesser Lion, the Lynx, the Shield, the Southern Crown. In 1752, the famous explorer of the southern starry sky, the French astronomer Lacaille, added 14 more constellations to the list. Here they are: Sculptor, Furnace, Clock, Grid, Cutter,
Painter, Altar, Compass, Pump, Octant, Compasses, Telescope, Microscope, Table Mountain. All these constellations are located in the southern hemisphere of the starry sky. We have left
complete the list with only five constellations. Three of them - Kiel, Korma and Sails - in ancient times made up the main part of the constellation of the Ship - that very mythical ship, on
which, according to ancient Greek legends, Argonaut heroes traveled to Colchis. The fourth constellation, the Serpent, is remarkable in that on star charts it underestimates two
individual areas of the sky. You might even think that there are two constellations of the Serpent close to each other in the sky. In fact, this is one constellation, divided by the constellation Ophiuchus. Ancient star maps depict a man holding a snake in his hands.
The last, 88th constellation. The square is located in the southern starry sky, and its origin is as arbitrary as that of the Southern Triangle. From this brief enumeration of the constellations, we can conclude that the names of the oldest of them owe their origin to various ancient myths.
Pleiades, cohort, connection, celestial compass, square Dictionary of Russian synonyms. constellation, see Pleiades Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Practical guide. M.: Russian language. Z. E. Alexandrova. 2011 ... Synonym dictionary
CONSTELLATION, an imaginary group of stars in the sky. The stars that make up such a group can lie at very different distances from the Earth, and therefore the division into constellations is devoid of physical meaning. In 1930, at the congress ... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary
CONSTELLATION, constellations, cf. (aster.). A group of stars conventionally united by a common name. Twelve constellations of the zodiac. Dictionary Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
CONSTELLATION, I, cf. 1. One of 88 sections into which the starry sky is divided for ease of orientation and designation of stars (special); separate group stars. Bright s. 2. trans. Connection (celebrities, talents) (high). C. names. S. talents. ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
Wed kupa, a flock of stars, arbitrarily collected under one common name. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary. IN AND. Dal. 1863 1866 ... Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
- (Constellation) a group of stars forming some kind of figure. Ancient astronomers saw in these groups a resemblance to animals and various objects, and in accordance with this they gave the names S. (Ursa Major, Scales, etc.). Dividing the sky into S. ... ... Marine Dictionary
constellation- Groups of stars in the sky (there are 88 in total), allocated for the convenience of orientation in the celestial sphere and sometimes used for orientation in the cardinal points ... Geography Dictionary
A group of stars named after a religious or mythical character either an animal, or in honor of some remarkable object of antiquity or modernity. Constellations are a kind of monuments ancient culture man, his mythology, ... ... Collier Encyclopedia
An area of the sky or a group of stars distinguished by a characteristic arrangement in this area, which has its own name. There are 88 constellations in total. Constellations are different in terms of the area they occupy on the celestial sphere and the number of stars in them. Looking back at history... Astronomical dictionary
constellation- CONSTELLATION, I, cf. A set of celestial bodies of stars in a section of the sky, united by a common name. Constellation Virgo... Explanatory dictionary of Russian nouns
Books
- constellation, . 1978 edition. The safety is satisfactory. The authors of the works included in the collection explore the moral problems of the society of the future, reflect on alien civilizations, about ...
- constellation, . The basis of the collection "Constellation" was the works of poets of the fraternal republics of our country in translations and such masters of the word as A. Akhmatova, N. Tikhonov, Vs. Rozhdestvensky, A. Prokofiev, M.…
Chapter 5 STARS AND CONSTELLATIONS
Stars(in Greek “ sidus”) (Photo. 5.1.) are luminous celestial bodies, the luminosity of which is maintained by thermonuclear reactions occurring in them. Giordano Bruno taught back in the 16th century that stars are distant bodies like the Sun. In 1596, the German astronomer Fabricius discovered the first variable star, and in 1650, the Italian scientist Riccioli discovered the first double star.
Among the stars of our Galaxy there are younger stars (they are usually located in the thin disk of the Galaxy) and old ones (which are almost evenly distributed in the central spherical volume of the Galaxy).
A photo. 5.1. Stars.
visible stars. Not all stars are visible from Earth. This is due to the fact that under normal conditions only ultraviolet rays longer than 2900 angstroms reach the Earth from Space. About 6,000 stars can be seen in the sky with the naked eye, since the human eye can only distinguish stars up to +6.5 apparent magnitude.
Stars up to +20 apparent magnitude are observed by all astronomical observatories. The largest telescope in Russia “sees” stars up to magnitude +26. Hubble telescope - up to +28.
The total number of stars according to research is 1000 per 1 square degree of the Earth's starry sky. These are stars up to +18 apparent magnitude. Smaller ones are still difficult to detect due to the lack of appropriate equipment with high resolution.
In total, about 200 new stars are formed in the Galaxy per year. For the first time in astronomical research, they began to photograph stars in the 80s of the 19th century. It should be noted that studies have been and are being carried out only in certain areas of the sky.
One of the last serious studies of the starry sky was carried out in 1930-1943 and was associated with the search for the ninth planet Pluto and new planets. Now the search for new stars and planets has resumed. For this, the latest telescopes* are used, for example, the Space Telescope. Hubble, installed in April 1990 on the space station (USA). It allows you to see very faint stars (up to magnitude +28).
*In Chile, on Mount Paranal, 2.6 km high. a joint telescope with a diameter of 8 m is installed. Radio telescopes (a set of several telescopes) are being mastered. Now "complex" telescopes are used, which combine several mirrors (6x1.8 m) with a total diameter of 10 m in one telescope. In 2012, NASA plans to launch an infrared telescope into the Earth's orbit to observe distant galaxies.
At the Earth's poles, the stars in the sky never set below the horizon. At all other latitudes, the stars set. At the latitude of Moscow (56 degrees north latitude), any star that has a climax height of less than 34 degrees above the horizon already belongs to the southern sky.
5.1. navigational stars.
26 major stars in the earth's sky are navigational, that is, the stars with the help of which in aviation, navigation and astronautics determine the location and course of the ship. 18 navigation stars are located in the northern hemisphere of the sky and 5 stars in the southern (among them the second largest after the Sun is the star Sirius). These are the brightest stars in the sky (up to about +2 magnitude).
In the northern hemisphere There are about 5,000 stars in the sky. Among them are 18 navigational ones: Polar, Arcturus, Vega *, Capella, Aliot, Pollux, Altair, Regulus, Aldebaran, Deneb, Betelgeuse, Procyon, Alferatz (or alpha Andromeda). In the northern hemisphere, the Polar (or Kinosura) is located - this is the alpha of Ursa Minor.
* There is some unconfirmed evidence that the pyramids found underground at a distance of about 7 meters from the earth's surface in the Crimea region (and then in many other regions of the Earth, including the Pamirs) are oriented to 3 stars: Vega, Canopus and Capella. So the pyramids of the Himalayas and the Bermuda Triangle are oriented towards the Chapel. On Vega, the Mexican pyramids. And on Canopus - Egyptian, Crimean, Brazilian and Easter Island pyramids. It is believed that these pyramids are a kind of space antennas. The stars, located at an angle of 120 degrees relative to each other, (according to the Doctor of Technical Sciences, Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences N. Melnikov) create electromagnetic moments that affect the location of the earth's axis, and, possibly, the Earth's rotation itself.
South Pole seems to be more multi-star than Northern, but it is not distinguished by any bright star. Five stars of the Southern sky are navigational: Sirius, Rigel, Spica, Antares, Fomalhaut. The nearest star to the South Pole of the World is Octant (from the constellation Octant). The main decoration of the Southern sky is the constellation of the Southern Cross. To the constellations whose stars are visible on south pole, include: Canis Major, Hare, Crow, Chalice, Southern Pisces, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Scorpio, Shield.
5.2. Catalog of stars.
The catalog of stars in the southern sky in 1676-1678 was compiled by E. Halley. The catalog contained 350 stars. It was supplemented in 1750-1754 by N. Louis De Lacaille to 42 thousand stars, 42 nebulae of the southern sky and 14 new constellations.
Modern star catalogs are divided into 2 groups:
- fundamental catalogs - contain several hundred stars with the highest accuracy in determining their position;
- stellar views.
In 1603, the German astronomer I. Breyer proposed designating the brightest stars of each constellation with the letters of the Greek alphabet in descending order of their apparent brightness: a (alpha), ß (beta), γ (gamma), d (delta), e (epsilon), ξ (zeta), ή (eta), θ (theta), ί (iota), κ (kappa), λ (lambda), μ (mi), υ (ni), ζ (xi), o (omicron), π (pi), ρ (rho), σ (sigma), τ (tau), ν (upsilon), φ (phi), χ (chi), ψ (psi), ω (omega). The brightest star in the constellation is designated a (alpha), the faintest star is ω (omega).
The Greek alphabet was soon lacking, and the lists continued in the Latin alphabet: a, d, c…y, z; as well as capital letters from R to Z or from A to Q. Then, in the 18th century, a digital designation was introduced (in ascending right ascension). Usually they designate variable stars. Sometimes double designations are used, for example, 25 f Taurus.
Stars are also named after the astronomers who first described them. unique properties. These stars are designated by a number in the astronomer's catalogue. For example, Leiten-837 (Leiten is the surname of the astronomer who created the catalog; 837 is the star number in this catalog).
The historical names of the stars are also used (according to the calculation of P.G. Kulikovsky, there are 275 of them). Often these names are associated with the name of their constellations, for example, Octant. At the same time, several dozen of the brightest or main stars of the constellation also have own names, for example, Sirius (alpha Canis Major), Vega (alpha Lyra), Polar (Alpha Ursa Minor). According to statistics, 15% of stars have Greek names, 55% - Latin. The rest are Arabic in etymology (linguistic, and most of the names are Greek in origin), and only a few were given in modern times.
Some stars have several names due to the fact that each nation called them in its own way. For example, Sirius among the Romans was called Vacation (“Dog Star”), among the Egyptians - “Tear of Isis”, and among the Croats - Volyaritsa.
In catalogs of stars and galaxies, stars and galaxies are denoted together with serial number conditional index: M, NQC, ZC. The index points to a certain directory, and the number points to the number of the star (or galaxy) in that directory.
As mentioned above, the following directories are usually used:
- M- catalog of the French astronomer Messier (1781);
- NGFROM- "New General Catalog" or "New General Catalog", compiled by Dreyer on the basis of the old Herschel catalogs (1888);
- ZFROM— two supplementary volumes to the New General Catalogue.
5.3. constellations
The oldest mention of the constellations (in constellation maps) was discovered in 1940 in the cave paintings of the Lascaux caves (France) - the age of the drawings is about 16.5 thousand years and El Castillo (Spain) - the age of the drawings is 14 thousand years. They depict 3 constellations: the Summer Triangle, the Pleiades and the Northern Crown.
In ancient Greece, 48 constellations were already depicted in the sky. In 1592, P. Plancius added 3 more to them. In 1600, I. Gondius added 11 more to it. In 1603, I. Bayer released a star atlas with artistic engravings of all the new constellations.
Until the 19th century, the sky was divided into 117 constellations, but in 1922, at the International Conference on Astronomical Research, the entire sky was divided into 88 strictly defined sections of the sky - constellations, which included the brightest stars of this constellation (see Ch. 5.11.). In 1935, by decision of the Astronomical Society, their boundaries were clearly defined. Of the 88 constellations, 31 are located in the northern sky, 46 in the southern and 11 in the equatorial sky, these are: Andromeda, Pump, Bird of Paradise, Aquarius, Eagle, Altar, Aries, Charioteer, Bootes, Cutter, Giraffe, Cancer, Hounds Dogs, Large Dog, Canis Minor, Capricorn, Keel, Cassiopeia, Centaurus (Centaur), Cepheus, Whale, Chameleon, Compass, Dove, Veronica's Hair, South Crown, North Crown, Raven, Bowl, Southern Cross, Swan, Dolphin, Golden Fish, Dragon , Lesser Horse, Eridanus, Stove, Gemini, Crane, Hercules, Clock, Hydra, South Hydra, Indian, Lizard, Lion, Lesser Lion, Hare, Libra, Wolf, Lynx, Lyre, Table Mountain, Microscope, Unicorn, Fly, Square , Octant, Ophiuchus, Orion, Peacock, Pegasus, Perseus, Phoenix, Painter, Pisces, Southern Pisces, Stern, Compass, Reticle, Arrow, Sagittarius, Scorpio, Sculptor, Shield, Snake, Sextant, Taurus, Telescope, Triangle, Southern Triangle , Toucan, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Sails, Virgo, Flying Fish, Chanterelle.
zodiac constellations(or zodiac, zodiac circle)(from the Greek. Ζωδιακός - " animal”) are the constellations that the Sun passes through the sky in one year (according to ecliptic- the apparent path of the Sun among the stars). There are 12 such constellations, but the Sun also passes through the 13th constellation - the constellation Ophiuchus. But his ancient tradition they are not included in the zodiac constellations (Fig. 5.2. "The movement of the Earth along the constellations of the zodiac").
The zodiac constellations are not the same in size, and the stars in them are far from each other and are not connected in any way. The proximity of the stars in the constellation is only visible. For example, the constellation of Cancer is 4 times smaller than the constellation of Aquarius, and the Sun passes through it in less than 2 weeks. Sometimes one constellation seems to overlap with another (for example, the constellations of Capricorn and Aquarius. When the Sun moves from the constellation of Scorpio to the constellation of Sagittarius (from November 30 to December 18), it touches the “leg” of Ophiuchus). More often, one constellation is quite far from the other, and only a portion of the sky (space) is divided between them.
Back in Ancient Greece the zodiac constellations were singled out in a special group and each of them was assigned its own sign. Now the signs mentioned are not used to identify the zodiacal constellations; they apply only in astrology for symbols zodiac signs . The signs of the corresponding constellations also marked the points of spring (the constellation Aries) and autumn (Libra) equinoxes and points of summer (Cancer) and winter (Capricorn) solstices. Due to precession over the past more than 2 thousand years, these points have moved from the mentioned constellations, however, the designations assigned to them by the ancient Greeks have been preserved. The signs of the zodiac, tied in Western astrology to the point of the vernal equinox, have shifted accordingly, so that the correspondences between there are no coordinates from stars and signs. There is also no correspondence between the dates of the entry of the Sun into the zodiac constellations and the corresponding signs of the zodiac (Table 5.1. "Annual movement of the Earth and the Sun through the constellations").
Rice. 5.2. The movement of the Earth through the constellations of the zodiac
The modern boundaries of the zodiac constellations do not correspond to the division of the ecliptic into twelve equal parts accepted in astrology. They were installed at the Third General Assembly International Astronomical Union (MAS) in 1928 (on which the boundaries of 88 modern constellations were approved). At the moment, the ecliptic also crosses the constellations ie Ophiuchus (however, traditionally, Ophiuchus is not considered a zodiacal constellation), and the limits of the Sun's presence within the boundaries of the constellations can be from seven days (the constellation scorpio ) up to one month sixteen days (constellation Virgo).
Geographical names preserved: Tropic of Cancer (Northern tropic), Tropic of Capricorn (Southern Tropic) is parallels , on which the upper climax points of the summer and winter solstices, respectively, occur in zenith.
Constellations Scorpio and Sagittarius completely visible in the southern regions of Russia, the rest - throughout its territory.
Aries- A small zodiac constellation, according to mythological ideas, depicts the golden fleece that Jason was looking for. The brightest stars are Gamal (2m, variable, orange), Sheratan (2.64m, variable, white), Mezartim (3.88m, double, white).
Tab. 5.1. The annual movement of the Earth and the Sun through the constellations
| zodiac constellations | Residence Earth in the constellations (day, month) |
Residence sun in the constellations (day, month) |
||
| Actual (astronomical) |
Conditional (astrological) |
Actual (astronomical) |
Conditional (astrological) |
|
Sagittarius |
17.06-19.07 | 22.05-21.06 | 17.12-19.01 | 22.11-21.12 |
| Capricorn | 20.07-15.08 | 21.06-22.07 | 19.01-15.02 | 22.12-20.01 |
| Aquarius | 16.08-11.09 | 23.07-22.08 | 15.02-11.03 | 20.01-17.02 |
| Fish | 12.09-18.10 | 23.08-22.09 | 11.03-18.04 | 18.02-20.03 |
| Aries | 19.10-13.11 | 23.09-22.10 | 18.04-13.05 | 20.03-20.04 |
| calf | 14.11-20.12 | 23.10-21.11 | 13.05-20.06 | 20.04-21.05 |
| Twins | 21.12-20.01 | 22.11-21.12 | 20.06-20.07 | 21.05-21.06 |
| Cancer | 21.01-10.02 | 22.12-20.01 | 20.07-10.08 | 21.06-22.07 |
| a lion | 11.02-16.03 | 21.01-19.02 | 10.08-16.09 | 23.07-22.08 |
| Virgo | 17.03-30.04 | 20.02-21.03 | 16.09-30.10 | 23.08-22.09 |
| Scales | 31.04-22.05 | 22.03-20.04 | 30.10-22.11 | 23.09-23.10 |
| Scorpion | 23.05-29.05 | 21.04-21.05 | 22.11-29.11 | 23.10-22.11 |
| Ophiuchus* | 30.05-16.06 | — | 29.11-16.12 | — |
* The constellation Ophiuchus is not included in the zodiac.
Taurus (Taurus)- A prominent zodiac constellation associated with the head of a bull. The brightest star in the constellation - Aldebaran (0.87m) - is surrounded by the Hyades open star cluster, but does not belong to it. The Pleiades is another beautiful star cluster in Taurus. In total, there are fourteen stars in the constellation brighter than the 4th magnitude. Optical double stars: Theta, Delta and Kappa Taurus. Cepheid SZ Tau. Eclipsing variable star Lambda Tauri. In Taurus there is also the Crab Nebula, the remnant of a supernova that exploded in 1054. In the center of the nebula is a star with m=16.5.
Twins (Gemini) - The two brightest stars in Gemini - Castor (1.58m, double, white) and Pollux (1.16m, orange) - are named after the twins of classical mythology. Variable stars: Eta Gemini (m=3.1, dm=0.8, spectroscopic double, eclipsing variable), Zeta Gemini. Double stars: Kappa and Mu Gemini. Open star cluster NGC 2168, planetary nebula NGC2392.
Cancer (Cancer) - A mythological constellation, reminiscent of a crab crushed by the foot of Hercules during the battle with the Hydra. The stars are small, none of the stars exceeding 4th magnitude, although the Manger Star Cluster (3.1m) in the center of the constellation can be seen with the naked eye. Zeta Cancer is a multiple star (A: m=5.7, yellow; B: m=6.0, naked, spectral double; C: m=7.8). Double star Iota Cancer.
a lion (Leo) - the contour created by the most bright stars of this large and conspicuous constellation, vaguely resembles the figure of a lion in profile. There are ten stars brighter than 4th magnitude, the brightest of which are Regulus (1.36m, rem., blue, double) and Denebola (2.14m, rem., white). Double stars: Gamma Leo (A: m=2.6, orange; B: m=3.8, yellow) and Iota Leo. The constellation Leo contains numerous galaxies, including five from the Messier catalog (M65, M66, M95, M96 and M105).
Virgo (Virgo) is the zodiacal constellation, the second largest in the sky. The brightest stars are Spica (0.98m, shift, blue), Vindemiatrix (2.85m, yellow). In addition, the constellation includes seven stars brighter than the 4th magnitude. The constellation contains a rich and relatively nearby cluster of galaxies in Virgo. The eleven brightest galaxies within the boundaries of the constellation are cataloged by Messier.
Scales (Libra) - The stars of this constellation previously belonged to Scorpio, which follows Libra in the Zodiac. The Libra constellation is one of the least visible constellations of the Zodiac, with only five of its stars brighter than 4th magnitude. The brightest are Zuben el Shemali (2.61m, shift, blue) and Zuben el Genubi (2.75m, shift, white).
Scorpion (Scorpius) is a large bright constellation in the southern part of the zodiac. The brightest star in the constellation is Antares (1.0m, variable, red, double, bluish companion). The constellation contains 16 more stars brighter than 4th magnitude. Star clusters: M4, M7, M16, M80.
Sagittarius (Sagittarius) is the southernmost zodiac constellation. In Sagittarius behind the stellar clouds lies the center of our Galaxy (the Milky Way). Sagittarius is a large constellation containing many bright stars, including 14 stars brighter than 4th magnitude. It contains many star clusters and diffuse nebulae. Thus, the Messier catalog includes 15 objects assigned to the constellation Sagittarius - more than any other constellation. Among them are the Lagoon Nebula (M8), the Trifid Nebula (M20), the Omega Nebula (M17) and the globular cluster M22, the third brightest in the sky. The open star cluster M7 (more than 100 stars) can be seen with the naked eye.
Capricorn (Capricornus) - The brightest stars are Deneb Algedi (2.85m, white) and Dabi (3.05m, white). ShZS M30 is located near Xi Capricorn.
Aquarius (Aquarius) - Aquarius is one of the largest constellations. The brightest stars are Sadalmelik (2.95m, yellow) and Sadalsuud (2.9m, yellow). Binary stars: Zeta (A: m=4.4; B: m=4.6; physical pair, yellowish) and Beta Aquarii. SCS NGC 7089, nebulae NGC7009 ("Saturn") NGC7293 ("Helix").
Fish (Pisces) is a large but weak zodiac constellation. Three bright stars are only 4th magnitude. The main star is Alrisha (3.82m, spectroscopic binary, physical pair, bluish).
5.4. Structure and composition of stars
The Russian scientist V.I.Vernadsky said about the stars that they are “the centers of maximum concentration of matter and energy in the Galaxy”.
The composition of the stars. If it was previously stated that stars are made of gas, now they are already talking about the fact that these are superdense space objects with a huge mass. It is assumed that the substance from which the first stars and galaxies were formed consisted mainly of hydrogen and helium with a small admixture of other elements. Stars are heterogeneous in structure. Studies have shown that all stars are made up of the same chemical elements, the difference is only in their percentage.
It is assumed that the analogue of the star is fireball*, in the center of which is the nucleus (point source), surrounded by a plasma shell. The boundary of the shell is a layer of air.
* Ball lightning rotates and glows in all colors with radii, has a weight of 10 -8 kg.
The volume of the stars. The sizes of stars reach thousands of solar radii*.
*If the Sun is depicted as a ball 10 cm in diameter, then the entire solar system will be a circle with a diameter of 800 m. In this case: Proxima Centauri (the closest star to the Sun) would be at a distance of 2,700 km; Sirius - 5,500 km; Altair - 9,700 km; Vega - 17,000 km; Arcturus - 23,000 km; Chapel - 28,000 km; Regulus - 53,000 km; Deneb - 350,000 km.
The volume (size) of the stars are very different from each other. For example, our Sun is inferior to many stars: Sirius, Procyon, Altair, Betelgeuse, Epsilon Aurigae. But the Sun is much larger than Proxima Centauri, Kroeger 60A, Lalande 21185, Ross 614B.
The largest star in our Galaxy is located in the center of the Galaxy. This red supergiant is larger in volume than the orbit of Saturn - Herschel's garnet star ( Cepheus). Its diameter is over 1.6 billion km.
Determining the distance to a star. Distance to the star measured through parallax (angle) - knowing the distance of the Earth to the Sun and parallax, it is possible to determine the distance to the Star through the formula (Fig. 5.3. "Parallax").
Parallax — the angle at which the semi-major axis of the earth's orbit is visible from the star (or half the angle of the sector in which the space object is visible).
The parallax of the Sun itself from Earth is 8.79418 seconds.
If the stars were reduced to the size of a nut, then the distance between them would be measured in hundreds of kilometers, and the displacement of the stars relative to each other would be several meters per year.
Rice. 5.3. Parallax .
The determined magnitude depends on the radiation receiver (eye, photographic plates). Magnitude can be divided into visual, photovisual, photographic and bolometric:
- visual - determined by direct observation and corresponds to the spectral sensitivity of the eye (the maximum sensitivity falls at a wavelength of 555 μm);
- photovisual ( or yellow) - determined when photographed with a yellow filter. It practically coincides with the visual;
- photographic ( or blue) - determined by photographing on film sensitive to blue and ultraviolet rays, or using an antimony-cesium photomultiplier with a blue filter;
- bolometric - is determined by a bolometer (integral radiation receiver) and corresponds to the total radiation of the star.
The connection between the brightness of two stars (E 1 and E 2) and their magnitudes (m 1 and m 2) is written in the form of the Pogson formula (5.1.):
E 2 (m 1 - m 2)
2,512 (5.1.)
For the first time, the distance to the three nearest stars was determined in 1835-1839 by the Russian astronomer V.Ya. Struve, as well as the German astronomer F. Bessel and the English astronomer T. Henderson.
The determination of the distance to a star is currently carried out by the following methods:
- radar- based on the radiation through the antenna of short pulses (for example, centimeter range), which, reflected from the surface of the object, return back. The distance is found from the delay time of the pulse;
- laser(or lidar) - also based on the radar principle (laser rangefinder), but produced in the short-wave optical range. Its accuracy is higher, but the Earth's atmosphere often interferes.
mass of stars. It is believed that the mass of all visible stars The galaxy ranges from 0.1 to 150 solar masses, where the solar mass is 2x10 30 kg. But these data are updated all the time. A massive star was discovered by the Hubble telescope in 1998 in the southern sky in the Tarantula Nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud (150 solar masses). In the same nebula, entire clusters of supernovae with a mass of more than 100 solar masses have been discovered. .
Most heavy stars- neutron, they are a million billion times denser than water (it is believed that this is not the limit). Carina is the heaviest star in the Milky Way.
It was recently discovered that van Maanen's star, which has only 12th magnitude (does not exceed the size of the globe), is 400,000 times denser than water! Theoretically, it is possible to admit the existence of much denser substances.
It is assumed that the so-called "black holes" are leaders in mass and density.
The temperature of the stars. It is assumed that the effective (internal) temperature of the star is 1.23 times the temperature of its surface. .
The parameters of a star change from its periphery to the center. So the temperature, pressure, density of a star increase towards its center. Young stars have a hotter corona than older ones.
5.5. Star classification
Stars are divided by color, temperature and spectral class (spectrum). And also by luminosity (E), stellar magnitude (“m” - visible and “M” - true).
Spectral class. A glimpse of the starry sky can give the wrong impression that all the stars are the same color and brightness. In fact, the color, luminosity (brilliance and brightness) of each star is different. Stars, for example, have the following colors: purple, red, orange, green-yellow, green, emerald green, white, blue, violet, purple.
The color of a star depends on its temperature. By temperature, stars are divided into spectral classes (spectra), the magnitude of which determines the ionization of atmospheric gas:
- red - the temperature of the star is about 600 ° (there are about 8% of such stars in the sky);
- scarlet - 1000 °;
- pink - 1500°;
- light orange - 3000°;
- straw yellow - 5000 ° (there are about 33% of them);
- yellowish white* - 6000°;
- white - 12000-15000 ° (there are about 58% of them in the sky);
- bluish-white - 25000 °.
*In this series, our Sun (having a temperature of 6000° ) is yellow.
Hottest Stars – blue, and the coldest – infrared . Most of all in our sky are white stars. are cold and to brown dwarfs (very small, the size of Jupiter), but they are 10 times larger in mass than the Sun.
Main sequence - the main grouping of stars in the form of a diagonal strip on the "spectral class-luminosity" or "surface temperature-luminosity" diagram (Hertzsprung-Russell diagram). This band runs from bright and hot stars to dim and cold. For most main sequence stars, the relationship between mass, radius, and luminosity holds: M 4 ≈ R 5 ≈ L. But for stars of low and high mass, M 3 ≈ L, and for the most massive, M ≈ L.
By color, the stars are divided into 10 classes in descending order of temperature: O, B, A, F, D, K, M; S, N, R. O stars are the coldest, M stars are hot. The last three classes (S, N, R), as well as additional spectral classes C, WN, WC, belong to rare variables(flashing) to stars with deviations in chemical composition. There are about 1% of such variable stars. Where O, B, A, F are early classes, and all other D, K, M, S, N, R are late classes. In addition to the listed 10 spectral classes, there are three more: Q - new stars; P, planetary nebulae; W - Wolf-Rayet type stars, which are divided into carbon and nitrogen sequences. In turn, each spectral type is divided into 10 subclasses from 0 to 9, where the hotter star is denoted by (0) and the colder one by (9). For example, A0, A1, A2, ..., B9. Sometimes they give a more fractional classification (with tenths), for example: A2.6 or M3.8. The spectral classification of stars is written in the following form (5.2.):
S side row
O - B - A - F - D - K - M main sequence(5.2.)
R N side row
Early classes of spectra are denoted by Latin capital letters or two-letter combinations, sometimes with digital specifying indices, for example: gA2 is a giant whose emission spectrum belongs to class A2.
Double stars are sometimes indicated by double letters, for example, AE, FF, RN.
Main spectral types (main sequence):
"O" (blue)- have a high temperature and continuous high intensity ultraviolet radiation, which makes the light from these stars appear blue. The most intense are the lines of ionized helium and multiply ionized some other elements (carbon, silicon, nitrogen, oxygen). Weakest lines of neutral helium and hydrogen;
“B ”(bluish-white) - neutral helium lines reach their maximum intensity. The lines of hydrogen and the lines of some ionized elements are clearly visible;
"A" (white) - the hydrogen lines reach their maximum intensity. The lines of ionized calcium are clearly visible, weak lines of other metals are observed;
“F” (slightly yellowish) — the hydrogen lines become weaker. The lines of ionized metals (especially calcium, iron, titanium) are intensifying;
“D” (yellow) - hydrogen lines do not stand out among numerous metal lines. The lines of ionized calcium are very intense;
Tab. 5.2. Spectral types of some stars
| Spectral classes | Colour | Class | Temperature (degree) |
Typical stars (in constellations) |
| Hottest | Blue | O | 30000 and above | Naos (ξ Korma) Meissa, Heka (λ Orion) Regor (γ Parus) Hatisa (ι Orion) |
| very hot | bluish white | AT | 11000-30000 | Alnilam (ε Orion) Rigel Menkhib (ζ Perseus) Spica (α Virgo) Antares (α Scorpio) Bellatrix (γ Orion) |
| White | AND | 7200-11000 | Sirius (α Canis Major) Deneb Vega (α Lyra) Alderamine (α Cepheus)* Castor (α Gemini) Ras Alhag (α Ophiuchus) |
|
| Hot | yellow-white | F | 6000-7200 | Vasat (δ Gemini) Canopus Polar Procyon (α Lesser Dog) Mirfak (α Perseus) |
| yellow | D | 5200-6000 | SunSadalmelek (α Aquarius) Chapel (α Charioteer) Algezhi (α Capricorn) |
|
| orange | To | 3500-5200 | Arcturus (α Bootes) Dubhe (α B. Bear) Pollux (β Gemini) Aldebaran (α Taurus) |
|
| Atmospheric temperature is low | Red | M | 2000-3500 | Betelgeuse (α Orion) Mira (o Whale) Mirach (α Andromeda) |
* Cepheus (or Cepheus).
"K" (reddish) - hydrogen lines are not noticeable among the very intense lines of metals. The violet end of the continuous spectrum is noticeably weakened, which indicates a strong decrease in temperature compared to the early classes, such as O, B, A;
"M" (red) - metal lines are weakened. The spectrum is crossed by absorption bands of titanium oxide molecules and other molecular compounds.
Additional classes (side row):
"R" - there are absorption lines of atoms and absorption bands of carbon molecules;
"S" - instead of titanium oxide bands, zirconium oxide bands are present.
In table. 5.2. “Spectral types of some stars” presents the data (color, class and temperature) of the most famous stars. Luminosity (E) characterizes the total amount of energy emitted by a star. It is believed that the energy source of the star is the reaction of nuclear fusion. The more powerful this reaction, the greater the luminosity of the star.
By luminosity, stars are divided into 7 classes:
- I (a, b) - supergiants;
- II - bright giants;
- III - giants;
- IV, subgiants;
- V is the main sequence;
- VI - subdwarfs;
- VII - white dwarfs.
The hottest star is the core of planetary nebulae.
To indicate the luminosity class, in addition to the above designations, the following are also used:
- c - supergiants;
- e - giants;
- d - dwarfs;
- sd are subdwarfs;
- w are white dwarfs.
Our Sun belongs to the D2 spectral class, and in terms of luminosity to the V group, and the general designation of the Sun is D2V.
The brightest supernova broke out in the spring of 1006 in the southern constellation of the Wolf (according to the Chinese chronicles). At its maximum brightness, it was brighter than the Moon in the first quarter and was visible to the naked eye for 2 years.
Luster or apparent brightness (illuminance, L) is one of the main parameters of a star. In most cases, the radius of a star (R) is determined theoretically based on an estimate of its luminosity (L) in the entire optical range and temperature (T). The luminosity of a star (L) is directly proportional to the values of T and L (5.3.):
L = R ∙ T (5.3.)
—— = (√ ——) ∙ (———) (5.4.)
Rс is the radius of the Sun,
Lс is the luminosity of the Sun,
Tc is the temperature of the Sun (6000 degrees).
Star magnitude. Luminosity (the ratio of the luminous intensity of a star to the sunlight) depends on the distance of the star from the Earth and is measured by the magnitude.
magnitude is a dimensionless physical quantity that characterizes the illumination created by a celestial object near the observer. The magnitude scale is logarithmic: in it, a difference of 5 units corresponds to a 100-fold difference between the light flux from the measured and reference sources. This is the minus logarithm in base 2.512 of the illumination produced by the given object in the area perpendicular to the rays. It was proposed in the 19th century by the English astronomer N. Pogson. This is the optimal mathematical ratio, which is still used today: stars that differ in magnitude by one differ in brightness by a factor of 2.512. Subjectively, its value is perceived as brilliance (for point sources) or brightness (for extended ones). The average brightness of the stars is taken as (+1), which corresponds to the first magnitude. A star of the second magnitude (+2) is 2.512 times fainter than the first. A star of (-1) magnitude is 2.512 times brighter than the first magnitude. In other words, the greater the positive magnitude of the source, the weaker the source*. All large stars have a negative (-) magnitude, and all small stars have a positive (+) magnitude.
For the first time, magnitudes (from 1 to 6) were introduced back in the 2nd century BC. e. the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea. He attributed the brightest stars to the first magnitude, and those barely visible to the naked eye to the sixth. At present, a star is accepted as a star of initial magnitude, which creates on the verge earth's atmosphere illumination equal to 2.54x10 6 lux (that is, as 1 candela from a distance of 600 meters). This star in the entire visible spectrum creates a flux of about 10 6 quanta per 1 sq. cm. per second (or 10 3 quanta / sq. cm. with A °) * in the region of green rays.
* A ° - angstrom (a unit of measurement of an atom), equal to 1/100,000,000 of a centimeter.
By luminosity, stars are divided into 2 magnitudes:
- "M" absolute (true));
- "m" relative (visible) from Earth).
Absolute (true) magnitude (M) — is the magnitude of a star reduced to a distance of 10 parsecs (pc) (which is equal to 32.6 light years or 2,062,650 AU) from Earth. For example, the absolute (true) magnitude is: Sun +4.76; Sirius +1.3. That is, Sirius is almost 4 times brighter than the Sun.
Relative apparent magnitude (m) — is the brilliance of a star as seen from Earth. It does not determine the actual characteristic of the star. This is due to the distance to the object. In table. 5.3., 5.4. and 5.5. some stars and objects of the earth's sky are presented in terms of luminosity from the brightest (-) to the weakest (+).
The biggest star known is R Doradus (which is in the southern hemisphere of the sky). It is part of our neighboring star system- The Small Magellanic Cloud, the distance to which from us is 12,000 times greater than to Sirius. This is a red giant, its radius is 370 times greater than the solar one (which is equal to the orbit of Mars), but in our sky this star is visible only +8 magnitude. It has an angular diameter of 57 milliseconds of arc and is located at a distance of 61 parsecs (pc) from us. If we imagine the Sun the size of a volleyball, then the star Antares will have a diameter of 60 meters, Mira Whale - 66, Betelgeuse - about 70.
One of the smallest stars our sky is the neutron pulsar PSR 1055-52. Its diameter is only 20 km, but it shines strongly. Its apparent magnitude is +25 .
The closest star to us- this is Proxima Centauri (Centauri), before it 4.25 sv. years old. This +11th magnitude star is located in the southern sky of the Earth.
Table. 5.3. Magnitudes of some bright stars in the earth's sky
| Constellation | Star | Magnitude | Class | Distance to Sun (pc) | |
| m (relative) |
M (true) |
||||
| — | Sun | -26.8 | +4.79 | D2 V | — |
| Big Dog | Sirius | -1.6 | +1.3 | A1 V | 2.7 |
| Small Dog | Procyon | -1.45 | +1.41 | F5 IV-V | 3.5 |
| Keel | canopus | -0.75 | -4.6 | F0 I in | 59 |
| Centaurus* | Toliman | -0.10 | +4.3 | D2 V | 1.34 |
| Bootes | Arcturus | -0.06 | -0.2 | K2 III r | 11.1 |
| Lyra | Vega | 0.03 | +0.6 | A0 V | 8.1 |
| Auriga | Chapel | 0.03 | -0.5 | D III8 | 13.5 |
| Orion | Rigel | 0.11 | -7.0 | B8 I a | 330 |
| eridanus | Achernar | 0.60 | -1.7 | B5 IV-V | 42.8 |
| Orion | Betelgeuse | 0.80 | -6.0 | M2 I av | 200 |
| Eagle | Altair | 0.90 | +2.4 | A7 IV-V | 5 |
| Scorpion | Antares | 1.00 | -4.7 | M1 IV | 52.5 |
| calf | Aldebaran | 1.1 | -0.5 | K5 III | 21 |
| Twins | Pollux | 1.2 | +1.0 | K0 III | 10.7 |
| Virgo | Spica | 1.2 | -2.2 | B1 V | 49 |
| Swan | Deneb | 1.25 | -7.3 | A2 I c | 290 |
| Southern Fish | Fomalhaut | 1.3 | +2.10 | A3 III(V) | 165 |
| a lion | Regulus | 1.3 | -0.7 | B7 V | 25.7 |
* Centaurus (or Centaur).
the most distant star of our Galaxy (180 light years) is located in the constellation Virgo and is projected onto the elliptical galaxy M49. Its magnitude is +19. The light from it to us goes 180 thousand years .
Tab. 5.4. Luminosity of the brightest visible stars in our sky
| № | Star | Relative magnitude ( visible) (m) | Class | Distance to Sun (pc)* |
Luminosity Relative to the Sun (L = 1) |
| 1 | Sirius | -1.46 | A1. five | 2.67 | 22 |
| 2 | canopus | -0.75 | F0. 1 | 55.56 | 4700-6500 |
| 3 | Arcturus | -0.05 | K2. 3 | 11.11 | 102-107 |
| 4 | Vega | +0.03 | A0. five | 8.13 | 50-54 |
| 5 | Toliman | +0.06 | G2. five | 1.33 | 1.6 |
| 6 | Chapel | +0.08 | G8. 3 | 13.70 | 150 |
| 7 | Rigel | +0.13 | AT 8. 1 | 333.3 | 53700 |
| 8 | Procyon | +0.37 | F5. four | 3.47 | 7.8 |
| 9 | Betelgeuse | +0.42 | M2. 1 | 200.0 | 21300 |
| 10 | Achernar | +0.47 | AT 5. four | 30.28 | 650 |
| 11 | Hadar | +0.59 | IN 1. 2 | 62.5 | 850 |
| 12 | Altair | +0.76 | A7. four | 5.05 | 10.2 |
| 13 | Aldebaran | +0.86 | K5. 3 | 20.8 | 162 |
| 14 | Antares | +0.91 | M1. 1 | 52.6 | 6500 |
| 15 | Spica | +0.97 | IN 1. five | 47.6 | 1950 |
| 16 | Pollux | +1.14 | K0. 3 | 13.9 | 34 |
| 17 | Fomalhaut | +1.16 | A3. 3 | 6.9 | 14.8 |
| 18 | Deneb | +1.25 | A2. 1 | 250.0 | 70000 |
| 19 | Regulus | +1.35 | AT 7. five | 25.6 | 148 |
| 20 | Adara | +1.5 | IN 2. 2 | 100.0 | 8500 |
* pc - parsec (1 pc \u003d 3.26 light years or 206265 AU).
Table. 5.5. Relative apparent magnitude of the brightest objects in the sky
| An object | Apparent stellar magnitude |
| Sun | -26.8 |
| Moon* | -12.7 |
| Venus* | -4.1 |
| Mars* | -2.8 |
| Jupiter* | -2.4 |
| Sirius | -1.58 |
| Procyon | -1.45 |
| Mercury* | -1.0 |
*Shine by reflected light.
5.6. Some types of stars
Quasars are the most distant cosmic bodies and the most powerful sources of visible and infrared radiation observed in the Universe. These are visible quasi-stars that have an unusual blue color and are a powerful source of radio emission. A quasar radiates an energy equal to the entire energy of the Sun per month. The size of a quasar reaches 200 AU. These are the most distant and fastest moving objects in the universe. Opened in the early 60s of the 20th century. Their true luminosity is hundreds of billions of times greater than the luminosity of the Sun. But these stars have variable brightness. The brightest quasar ZS-273 is located in the constellation Virgo, it has a magnitude of +13m.
white dwarfs - the smallest, densest, low-luminosity stars. The diameter is about 10 times smaller than the sun.
neutron stars Stars are mostly made up of neutrons. Very dense, with a huge mass. They have different magnetic fields, they have frequent flashes of different power.
magnetars- one of the types of neutron stars, stars with rapid rotation around its axis (about 10 seconds). 10% of all stars are magnetars. There are 2 types of magnetars:
v pulsars- Opened in 1967. These are superdense cosmic pulsating sources of radio, optical, X-ray and ultraviolet radiation that reach the Earth's surface in the form of periodically repeating bursts. The pulsating nature of the radiation is explained by the rapid rotation of the star and its strong magnetic field. All pulsars are from the Earth at a distance of 100 to 25,000 sv. years old. Usually X-ray stars are binary stars.
v IMPHI are sources with soft repetitive gamma-ray bursts. About 12 of them have been discovered in our Galaxy, they are young objects, they are located in the plane of the Galaxy and in the Magellanic clouds.
The author assumes that neutron stars are a pair of stars, one of which is central, and the second is its satellite. The satellite at this time comes to the perihelion of its orbit: it is extremely close to the central star, has a high angular velocity of rotation and circulation, therefore it is maximally compressed (it has super density). There is a strong interaction between this pair, which is expressed in a powerful radiation of energy by both objects*.
* A similar interaction can be observed in simple physical experiments when two charged balls approach each other.
5.7. Star orbits
The proper motion of stars was first discovered by the English astronomer E. Halley. He compared the data of Hipparchus (3rd century BC) with his data (1718) on the movement of three stars in the sky: Procyon, Arcturus (the constellation Bootes) and Sirius (the constellation Canis Major). The movement of our Sun star in the Galaxy in 1742 was proved by J. Bradley, and finally confirmed in 1837 by the Finnish scientist F. Argelander.
In the 20s of our century, G. Stremberg discovered that the speeds of stars in the Galaxy are different. The fastest star in our sky is Bernard's (flying) star in the constellation Ophiuchus. Its speed is 10.31 arc seconds per year. The pulsar PSR 2224+65 in the constellation Cepheus is moving in our Galaxy at a speed of 1600 km/s. Quasars move at a speed approximately equal to the speed of light (270,000 km/s). These are the most distant stars observed. Their radiation is very huge, even more than the radiation of some galaxies. The Gould Belt stars have (peculiar) velocities of about 5 km/s, indicating an expansion of this star system. Globular clusters (and short-period Cepheids) have the highest velocities.
In 1950, the Russian scientist P.P. Parenago (Moscow State University of Civil Aviation) conducted a study on the spatial velocities of 3000 stars. The scientist divided them into groups depending on their location on the “spectrum-luminosity” diagram, taking into account the presence of various subsystems considered by V. Baade and B. Kukarkin .
In 1968, the American scientist J. Bell discovered radio pulsars (pulsars). They had a very large circulation around their axis. This period is assumed to be in milliseconds. At the same time, radio pulsars traveled in a narrow beam (beam). One such pulsar, for example, is located in the Crab Nebula, its period is 30 pulses per second. The frequency is very stable. It appears to be a neutron star. The distances between the stars are huge.
Andrea Ghez of the University of California and her colleagues reported measurements of the proper motions of stars at the center of our Galaxy. It is assumed that the distance of these stars to the center is 200 AU. The observations were made with the telescope. Keka (USA, Hawaii) for 4 months from 1994. The velocities of the stars reached 1500 km/s. Two of those central stars have never been more than 0.1 pc from the center of the Galaxy. Their eccentricity is not exactly defined, measurements range from 0 to 0.9. But scientists have accurately determined that the foci of the orbits of three stars are at one point, the coordinates of which, with an accuracy of 0.05 arcseconds (or 0.002 pc), coincide with the coordinates of the Sagittarius A radio source, traditionally identified with the center of the Galaxy (Sgr A*). It is assumed that the period of revolution of one of the three stars is 15 years.
Orbits of stars in the galaxy. The movement of stars, like planets, obeys certain laws:
- they move in an ellipse;
- their motion is subject to Kepler's second law (“a straight line connecting the planet to the Sun (radius vector) describes equal areas (S) in equal time intervals (T)”.
It follows from this that the areas in perigalactia (So) and apogalactia (Sa) and time (To and Ta) are equal, and the angular velocities (Vo and Va) at the perigalactia point (O) and at the apogalactia point (A) differ sharply, then is: at So = Sa, To = Ta; the angular velocity in perigalactia (Vо) is greater, and the angular velocity in apogalactia (Vа) is less.
This law of Kepler can be conditionally called the law of “unity of time and space”.
We also observe a similar pattern of elliptical motion of subsystems around the center of their systems when considering the motion of an electron in an atom around its nucleus in the Rutherford-Bohr model of the atom.
Previously, it was noticed that the stars in the Galaxy move around the center of the Galaxy not in an ellipse, but in a complex curve that looks like a flower with many petals.
B. Lindblad and J. Oort proved that all stars in globular clusters, moving at different speeds in the clusters themselves, simultaneously participate in the rotation of this cluster (as a whole) around the center of the Galaxy . Later it was found that this was due to the fact that the stars in the cluster have a common center of revolution*.
* This remark is very important.
As mentioned above, this center is the largest star in this cluster. This is observed in the constellations of Centaurus, Ophiuchus, Perseus, Canis Major, Eridanus, Cygnus, Canis Minor, Whale, Leo, Hercules.
The rotation of stars has the following features:
the rotation goes in the spiral arms of the Galaxy in one direction;
- the angular velocity of rotation decreases with distance from the center of the Galaxy. However, this decrease is somewhat slower than if the rotation of stars around the center of the Galaxy occurred according to Kepler's law;
- the linear speed of rotation first increases with distance from the center, and then approximately at the distance of the Sun it reaches its maximum value (about 250 km/s), after which it decreases very slowly;
- aging, the stars move from the inner to the outer edge of the arm of the Galaxy;
- The Sun and the stars in its environment make a complete revolution around the center of the Galaxy, presumably in 170-270 million years (d data of different authors)(which averages about 220 million years).
Struve noticed that the colors of the stars differ the more, the greater the difference in the brightness of the constituent stars and the greater their mutual distance. White dwarfs make up 2.3-2.5% of all stars. Single stars are only white or yellow*.
*This remark is very important.
And double stars are found in all colors of the spectrum.
The stars closest to the Sun (Gould's belts) (and there are more than 500 of them) predominantly have spectral types: “O” (blue); "B" (bluish-white); "A" (white).
Dual system - a system of two stars orbiting around a common center of mass . Physically double star- these are two stars visible in the sky close to each other and connected by gravity. Most stars are binary. As mentioned above, the first double star was discovered in 1650 (Richolli). There are over 100 different types of binary systems. This is, for example, a radio pulsar + white dwarf (neutron star or planet). Statistics say that double stars often consist of a cold red giant and a hot dwarf. The distance between them is approximately equal to 5 AU. Both objects are immersed in a common gas envelope, the substance for which is given off by the red giant in the form of a stellar wind and as a result of pulsations .
On June 20, 1997, the Hubble Space Telescope transmitted an ultraviolet image of the atmosphere of the gigantic star Mira Ceti and its companion, a hot white dwarf. The distance between them is about 0.6 arc seconds and it is decreasing. The image of these two stars looks like a comma, the “tail” of which is directed towards the second star. It seems that the substance of the Mira flows to its satellite. At the same time, the shape of the atmosphere of Mira Whale is closer to an ellipse than to a ball. Astronomers knew about the variability of this star 400 years ago. The fact that its variability is associated with the presence of a certain satellite near it, astronomers guessed only a few decades ago.
5.8. Star formation
There are many options regarding the formation of stars. Here is one of them - the most common.
The picture shows the galaxy NGC 3079 (Photo. 5.5.). It is located in the constellation Ursa Major at a distance of 50 million light years.
A photo. 5.5. Galaxy NGC 3079
In the center, there is a burst of star formation, so powerful that the wind from the hot giants and shock waves from supernovae have merged into one gas bubble that rises 3,500 light-years above the galactic plane. The expansion velocity of the bubble is about 1800 km/s. It is believed that the burst of star formation and the growth of the bubble began about a million years ago. Subsequently, the brightest stars will burn out, and the energy source of the bubble will be exhausted. However, radio observations show traces of an older (about 10 million years old) and more extended ejecta of the same nature. This indicates that bursts of star formation in the core of NGC 3079 may be periodic.
In photo 5.6. Nebula X in NGC 6822 is a glowing star forming nebula (Hubble X) in one of the nearby galaxies (NGC 6822).
The distance to it is 1.63 million light years (slightly closer than to the Andromeda Nebula). The size of the central bright nebula is about 110 light-years, it contains thousands of young stars, the brightest of which are visible as white dots. Hubble X is many times larger and brighter than the Orion Nebula (the latter is comparable in scale to the small cloud below Hubble X).
A photo. 5.6. Nebula X in the galaxyNGFrom 6822
Objects like Hubble X are formed from giant molecular clouds of cold gas and dust. It is believed that intense star formation in Xubble X began about 4 million years ago. Star formation in the clouds is accelerating until it is abruptly stopped by the radiation of the brightest stars born. This radiation heats and ionizes the medium, transferring it to a state where it can no longer be compressed under the influence of its own gravity.
In the chapter "New Planets of the Solar System" the author will give his version of the birth of stars.
5.9. star energy
Nuclear fusion is thought to be the source of stellar energy. The more powerful this reaction, the greater the luminosity of the stars.
A magnetic field. All stars have a magnetic field. Stars with a red spectrum have a smaller magnetic field than blue and white stars. Of all the stars in the sky, about 12% are magnetic white dwarfs. Sirius is a bright white magnetic dwarf. The temperature of such stars is 7-10 thousand degrees. There are fewer hot white dwarfs than cold ones. Scientists have found that as the age of a star increases, both its mass and magnetic field increase. (S.N.Fabrika, G.G.Valyavin, CAO) . For example, magnetic fields on magnetic white dwarfs begin to grow rapidly with an increase in temperature from 13,000 and above.
Stars radiate very high energy (10 15 gauss) magnetic field.
Energy source. The energy source of X-ray (and all) stars is rotation (a rotating magnet radiates). White dwarfs rotate slowly.
The magnetic field of a star is enhanced in two cases:
- when the star is compressed;
- as the star spins faster.
As mentioned above, the ways of spinning up and contracting a star can be the moments of approach of stars when one of them passes the perihelion of its orbit (double stars), when matter flows from one star to another. Gravity keeps the star from exploding.
star flares or stellar activity (SA). Flares (soft repeating gamma-ray bursts) of stars were discovered recently - in 1979.
Weak bursts last about 1 second, and their power is about 10 45 erg/s. Weak bursts of stars last for a fraction of a second. Superflares last for weeks, while the star's glow increases by about 10%. If such an outbreak occurs on the Sun, then the dose of radiation that the Earth will receive will be fatal to all the flora and fauna of our planet.
New stars flare up every year. During flashes, a lot of neutrinos are released. Flaming stars (“explosions of stars”) were first studied by the Mexican astronomer G. Aro. He discovered quite a lot of such objects, for example, in the association of Orion, Pleiades, Cygnus, Gemini, Manger, Hydra. This was also observed in the galaxy M51 (“Whirlpool”) in 1994, in the Large Magellanic Cloud in 1987. In the middle of the 19th century, an explosion occurred on η Kiel. He left a trail in the form of a nebula. In 1997 there was a surge of activity in the Whale World. The maximum was on February 15 (from +3.4 to +2.4 magnitude). The star burned red-orange for a month.
A flaring star (a small red dwarf with a mass 10 times smaller than the sun) was observed at the Crimean Astronomical Observatory in 1994-1997 (R.E. Gershberg). Over 25 recent years 4 superflares were recorded in our Galaxy. For example, a very powerful outburst of a star near the center of the Galaxy in the constellation Sagittarius occurred on December 27, 2004. It lasted 0.2 seconds. and its energy was 10 46 erg (for comparison: the energy of the Sun is 10 33 erg.).
In three images (photo. 5.7. "Binary system XZ Taurus") taken in different time Hubble (1995, 1998 and 2000), first filmed the explosion of a star. The images show the movement of clouds of glowing gas ejected by the young binary system XZ Taurus. In fact, this is the base of the jet ("jet") - a phenomenon typical of newborn stars. The gas is ejected by a magnetized disk of gas invisible in the picture, rotating around one or both stars. The ejection velocity is about 150 km/s. It is believed that the ejection exists for about 30 years, its size is about 600 astronomical units (96 billion kilometers).
The images show dramatic changes between 1995 and 1998. In 1995, the edge of the cloud had the same brightness as the middle. In 1998, the edge suddenly became brighter. This increase in brightness, paradoxically, is due to the cooling of the hot gas at the edge: cooling enhances the recombination of electrons and atoms, and light is emitted during recombination. Those. when heated, energy is expended on the separation of electrons from atoms, and when cooled, this energy is released in the form of light. This is the first time astronomers have seen such an effect.
Another photo shows another burst of stars. (Photo. 5.8. "Double star He2-90").
The object is located 8000 light years away in the constellation Centaurus. According to scientists, He2-90 is a pair of old stars masquerading as one young one. One of them is a swollen red giant, losing the substance of the outer layers. This material is collected in an accretion disk around a compact companion, which, in all likelihood, is a white dwarf. These stars are not visible in the images due to the dust lane covering them.
A photo. 5.7. Double system XZ Taurus.
The upper image shows narrow lumpy jets (diagonal beams are an optical effect). The speed of the jets is about 300 km/s. The clumps are emitted at roughly 100 year intervals and may be related to some kind of quasi-periodic instability in the accretion disk. The jets of very young stars behave in the same way. The moderate speed of the jets speaks in favor of the fact that the companion is a white dwarf. But gamma radiation detected from the He2-90 region indicates that it could be a neutron star or a black hole. But the gamma source could just be a coincidence. The lower image shows a dark dust lane cutting through the diffuse glow from the object. This is an edge-on dust disk—it is not an accretion disk, as it is several orders of magnitude larger. Lumps of gas are visible in the lower left and upper right corners. It is assumed that they were thrown out 30 years ago.
A photo. 5.8. Double star He2-90
According to G. Aro, a flare is a short-term event in which the star does not die, but continues to exist*.
*This remark is very important.
All outbursts of stars have 2 stages (it has been noticed that especially in faint stars):
- a few minutes before the outburst, there is a decrease in activity and luminosity (the author assumes that the ultimate compression of the star occurs at this time);
- then the flash itself follows (the author assumes that at this time the star interacts with the central star around which it rotates).
The brightness of a star during a flash increases very quickly (in 10-30 seconds), and decreases slowly (in 0.5-1 hour). And although the energy of the star's radiation in this case is only 1-2% of the total energy of the star's radiation, the traces of the explosion are visible far in the Galaxy.
In the interiors of stars, two mechanisms of energy transfer are necessarily constantly working: absorption and excretion. . This suggests that the star lives a full life, where there is an exchange of matter and energy with other space objects.
In rapidly rotating stars, spots appear near the pole of the star, and its activity occurs precisely at the poles. Pole activity in optical pulsars was discovered by Russian SOA scientists (G.M.Beskin, V.N.Komarova, V.V.Neustroev, V.L.Plokhotnichenko). Cool single red dwarfs have sunspots closer to the equator .
In this regard, it can be assumed that the colder the star, the more its stellar activity (SA) manifests itself closer to the equator*.
*The same thing happens in the Sun. It has been observed that the higher solar Activity(SA), the spots on the Sun at the beginning of the cycle appear closer to its poles; then the spots begin to gradually slide towards the equator of the Sun, where they disappear completely. When SA is minimal, sunspots appear closer to the equator (Ch. 7).
Observations of flare stars have shown that during a flare on a star, a luminous gaseous geometrically even ring is formed along the periphery of its “aura”. Its diameter is tens or more times larger than the star itself. Outside the "aura" the substance ejected by the star is not carried out. It makes the border of this zone glow. A similar thing was observed from Hubble images (from 1997 to 2000) by scientists at the Harvard Astrophysical Center (USA) during the explosion of supernova SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The shock wave traveled at a speed of about 4500 km/s. and, having stumbled upon this border, she was arrested and shone like a small star. The glow of the gas ring, heated to a temperature of tens of millions of degrees, continued for several years. Also, the wave at the boundary collided with dense clumps (planets or stars), causing them to glow in the optical range. . In the field of this ring, 5 bright spots stood out, scattered around the ring. These spots were much smaller than the glow of the central star. Since 1987, many telescopes of the world have been observing the evolution of this star (see Chapter 3.3. photo "Supernova explosion in the Large Magellanic Cloud 1987").
The author assumes that the ring around the star is the boundary of the sphere of influence of this star. It is a kind of "aura" of this star. A similar boundary is observed in all galaxies. This sphere is also similar to Hill's sphere near the Earth*.
* "Aura" of the Solar System is equal to 600 AU. (American data).
Luminous spots on the ring may be stars or star clusters belonging to a given star. The glow is their response to the star's explosion.
The fact that stars and galaxies change their state before the collapse was well confirmed by the observations of American astronomers of the GRB 980326 galaxy. So in March 1998, the brightness of this galaxy first decreased by 4m after the outburst, and then stabilized. In December 1998 (after 9 months), the galaxy completely disappeared, and instead of it something else was shining (like a “black hole”).
The scientist astronomer M. Giampapa (USA), having studied 106 sun-like stars in the M67 cluster of the Cancer constellation, whose age coincides with the age of the Sun, found that 42% of the stars are active. This activity is either higher or lower than the activity of the Sun. Approximately 12% of stars have an extremely low level of magnetic activity (similar to the Sun's Maunder Minimum - see Chap. 7.5 below). The other 30% of the stars, on the contrary, are in a state of very high activity. If we compare these data with the SA parameters, it turns out that our Sun is now most likely in a state of moderate activity * .
*This remark is very important for further reasoning.
Cycles of stellar activity (SA) . Some stars have a certain cyclicity in their activity. So the Crimean scientists have revealed that a hundred of stars observed for 30 years have a periodicity in activity (R.E. Gershberg, 1994-1997). Of these, 30 stars belonged to the “K” group, which had periods of about 11 years. Over the past 20 years, a cycle of 7.1-7.5 years has been revealed for a single red dwarf (with a mass of 0.3 solar masses). The activity cycles of stars in 8.3 were also revealed; 50; one hundred; 150 and 294 days. For example, a flare near a star in New Cassiopeia (in April 1996), according to the electronic network of observations of variable stars VSNET, had a maximum brightness (+8.1m) and flared up with a clear periodicity - once every 2 months. One star in the constellation Cygnus was found to have activity cycles: 5.6 days; 8.3 days; 50 days; 100 days; 150 days; 294 days. But the cycle of 50 days was most clearly manifested (E.A. Karitskaya, INASAN).
Studies by the Russian scientist V.A. Kotov showed that 50% of all stars oscillate in the phase of the Sun, and 50% of the remaining other stars are in antiphase. This oscillation of all the stars itself is equal to 160 minutes. That is, the pulsation of the Universe, the scientist concludes, is equal to 160 minutes.
Hypotheses about explosions of stars. There are several hypotheses about the causes of star explosions. Here are some of them:
- G. Seeliger (Germany): the star, moving along its path, flies into the gas nebula and heats up. The nebula, which is pierced by the star, is also warming up. This is the total radiation of friction-heated stars and nebulae that we see;
- N. Lockyer (England): the stars do not play any role. Explosions are formed as a result of the collision of two meteoric streams flying towards;
- S. Arrhenius (Sweden): there is a collision of two stars. Before the meeting, both stars cooled down and went out, and therefore are not visible. The energy of movement turned into heat - an explosion;
- A.Belopolsky (Russia): two stars are moving towards each other (one of large mass with a dense hydrogen atmosphere, the other is hot with a smaller mass). A hot star goes around a cold one along a parabola, warming up its atmosphere with its movement. After that, the stars diverge again, but now both are moving in the same direction. Shine decreases, “new” goes out;
- G. Gamov (Russia), V. Grotrian (Germany): the flare is caused by thermonuclear processes occurring in the central part of the star;
- I.Kopylov, E.Mustel (Russia): this is a young star, which then calms down and becomes an ordinary star located on the so-called main sequence;
- E. Milne (England): the internal forces of the star itself cause an explosion, its outer shell is torn off the star and is carried away at high speed. And the star itself is compressed, turning into a white dwarf. This happens with any star at the “sunset” of stellar evolution. The outburst of a nova indicates the death of a star. This is natural;
- N. Kozyrev, V. Ambartsumyan (Russia): the explosion occurs not in the central part of the star, but on the periphery, not deep under the surface. Explosions play a very important role in the evolution of the Galaxy;
- B.Vorontsov-Velyaminov (Russia): a new star is an intermediate stage in stellar evolution, when a hot blue giant, shedding excess mass, turns into a blue or white dwarf.
- E. Schatzman (France), E. Kopal (Czechoslovakia): all emerging (new) stars are binary systems.
- W. Klinkerfuss (Germany): two stars revolve around each other in very elongated orbits. At a minimum distance (periastr), powerful tides, eruptions, and eruptions occur. A new one pops up.
- W. Heggins (England): close passage of stars from each other. There are false tides, flashes, eruptions. We observe them;
- G. Haro (Mexico): an outbreak is a short-term event in which the star does not die, but continues to exist.
- There is an opinion that in the course of the evolution of stars, its stable equilibrium can be disturbed. As long as the interior of a star is rich in hydrogen, its energy is released due to the nuclear reactions of converting hydrogen into helium. As the hydrogen burns out, the core of the star shrinks. A new cycle of nuclear reactions begins in its depths - the synthesis of carbon nuclei from helium nuclei. The core of the star heats up and it is the turn for thermonuclear fusion of heavier elements. This chain of thermonuclear reactions ends with the formation of iron nuclei, which accumulate in the center of the star. Further compression of the star will increase the temperature of the core to billions of Kelvins. In this case, the decay of iron nuclei into helium nuclei, protons, and neutrons begins. More than 50% of the energy is spent on luminescence, the release of neutrinos. All this requires enormous energy costs, in which the interior of the star is greatly cooled. The star begins to shrink catastrophically. Its volume decreases, the compression stops.
During the explosion, a powerful shock wave is formed, which throws its outer shell (5-10% of matter) from the star *.
“Black cycle" of stars (L. Konstantinovskaya). According to the author, the last four versions (E. Shatzman, E. Kopal, V. Klinkerfus, W. Heggins, G. Aro) are the closest to the truth.
Struve noticed that the colors of the stars differ the more, the greater the difference in the brightness of the constituent stars and the greater their mutual distance. Single stars are only white or yellow. Binary stars occur in all colors of the spectrum. White dwarfs make up 2.3-2.5% of all stars.
As mentioned above, the color of a star depends on its temperature. Why does the color of a star change? It can be assumed, that:
- when the “satellite star” moves away from its central star in a globular cluster (in the apogalactia of the orbit), the “satellite star” expands, slows down its rotation, brightens (“whitens”), dissipates energy and cools down;
- when approaching the central star (perigalactium of the orbit), the satellite star contracts, accelerates its rotation, darkens (“blackens”) and, concentrating its energy, heats up.
The change in the color of the star must occur according to the law of the spectral decomposition of white:
- the star expands from dark burgundy to red, then to orange, yellow, green-white and white;
- the contraction of the star goes from white to blue, then to blue, dark blue, purple and “black”.
If we take into account the laws of dialectics, that any star evolves “from a simple state to a complex one”, then there is no star death, but there is a constant transition from one state to another through pulsation (explosions).
Scientists have found that during the collapse of a star (flare), its chemical composition: the atmosphere was greatly enriched with oxygen, magnesium, silicon, which synthesized the flash during a high-temperature thermonuclear explosion. Following this, heavy elements were born (G.Izraelyan, Spain) .
It can be assumed that during the pulsation of the star (expansion-compression), the “black” color of the star corresponds to the moment of maximum compression before the explosion. This should occur in binary systems when the star approaches the central star (perigalactium of the orbit). It is at this time that the interaction of the central star with the satellite star occurs, which generates an “explosion” of the satellite star and a pulsation of the central star. At this time, the star moves to another more distant orbit (to another more complex state). Such stars are most likely located in the so-called "black holes" of the Cosmos. It is in these zones that the appearance of a flaring star should be expected. These zones are critical (“black”) active points of the Cosmos.
« Black holes" - (according to modern concepts) this is how small, but heavy stars (with a large mass) are called. It is believed that they collect matter from the surrounding space. A black hole emits X-rays, so it is observable modern means. It is also believed that a disk of trapped matter is forming near the black hole. A black hole manifests itself when a star explodes in it. In this case, a burst of gamma radiation occurs for several seconds. It is assumed that the surface layers of the star explode and fly apart, and everything inside the star is compressed. Holes are usually found in pairs with a star. In photo 5.9. “Explosion of a star on February 24, 1987 in the Large Magellanic Cloud” shows a star a month before the explosion (photo A) and during the explosion (photo B).
A photo. 5.9. Explosion of a star on February 24, 1987 in the Large Magellanic Cloud
(A - star a month before the explosion; B - during the explosion)
At the same time, the first one shows the approach of three stars (shown by an arrow). Which one exploded is not exactly known. The distance of this star to us is 150 thousand sv. years old. For several hours of the star's activity, its luminosity increased by 2 magnitudes and continued to grow. By March, it reached the fourth magnitude, and then began to weaken. A similar supernova explosion, which would be observed with the naked eye, has not been observed since 1604.
In 1899, R. Thorburn Innes (1861-1933, England) published the first extensive catalog of double stars in the southern sky. It included 2140 pairs of stars, and the components of 450 of them were separated by an angular distance of less than 1 second of arc. It was Thorburn who discovered the closest star to us, Proxima Centauri.
5.10. Catalog of 88 constellations of the sky and their brightest stars.
| № | constellation name | * | S²deg² | Stars | Designation | The brightest stars in this constellation | ||
| Russian | latin | |||||||
| 1 | Andromeda | Andromeda | And | 0 | 720 | 100 | ab | MirachAlferatz (Sirrach) Alamak (Almak) |
| 2 | Twins | Gemini | Gem | 105 | 514 | 70 | ab | CastorPollux Teyat, Prior (Pass, Prop) Teyat Posterior (Dirach) |
| 3 | Big Dipper | Ursa Major | GMa | 160 | 1280 | 125 | ab | DubheMerak Megrets (Kaffa) Alcaid (Benetnash) Alula Australis Alula Borealis Thania Australis Tanya Borealis |
| 4 | Large | Canis Major | CMa | 105 | 380 | 80 | ad | Sirius (Vacation) Wesen Mirzam (Murzim) |
| 5 | Scales | Libra | Lib | 220 | 538 | 50 | ab | Zuben Elgenubi (Kiffa Australis) Zuben Elshemali (Kiffa Borealis) Zuben Khakrabi Zuben Elakrab Zuben Elakribi |
| 6 | Aquarius | Aquarius | Aqr | 330 | 980 | 90 | ab | SadalmelekSadalsuud (Garden of Elzud) Skat (Sheat) Sadakhbiya |
| 7 | Auriga | Auriga | Aur | 70 | 657 | 90 | ab | Chapel Menkalinan Hassaleh |
| 8 | Wolf | Lupus | loop | 230 | 334 | 70 | ||
| 9 | Bootes | boots | Boo | 210 | 907 | 90 | ab | Arcturus Merez (Neckar) Miraak (Isar, Pulcherima) Mufrid (Mifrid) Seguin (Haris) Alcalurops princeps |
| 10 | Veronica's hair | Coma Berenices | Com | 190 | 386 | 50 | a | Diadem |
| 11 | Crow | Corvus | crv | 190 | 184 | 15 | ab | Alhita (Alhiba) Kraz Algorab |
| 12 | Hercules | Hercules | Her | 250 | 1225 | 140 | ab | Ras Algeti Korneforos (Rutilik) Marsik (Marfak) |
| 13 | Hydra | Hydra | Hya | 160 | 1300 | 130 | a | Alphard (Heart of the Hydra) |
| 14 | Pigeon | Columba | Col | 90 | 270 | 40 | ab | FactVazn |
| 15 | Hounds Dogs | Canes Venatici | CVn | 185 | 465 | 30 | ab | Karl Hara's Heart |
| 16 | Virgo | Virgo | Vir | 190 | 1290 | 95 | ab | Spica (Dana) Zawiyava (Zaviyava) Vindemiatrix Khambalia |
| 17 | Dolphin | Delphinus | Del | 305 | 189 | 30 | ab | SualokinRotanev Geneb El Delfini |
| 18 | The Dragon | Draco | Dra | 220 | 1083 | 80 | ab | TubanRastaban (Alwaid) Etamin, Eltanin Nodus 1 (Nod) |
| 19 | Unicorn | Monoceros | Mon | 110 | 482 | 85 | ||
| 20 | Altar | Ara | Ara | 250 | 237 | 30 | ||
| 21 | Painter | Pictor | Pic | 90 | 247 | 30 | ||
| 22 | Giraffe | camelopardalis | Cam | 70 | 757 | 50 | ||
| 23 | Crane | Grus | Gru | 330 | 366 | 30 | a | Alnair |
| 24 | Hare | Lepus | Lep | 90 | 290 | 40 | ab | ArnebNihal |
| 25 | Ophiuchus | Ophiuchus | Oh | 250 | 948 | 100 | ab | Ras AlhagTselbalrai Sabik (Alsabik) Yed Prior Yed Posterior Sinistra |
| 26 | Snake | Serpens | Ser | 230 | 637 | 60 | a | Unuk Alhaya (Elhaya, Serpent's Heart) |
| 27 | golden fish | Dorado | Dor | 85 | 179 | 20 | ||
| 28 | Indian | Indian | Ind | 310 | 294 | 20 | ||
| 29 | Cassiopeia | Cassiopeja | Cas | 15 | 598 | 90 | a | Shedar (Shedir) |
| 30 | Centaur (Centaurus) | Centaurus | Cen | 200 | 1060 | 150 | a | Toliman (Rigil Centaurus) Hadar (Agena) |
| 31 | Keel | carina | car | 105 | 494 | 110 | a | Canopus (Sukhel) Miaplacid |
| 32 | Whale | Cetus | Set | 20 | 1230 | 100 | a | Menkar (Menkab) Difda (Deneb, Kantos) Deneb Algenubi Kaffaljidhma Baten Kaitos |
| 33 | Capricorn | Capricornus | Cap | 315 | 414 | 50 | a | Algedi Sheddi (Deneb Aljedi) |
| 34 | Compass | Pyxis | Pyx | 125 | 221 | 25 | ||
| 35 | Stern | Puppies | Pup | 110 | 673 | 140 | z | Naos Asmidisk |
| 36 | Swan | Cygnus | Cyg | 310 | 804 | 150 | a | Deneb (Aridif) Albireo Azelfafaga |
| 37 | a lion | Leo | Leo | 150 | 947 | 70 | a | Regulus (Kalb) Denebola Algeba (Algeiba) Adhafera Algenubi |
| 38 | Flying fish | Volans | Vol | 105 | 141 | 20 | ||
| 39 | Lyra | Lyra | Lyr | 280 | 286 | 45 | a | Vega |
| 40 | Chanterelle | Vulpecula | Vul | 290 | 268 | 45 | ||
| 41 | Ursa Minor | Ursa Minor | UMi | 256 | 20 | a | Polyarnaya (Kinosura) | |
| 42 | Small Horse | Equuleus | Equ | 320 | 72 | 10 | a | Kitalfa |
| 43 | Small | Leo Minor | LMi | 150 | 232 | 20 | ||
| 44 | Small | Canis Minor | CMi | 110 | 183 | 20 | a | Procyon (Elgomaiza) |
| 45 | Microscope | microscopium | Mic | 320 | 210 | 20 | ||
| 46 | Fly | Musca | Mus | 210 | 138 | 30 | ||
| 47 | Pump | Antlia | Ant | 155 | 239 | 20 | ||
| 48 | Square | Norma | Nor | 250 | 165 | 20 | ||
| 49 | Aries | Aries | Ani | 30 | 441 | 50 | a | Gamal (Hamal) Mezartim |
| 50 | Octant | Octans | Oct | 330 | 291 | 35 | ||
| 51 | Eagle | Aquila | Aql | 290 | 652 | 70 | a | Altair Deneb Okab Deneb Okab (cepheid) |
| 52 | Orion | Orion | Ori | 80 | 594 | 120 | a | Betelgeuse Rigel (Algebar) Bellatrix (Alnajid) Alnilam Alnitak Meissa (Heca, Alheca) |
| 53 | Peacock | Pavo | pav | 280 | 378 | 45 | a | Peacock |
| 54 | Sail | Vela | Vel | 140 | 500 | 110 | g | regor Alsuhail |
| 55 | Pegasus | Pegasus | peg | 340 | 1121 | 100 | a | Markab (Mekrab) Algenib Salma (Kerb) |
| 56 | Perseus | Perseus | Per | 45 | 615 | 90 | a | Algenib (Mirfak) Algol (Gorgon) Kapool (Misam) |
| 57 | Bake | Forrnax | For | 50 | 398 | 35 | ||
| 58 | Bird of paradise | Apus | Aps | 250 | 206 | 20 | ||
| 59 | Cancer | Cancer | cne | 125 | 506 | 60 | a | Akubens (Sertan) Azellus australis Azellus borealis Presepa (Crèche) |
| 60 | Cutter | Caelum | Cae | 80 | 125 | 10 | ||
| 61 | Fish | Pisces | psc | 15 | 889 | 75 | a | Alrisha (Okda, Kaitain, Resha) |
| 62 | Lynx | Lynx | Lyn | 120 | 545 | 60 | ||
| 63 | Northern Crown | Corona Borealis | CrB | 230 | 179 | 20 | a | Alpheka (Gemma, Gnosia) |
| 64 | Sextant | Sextans | sex | 160 | 314 | 25 | ||
| 65 | Net | Reticulum | Ret | 80 | 114 | 15 | ||
| 66 | Scorpion | Scorpius | sco | 240 | 497 | 100 | a | Antares (Heart of the Scorpion) Akrab (Elyakrab) Lesath (Lezah, Lezat) Graffias Alakrab Graffias |
| 67 | Sculptor | sculptor | scl | 365 | 475 | 30 | ||
| 68 | table mountain | Mensa | Men | 85 | 153 | 15 | ||
| 69 | Arrow | Sagitta | Sge | 290 | 80 | 20 | a | sham |
| 70 | Sagittarius | Sagittarius | Sgr | 285 | 867 | 115 | a | Alrami Arkab Prior Arkab Posterior Kaus Australis Caus Medius Kaus Borealis Albaldah Altalimin Manubrius Terebell |
| 71 | Telescope | Telescopium | Tel | 275 | 252 | 30 | ||
| 72 | calf | Taurus | Tau | 60 | 797 | 125 | a | Aldebaran (Palilia) Alcyone Asteropa |
| 73 | Triangle | Triangulum | Tri | 30 | 132 | 15 | a | Metals |
| 74 | Toucan | Tucana | Tuc | 355 | 295 | 25 | ||
| 75 | Phoenix | Phoenix | Phe | 15 | 469 | 40 | ||
| 76 | Chameleon | Chamaeleon | Cha | 130 | 132 | 20 | ||
| 77 | Cepheus (Kefey) | Cepheus | cep | 330 | 588 | 60 | a | Alderamin Alrai (Errai) |
| 78 | Compass | Circinus | cir | 225 | 93 | 20 | ||
| 79 | Clock | Horologium | Hor | 45 | 249 | 20 | ||
| 80 | Bowl | crater | crt | 170 | 282 | 20 | a | Alkes |
| 81 | Shield | Scutum | Sct | 275 | 109 | 20 | ||
| 82 | eridanus | Eridanus | Eri | 60 | 1138 | 100 | a | Achernar |
| 83 | Southern Hydra | Hydrus | Hyi | 65 | 243 | 20 | ||
| 84 | South Crown | Corona Australis | CrA | 285 | 128 | 25 | ||
| 85 | Southern Fish | Piscis Austrinus | PsA | 330 | 245 | 25 | a | Fomalhaut |
| 86 | South Cross | Crux | cru | 205 | 68 | 30 | a | Acrux Mimosa (Bekruks) |
| 87 | Southern Triangle | Triangulum Australe | Tra | 240 | 110 | 20 | a | Atria (Metallah) |
| 88 | Lizard | Lacerta | Lac | 335 | 201 | 35 | ||
Notes: Zodiac constellations are in bold.
* Approximate heliocentric longitude of the center of the constellation.
It is very logical to assume that the color of the stars in a globular cluster also depends on their position in the orbit around their central star. It was noticed (see above) that all bright stars are single, that is, they are far from each other. And the darker ones, as a rule, are double or triple, that is, they are close to each other.
It can be assumed that the color of the stars changes according to the “rainbow”. The next cycle ends in perigalactia - the maximum compression of the star and black color. There is a “jump of quantity into quality”. Then the cycle repeats. But during pulsation, the condition is always observed - the next compression does not occur in the initial (small) state, but in the process of development, the volume and mass of the star constantly increase by a certain amount. Its pressure and temperature also change (increase).
Findings. Based on all of the above, it can be argued that:
explosions on the stars: regular, ordered both in space and in time. This is a new stage in the evolution of stars;
explosions in the galaxy should be expected:
- in the "black holes" of the Galaxy;
- in groups of double (triple, etc.) stars, that is, when the stars approach.
- the spectrum of an exploding star (one or more) should be dark (from dark blue-violet to black).
5.11. Star-Earth Connections
A hundred years ago, solar-terrestrial links (STLs) were recognized. It is time to pay attention to star-terrestrial communications (SZS). So the outbreak of 1998 on August 27 of a star (which is located at a distance of several thousand parsecs from the Sun) influenced the Earth's magnetosphere.
Metals are particularly sensitive to starbursts. For example, the spectra of neutral helium (helium-2) and metals (R.E. Gershberg, 1997, Crimea) reacted to the flare of a star of a single red dwarf (with a mass less than that of the Sun) in 15-30 minutes.
18 hours before the optical detection of a supernova explosion in February 1987 in the Large Magellanic Cloud, neutrino detectors on Earth (in Italy, Russia, Japan, the USA) noted several bursts of neutrino radiation with an energy of 20-30 megaelectronvolts. Radiation in the ultraviolet and radio ranges is also noted.
Calculations show that the energy of flares (explosions) of stars is such that the flare of a star such as the star Foramen at a distance of 100 sv. years from the Sun will destroy life on Earth.