This war began at the initiative of Iran. His army consisted of 140 thousand mounted soldiers and 60 thousand infantry, but it was poorly armed and equipped. The Russian Caucasian army was led at first by General I.V. Gudovich. In a short time, his troops managed to conquer the Ganja, Sheki, Karabakh, Shirvan, Cuban and Baku khanates. However, after the unsuccessful assault on the city of Erivan (Yerevan) in 1808, General A.P. Tormasov was appointed commander. He won several more victories.
In 1810... the Persians and Turks entered into an alliance against Russia, which, however, did little to help them. In 1812... Russian troops of General PS Kotlyarevsky, consisting of 2 thousand people, attacked a 10-thousand-strong Persian army led by Crown Prince Abbas Mirza and put it to flight, after which they occupied Arkevan and Lankaran. October 24, 1813... was signed Gulistan Peace Treaty... The Iranian Shah recognized the territories of Georgia, Dagestan, Shirvan, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Abkhazia and Guria for Russia. He was forced to conclude a military alliance with Russia and grant her the right to freely sail in the Caspian. The result of the war was a serious expansion and strengthening of the southern borders of Russia.
The rupture of the Russian-French union.
Alexander unsuccessfully demanded that Napoleon refuse to support the intentions of the Poles to annex the lands of Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine to the Duchy of Warsaw. Finally in February 1811 Napoleon struck another blow to his " dear ally"- annexed to France the Duchy of Oldenburg in Germany, the crown prince of which was married to Alexander's sister Catherine. In April 1811, the Franco-Russian alliance broke up. An intensive preparation of both countries began for the inevitable war.
Patriotic War of 1812 (briefly)
The cause of the war was the violation by Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia actually abandoned the blockade of England, accepting ships with British goods under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg, and Napoleon considered Alexander's demand to withdraw French troops from Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw insulting. A military clash between the two great powers was becoming inevitable.
June 12, 1812... Napoleon at the head of an army of 600,000, crossing the river. Neman invaded Russia. With an army of about 240 thousand people, the Russian troops were forced to retreat in front of the French armada. On August 3, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies joined up near Smolensk, and the battle was fought. Napoleon failed to win a complete victory. In August, M.I. Kutuzov. Kutuzov decided to fight in the vicinity of the village of Borodino. A good position was chosen for the troops. The right flank was defended by the Koloch River, the left was defended by earthen fortifications - flashes, they were defended by the troops of P.I.Bagration. In the center stood the troops of General N.N. Raevsky and artillery. Their positions were covered by the Shevardinsky redoubt.
Napoleon intended to break through the Russian formation from the left flank, and then direct all efforts to the center and push Kutuzov's army to the river. On Bagration's flushes, he directed 400 guns. The French launched 8 attacks, which began at 5 o'clock in the morning, suffering huge losses in them. Only by 4 o'clock in the afternoon the French managed to advance in the center, temporarily capturing Raevsky's batteries. In the midst of the battle, a desperate raid behind French lines was made by the lancers of the 1st cavalry corps F.P. Uvarov and the Cossacks of Ataman M.I. Platova. This restrained the attacking impulse of the French.
The battle ended late in the evening. The troops suffered huge losses: the French - 58 thousand people, the Russians - 44 thousand.
September 1, 1812... at a meeting in Fili, Kutuzov decides to leave Moscow. The retreat was necessary to preserve the army and further the struggle for the independence of the Fatherland.
Napoleon entered Moscow on September 2 and stayed there until October 7, 1812, awaiting peace proposals. During this time, most of the city was destroyed by fires. Bonaparte's attempts to make peace with Alexander I were unsuccessful.
After leaving Moscow in October, Napoleon tried to go to Kaluga and spend the winter in a province not ravaged by the war. On October 12, near Maloyaroslavets, Napoleon's army was defeated and began to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road, driven by frost and hunger. Pursuing the retreating French, Russian troops destroyed their formations in parts. The final defeat of Napoleon's army took place in the battle at the river. Berezina November 14-16. Only 30 thousand French soldiers were able to leave Russia. On December 25, Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War.
Nicholas I
Emperor Nicholas 1 was born on June 25 (July 6), 1796. He was the third son of Paul 1 and Maria Feodorovna. Received a good education, but did not recognize the humanities. He was well versed in the art of war and fortification. He had a good command of engineering. However, despite this, the king was not loved in the army. Severe corporal punishment and coldness led to the fact that the nickname of Nicholas 1 - Nikolai Palkin - was fixed in the soldier's environment.
Alexandra Fedorovna- the wife of Nicholas 1, who has amazing beauty, - became the mother of the future emperor Alexander 2.
Nicholas 1 came to the throne after the death of his elder brother Alexander 1. Constantine, the second contender for the throne, renounced his rights during the life of his elder brother. Nicholas 1 did not know about this and first swore allegiance to Constantine. Later this short period will be called the Interregnum. Although the manifesto on the accession to the throne of Nicholas 1 was issued on December 13 (25), 1825, legally the reign of Nicholas 1 began on November 19 (December 1). And the very first day was darkened by the Decembrist uprising on Senate Square, which was suppressed, and the leaders were executed in 1826. But Tsar Nicholas 1 saw the need to reform the social system. He decided to give the country clear laws, while relying on the bureaucracy, since the credibility of the nobility was undermined.
The internal policy of Nicholas I was distinguished by extreme conservatism. The slightest manifestation of free thought was suppressed. He defended the autocracy with all his might. Secret Chancery under the leadership of Benckendorff, she was engaged in political investigations.
The reforms of Nicholas 1 were notable for their limitations. The legislation was streamlined. Under the leadership of Speransky, the publication of the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire began. Kiselev carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. Peasants were given land when they moved to uninhabited areas, medical posts were built in villages, innovations in agricultural technology were introduced. In 1839 - 1843... a financial reform was also carried out, which established the ratio between the silver ruble and the banknote. But the question of serfdom remained unresolved.
The foreign policy of Nicholas 1 pursued the same goals as the domestic policy. During the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia fought against the revolution not only within the country, but also outside its borders.
Nicholas 1 died on March 2 (February 18), 1855 in St. Petersburg, and his son, Alexander 2, ascended the throne.
Brief biography of Alexander 2
The internal policy of Alexander 2 was strikingly different from the policy of Nicholas 1 and was marked by many reforms. The most important of them was the peasant reform of Alexander II, according to which serfdom was abolished in 1861, on February 19. This reform caused an urgent need for further changes in many Russian institutions and entailed the implementation of bourgeois reforms by Alexander 2.
In 1864... by the decree of Alexander II, a zemstvo reform was carried out. Its goal was to create a system of local self-government, for which the institute of county zemstvo was established.
In 1870... the city reform was carried out, which positively influenced the development of industry and cities. City councils and councils, which were representative bodies of power, were established.
The judicial reform of Alexander II, carried out in 1864, was marked by the introduction of European legal norms, but some of the features of the previously existing judicial system were retained, for example, a special court for officials.
Military reform of Alexander 2. Its result is universal conscription, as well as standards of army organization close to European standards.
In the course of the financial reform of Alexander II, the State Bank was created, the birth of official accounting took place.
The foreign policy of Alexander II was very successful. During his reign, Russia regained its military power, which had been shaken under Nicholas 1.
The great reforms of Alexander II were interrupted by his death. March 1, 1881 On that day, Tsar Alexander II intended to sign a project of large-scale economic and administrative reforms Loris-Melikova. The attempt on the life of Alexander II, committed by the People's Will Grinevitsky, led to his severe injury and the death of the emperor.
Alexander 3 - the politics of counterreforms (briefly)
April 29, 1881 - Manifesto, in which the emperor declared his will to preserve the foundations of autocracy and thereby eliminated the hopes of democrats for the transformation of the regime into a constitutional monarchy.
Alexander III replaced liberal leaders in government with hardliners. The concept of counterreforms was developed by its chief ideologist K.N. Pobedonostsev.
To strengthen the autocratic system, the system of zemstvo self-government was subjected to changes. In the hands of the zemstvo chiefs, the judicial and administrative powers were united. They had unlimited power over the peasants.
Published in 1890"Regulations on zemstvo institutions" strengthened the role of the nobility in zemstvo institutions and the administration's control over them. The representation of landowners in zemstvos increased significantly by introducing a high property qualification.
In 1881... the "Regulation on measures to preserve state security and public peace" was issued, which provided numerous repressive rights to the local administration (to declare a state of emergency, exile without trial, bring to a military court, close educational institutions). This law was used until the reforms of 1917 and became a tool for combating the revolutionary and liberal movement.
In 1892... a new "City Regulation" was issued, which infringed on the independence of the city government. The government included them in common system state institutions, thereby putting it under control.
Alexander 3 by law of 1893 prohibited the sale and mortgage of peasant lands, nullifying all the successes of previous years.
In 1884... Alexander undertook a university counter-reform, the purpose of which was to educate the intelligentsia obedient to the authorities. The new university charter severely limited the autonomy of universities, placing them under the control of trustees.
Under Alexander III, the development of factory legislation began, which held back the initiative of the owners of the enterprise and excluded the possibility of workers fighting for their rights.
The results of the counterreforms of Alexander III are contradictory: the country managed to achieve industrial growth, refrain from participating in wars, but at the same time social unrest and tension increased.
Emperor Nicholas II (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov)
Nicholas 2 (May 18, 1868 - July 17, 1918) - the last Russian emperor, son of Alexander 3.
May 26, 1896... the coronation of Nicholas 2 and his wife took place. On holidays, a terrible event takes place, called "Khodynki", as a result of which 1282 people died in a stampede.
During the reign of Nicholas II, Russia experienced a rapid economic recovery. The agrarian sector is strengthening - the country becomes the main exporter of agricultural products in Europe, a stable gold currency is introduced. The industry was actively developing: cities grew, enterprises were built, railways... Nicholas II was a reformer, he introduced a rationed day for the workers, provided them with insurance, carried out reforms in the army and navy. The emperor supported the development of culture and science in Russia.
But, despite significant improvements in the country, there were popular unrest. In January 1905, the first Russian revolution took place, the impetus for which was "Bloody Sunday". As a result, on October 17, 1905, a manifesto "On the improvement of state order" was adopted. It talked about civil liberties. A parliament was created, which included the State Duma and the State Council. On June 3 (16), 1907, the "Third June coup" took place, which changed the rules for elections to the Duma.
In 1914, the First World War broke out, as a result of which the situation inside the country worsened. Failures in battles undermined the authority of Tsar Nicholas 2. In February 1917, an uprising arose in Petrograd, which reached grandiose proportions. On March 2, 1917, fearing mass bloodshed, Nicholas II signed an act of abdication.
On March 9, 1917, the interim government arrested the entire Romanov family and sent them to Tsarskoe Selo. In August they were transported to Tobolsk, and in April 1918 to their last destination - Yekaterinburg. On the night of July 16-17, the Romanovs were taken to basement, read out the death sentence and executed him. After a thorough investigation, it was determined that none of the royal family failed to escape.
Russia in the first world war
The First World War was the result of the contradictions that arose between states Triple alliance(Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and the Entente (Russia, England, France). At the heart of these contradictions was the conflict between England and Germany, which included economic, naval and colonial claims. There were disputes between France and Germany over the regions of Alsace and Lorraine that had been torn away from France, as well as Germany's claims to the French colonies in Africa.
The reason for the start of the war was the murder in Sarajevo on June 25, 1914, of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. On August 19, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia.
Military operations in Europe were divided into two fronts: Western (in France and Belgium) and Eastern - Russian. Russian troops operated on the North-Western Front (East Prussia, the Baltic States, Poland) and the South-West (Western Ukraine, Transcarpathia). Russia entered the war, not having time to complete the rearmament of its troops.
Successful operations were carried out against German troops near Warsaw and Lodz.
In the autumn of 1914... Turkey took the side of the Triple Alliance. The opening of the Caucasian Front complicated the position of Russia to a large extent. The troops began to feel an acute need for ammunition, the situation was complicated by the helplessness of the allies.
In 1915... Germany, concentrating its main forces on Eastern Front, conducted a spring-summer offensive, as a result of which Russia lost all the conquests of 1914 and partly the territory of Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine and Western Belarus.
Germany transferred the main forces to the Western Front, where it began active battles near the fortress of Verdun.
Two offensive attempts - in Galicia and Belarus - ended in defeat. The Germans managed to capture the city of Riga and the Moonsund archipelago.
October 26, 1917... The 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the Decree on Peace, in which all the belligerents were invited to begin peace negotiations. On November 14, Germany agreed to hold negotiations, which began on November 20, 1917 in Brest-Litovsk.
An armistice was concluded, Germany put forward demands, which the delegation headed by Leonid Trotsky rejected and left Brest-Litovsk. To this the German troops responded with an offensive along the entire front. On February 18, the new Soviet delegation signed a peace treaty with Germany on even more difficult conditions.
Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, part of Belarus. The military presence of Soviet troops in the Baltic States, Finland, and Ukraine was ruled out.
Russia pledged to demobilize the army, hand over the ships of the Black Sea Fleet to Germany, and pay a monetary contribution.
February Revolution of 1917 (briefly)
The difficult economic situation pushed the government to involve the bourgeoisie in managing the economy. Numerous committees and bourgeois unions appeared, the purpose of which was to provide assistance to those who suffered during the war. The military-industrial committees dealt with issues of defense, fuel, transport, food, etc.
At the beginning of 1917... the level of the strike movement has reached critical point... In January-February 1917, 676,000 workers went on strike, presenting mainly (95% of the strikes) political demands. The growth of the workers 'and peasants' movement showed "the unwillingness of the lower classes to live in the old way."
February 14, 1917 a demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace demanding from the deputies The State Duma the creation of a "government of national salvation." At the same time, the Bolsheviks, having called on the workers for a one-day general strike, brought 90,000 people to the streets of Petrograd. The revolutionary explosion was facilitated by the introduction of ration cards for bread, which caused its rise in price and panic among the population. On February 22, Nicholas II left for Mogilev, where his Headquarters was located. On February 23, the Vyborg and Petrograd sides went on strike, and pogroms of bakeries and bakeries began in the city.
The success of the revolution began to depend on whose side the Petrograd garrison took. On the morning of February 26, the soldiers of the Volyn, Preobrazhensky and Lithuanian regiments joined the insurgents, they seized an armory and an arsenal.
The political prisoners held in the Kresty prison were released. Until the end of the day, most parts of the Petrograd garrison went over to the side of the rebels.
The corps under the command of N.I. Ivanov aimed at suppressing the demonstrators was disarmed on the outskirts of the city. Without waiting for support and realizing the senselessness of resistance, on February 28, all the other troops, led by the commander of the military district, General S.S. Khabalov, surrendered.
The rebels took control of the most important facilities in the city.
On the morning of February 27, members of the "working group" at the Central Military-Industrial Committee announced the creation of the "Provisional Executive Committee of Soviets of Workers' Deputies" and called for the election of representatives to the Soviet.
Nicholas II from Headquarters tried to break through to Tsarskoe Selo. In a situation of a developing revolutionary crisis, the emperor was forced to sign a manifesto to abdicate for himself and his young son Alexei in favor of his brother, Mikhail Alexeevich Romanov. However, Michael renounced the throne, saying that the question of power should be decided by the Constituent Assembly.
October Revolution of 1917 in Russia
The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917. This is one of the greatest events in the history of Russia, which resulted in fundamental changes in the position of all classes of society.
The October Revolution began for a number of compelling reasons:
- In 1914-1918... Russia was involved in the First World War, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no intelligent leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military production prevailed over consumer production, which led to a rise in prices and aroused the discontent of the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military means, longed for the continuation of hostilities.
- National conflicts.
- The intensity of the class struggle. The peasants who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land were ready for decisive action.
- The fall of the authority of the Provisional Government, which was unable to solve the problems of society.
- The Bolsheviks had a strong authoritative leader V.I. Lenin, who promised the people to solve all social problems.
- The prevalence of socialist ideas in society.
The Bolshevik Party achieved tremendous influence over the masses. In October, there were already 400 thousand people on their side. On October 16, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the revolution, by October 25, 1917, all key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, under the leadership of V.I. Lenin. They take over the Winter the palace and the interim government is arrested.
On October 26, the Decree on Peace and Land was adopted. At the congress, a Soviet government was formed, called the "Council people's commissars", Which included: Lenin himself (chairman), L.D. Trotsky (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs), I.V. Stalin (People's Commissar for National Affairs). The "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia" was introduced, which said that all people have equal rights to freedom and development, there is no longer a nation of masters and a nation of oppressed people.
As a result of the October revolution, the Bolsheviks won a victory, the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. The class society was abolished, the landlord's land was transferred to the hands of the peasants, and industrial buildings - factories, factories, mines - into the hands of the workers.
Civil war and intervention (briefly)
The civil war began in October 1917 and ended with the defeat of the White Army in the Far East in the fall of 1922. During this time, on the territory of Russia, various social classes and groups were using armed methods to resolve the contradictions that arose between them.
To the main reasons for the beginning civil war can be attributed:
Inconsistency between the goals of transforming society and the methods of achieving them,
Refusal to create a coalition government,
Dispersal of the Constituent Assembly,
Nationalization of land and industry,
Liquidation of commodity-money relations,
The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat,
Creation of a one-party system,
The danger of the revolution spreading to other countries,
Economic losses of Western powers during regime change in Russia.
In the spring of 1918... British, American and French troops landed in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. Into the limits Of the Far East the Japanese invaded, the British and the Americans landed in Vladivostok - the intervention began.
May 25th there was an uprising of the 45-thousandth Czechoslovak corps, which was transferred to Vladivostok for further dispatch to France. A well-armed and well-equipped corps stretched from the Volga to the Urals. In the conditions of the decayed Russian army, he became the only real force at that time.
In November-December 1918 British troops landed in Batumi and Novorossiysk, the French occupied Odessa. In these critical conditions, the Bolsheviks managed to create a combat-ready army by mobilizing people and resources and attracting military specialists of the tsarist army.
By the fall of 1918... The Red Army liberated the cities of Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan and Tsaritsyn.
The revolution in Germany had a significant impact on the course of the civil war. Admitting defeat in the First World War, Germany agreed to annul the Brest Peace Treaty and withdrew its troops from the territory of Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states.
The Entente began to withdraw its troops, providing only material assistance to the White Guards.
By April 1919... The Red Army managed to stop the troops of General A.V. Kolchak. Driven deep into Siberia, they were defeated by the beginning of 1920.
In the summer of 1919... General Denikin, having seized the Ukraine, moved to Moscow and approached Tula. The troops of the first cavalry army under the command of MV Frunze and Latvian riflemen were concentrated on the Southern Front. In the spring of 1920, near Novorossiysk, the Reds defeated the White Guards.
In the north of the country, the troops of General N.N. Yudenich fought against the Soviets. In the spring and autumn of 1919, they made two unsuccessful attempts to capture Petrograd.
In April 1920... the conflict began Soviet Russia with Poland. In May 1920, the Poles captured Kiev. The troops of the Western and Southwestern Fronts launched an offensive, but they failed to achieve the final victory.
Aware of the impossibility of continuing the war, in March 1921 the parties signed a peace treaty.
The war ended with the defeat of General P.N. Wrangel, who led the remnants of Denikin's troops in the Crimea. In 1920, the Far Eastern Republic was formed, and by 1922 it was finally liberated from the Japanese.
Formation of the USSR (briefly)
In 1918, the Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People was adopted, which proclaimed the principle of the future structure of the country. Its federal basis as a free union of republics assumed the right of nations to self-determination. Following this, the Soviet government recognized the independence of Finland and the statehood of Poland.
The collapse of the Russian Empire and the imperialist war led to the establishment Soviet power throughout Russia.
Proclaimed in 1918... The RSFSR occupied 92% of the entire territory and was the largest of all Soviet republics, where more than 100 ethnic groups and nationalities lived. It partly included the territories of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. In fact, until 1922, the Far Eastern Republic functioned in its likeness.
1920 to 1921... units of the Red Army, without visible resistance, occupied these states and established the laws of the RSFSR there. The Sovietization of Belarus was easy.
In Ukraine, it was not without a fight against the pro-Kiev course. The process of establishing Soviet power in the Central Asian Soviet People's Republics - Bukhara and Khorezm - was difficult. Detachments of the local armed opposition continued to resist there.
Most of the communist leaders of the republics were worried about the existence of "Great Russian chauvinism", so that the unification of the republics into a single whole would not become the creation of a new empire. This problem was perceived especially painfully in Georgia and Ukraine.
Powerful factors in the unification of the republics were the unity and rigidity of the repressive organs.
Developing principles of national state structure the Commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was engaged. Autonomous, federal and confederal options for building a single state were considered.
The plan for the declared autonomous entry of the Soviet republics into the RSFSR was proposed by the People's Commissar for Nationalities, Stalin. However, the commission accepted the version of the union federal state proposed by Lenin. He gave the future republics formal sovereignty.
Lenin clearly understood that a single party and a single repressive system are a sure guarantee of the integrity of the state. Lenin's project could attract other peoples to the union, and not scare them away, like Stalin's option.
December 30, 1922... at the 1st Congress of Soviets, the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was proclaimed. The congress adopted the Declaration and the Treaty.
Higher the legislature the Central Executive Committee (CEC) was elected, which consisted of two chambers: the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities.
January 31, 1924... The Second All-Union Congress of Soviets adopted the first Constitution of the USSR, which stipulated the principles of the Declaration and the Treaty.
The foreign policy of the USSR was quite active. Progress has been achieved in relations with the countries of the capitalist camp. An agreement on economic cooperation was signed with France (1966). A Strategic Nuclear Weapons Limitation Treaty (SALT-1) is signed. The 1975 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) played an important role in relieving international tension. The USSR maintained and strengthened ties with developing countries.
The 80s became a time of radical changes and perestroika in the USSR. It was caused by problems in the social sphere and social production, the impending crisis in the economy of the USSR, caused by the ruinous arms race for the country. The course towards democratization of public life and publicity was announced by M.S. Gorbachev.
But perestroika could not prevent the collapse of the USSR.
Among the main reasons for the collapse of the USSR are the following:
- The actual destruction of the philosophy of communism, the spirit of which was lost first by the ruling elite of the country, and then by all its citizens.
- Imbalance in the development of industry in the USSR - as in pre-war years, the main focus was on heavy industry, as well as defense and energy. The development of light industry and the level of production of consumer goods were clearly insufficient.
- The ideological failure also played a role. Life behind the Iron Curtain for the majority Soviet people seemed beautiful and free. And such benefits as free education and medicine, housing and social guarantees were taken for granted, people did not know how to appreciate them.
- Prices in the USSR, which were relatively low, were artificially “frozen”, but there was a problem of a shortage of many goods, often also artificial.
- Soviet man was completely controlled by the system.
- Many experts cite the sharp drop in oil prices and the ban on religions as one of the reasons for the fall of the USSR.
The first to leave the USSR were the Baltic republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia).
Russia after the collapse of the USSR declared itself the heir great empire... The 90s turned into a severe crisis for the country in all spheres. The production crisis led to the actual destruction of many industries, the contradiction between the legislative and executive authorities - to a crisis situation in the political sphere.
THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR
At dawn on June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked Soviet Union... Romania, Hungary, Italy and Finland took the side of Germany. In accordance with the Barbarossa plan developed in 1940, Germany planned to enter the Arkhangelsk - Volga - Astrakhan line as soon as possible. This was the setting for a blitzkrieg - a blitzkrieg war. This is how the Great Patriotic War began.
The main periods of the Great patriotic war... The first period (June 22, 1941 - November 18, 1942) from the start of the war to the start of the Soviet offensive at Stalingrad. This was the most difficult period for the USSR, called the Battle of Stalingrad.
Having created a multiple superiority in people and military equipment on the main directions of the offensive, the German army has achieved significant success. By the end of November 1941, Soviet troops, retreating under the blows of superior enemy forces to Leningrad, Moscow, Rostov-on-Don, left the enemy a huge territory, lost about 5 million people killed, missing and captured, most of the tanks and aircraft ...
The second period (November 19, 1942 - the end of 1943) - a radical turning point in the war. Having exhausted and bled the enemy in defensive battles, on November 19, 1942, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive, encircling 22 fascist divisions of more than 300 thousand people near Stalingrad. On February 2, 1943, this grouping was liquidated. At the same time, enemy troops were expelled from the North Caucasus. By the summer of 1943 Soviet-German front stabilized.
The third period (end of 1943 - May 8, 1945) - the final period of the Great Patriotic War. In 1944 g. Soviet economy has reached the highest rise in all war time... Industry, transport and agriculture developed successfully. Military production grew especially rapidly.
1944 was marked by victories of the Soviet Armed Forces. The entire territory of the USSR was completely liberated from the fascist invaders. The Soviet Union came to the aid of the peoples of Europe - the Soviet Army liberated Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, fought its way to Norway. Romania and Bulgaria have declared war on Germany. Finland withdrew from the war.
During the 1945 winter offensive, the Soviet Army threw the enemy back more than 500 km. Poland, Hungary and Austria, the eastern part of Czechoslovakia were almost completely liberated. The Soviet Army went to the Oder. On April 25, 1945, a historic meeting of Soviet troops with American and British troops took place on the Elbe, in the Torgau region.
The fighting in Berlin was extremely fierce and stubborn. On April 30, the banner of Victory was hoisted over the Reichstag. On May 8, the signing of the act of unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany took place. May 9 - became Victory Day.
Development of the USSR in 1945-1953
The main task post-war period was the restoration of the destroyed economy. In March 1946, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a plan for the reconstruction and restoration of the national economy.
The demilitarization of the economy and the modernization of the military-industrial complex began. Heavy industry was declared a priority area, mainly machine building, metallurgy, and the fuel and energy complex.
By 1948, production reached its pre-war level thanks to the heroic labor of the Soviet people, the free labor of the GULAG prisoners, the redistribution of funds in favor of heavy industry, the transfer of funds from the agrarian sector and light industry, the attraction of funds from Germany's reparations, and strict planning of the economy.
In 1945, the gross agricultural output of the USSR was 60% of the pre-war level. The government tried to take punitive measures to bring the industry out of the crisis.
In 1947, a mandatory minimum of workdays was established, the law "For encroachment on collective farm and state property" was tightened, the tax on livestock maintenance was increased, which led to its massive slaughter.
The area of individual plots of collective farmers has been reduced. Decreased wages in kind. Collective farmers were denied passports, which limited their freedom. At the same time, the consolidation of farms and the tightening of control over them were carried out.
These reforms did not succeed, and only by the 50s was it possible to reach the pre-war level of agricultural production.
In 1945 the State Defense Committee was abolished. Resumed work of public and political organizations
In 1946, the Council of People's Commissars was transformed into the Council of Ministers, and the People's Commissariats - into ministries.
In 1946, the development of the draft of the new Constitution of the USSR began. In 1947, the question “About the project new program VKP (b) ".
There have been changes in science and culture. Since 1952, compulsory seven-year education has been introduced, evening schools have been opened. The Academy of Arts and the Academy of Sciences with its branches in the republics were formed. Many universities have postgraduate courses. A regular television broadcast began.
In 1948, the persecution of the "cosmopolitans" began. Bans were introduced on contacts and marriages with foreigners. A wave of anti-Semitism swept across the country.
Foreign and domestic policy of Khrushchev
Khrushchev's activities played a significant role in organizing mass repressions, both in Moscow and in Ukraine. During the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was a member of the military councils of the fronts and by 1943 he was promoted to lieutenant general. Also, Khrushchev led the partisan movement behind the front line.
One of the most famous post-war initiatives was the strengthening of collective farms, which helped to reduce bureaucracy. In the fall of 1953, Khrushchev took up the highest party position. Khrushchev's reign began with the announcement of a large-scale project for the development of virgin lands. The purpose of the development of virgin lands was to increase the volume of grain harvested in the country.
Khrushchev's domestic policy was marked by the rehabilitation of victims political repression, improving the standard of living of the population of the USSR. Also, he made an attempt to modernize the party system.
Foreign policy changed under Khrushchev. So, among the theses put forward by him at the 20th Congress of the CPSU, the thesis was also voiced that the war between socialism and capitalism is not at all inevitable. Khrushchev's speech at the 20th Congress contained rather harsh criticism of Stalin's activities, the cult of personality, and political repression. It was perceived ambiguously by the leaders of other countries. Soon in the United States was published English translation this speech. But the citizens of the USSR were able to get acquainted with it only in the second half of the 80s.
In 1957 A conspiracy was created against Khrushchev, which was not crowned with success. As a result, the conspirators, including Molotov, Kaganovich and Malenkov, were dismissed by the decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee.
Brief biography of Brezhnev
During the Great Patriotic War, Brezhnev L.I. served as head of the Southern Front, and was promoted to major general in 1943. At the end of hostilities, Brezhnev successfully builds political career... He consistently works as the secretary of the regional committee of Ukraine and Moldova. In 1952, he became a member of the Presidium of the Central Committee, and after Khrushchev came to power, he was appointed secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan.
By 1957, Brezhnev returned to the Presidium and after 3 years held the post of Chairman of the Presidium. During the years of Brezhnev's rule, the country refuses to implement the ideas of the previous leader, Khrushchev. In 1965, the unhurried and outwardly more modest reforms of Brezhnev began, the purpose of which was to build "developed socialism". Enterprises are getting more independence than in previous years, the standard of living of the population is gradually improving, which is especially noticeable in the villages. However, by the beginning of the 70s, stagnant phenomena appeared in the economy.
In international relations, Khrushchev's course is maintained, and the dialogue with the West continues. The agreements on disarmament in Europe, enshrined in the Helsinki agreements, are also important. Tension in international relations reappears only after the introduction of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.
Brief biography of Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev
Mikhail Gorbachev's party career proved to be successful. And high yields in the Stavropol Territory have created a good reputation for him. Striving to introduce more rational methods agricultural labor, Gorbachev publishes articles in the regional and central press. As a secretary of the Central Committee, he deals with the problems of agriculture in the country.
Gorbachev came to power in 1985. He later held other high posts in the USSR. Gorbachev's rule was marked by serious political reforms designed to end stagnation. The most famous were such actions of the country's leadership as the introduction of cost accounting, acceleration, exchange of money. Gorbachev's famous prohibition law provoked strong rejection from almost all citizens of the Union. Unfortunately, the decree "On strengthening the fight against drunkenness" had an absolutely opposite effect. Most of the liquor stores were closed. However, the practice of home brewing has become almost ubiquitous. Counterfeit vodka also appeared. Prohibition was canceled in 1987 for economic reasons. However, the fake vodka remained.
Gorbachev's perestroika was marked by a weakening of censorship and, at the same time, a deterioration in the standard of living of Soviet citizens. It happened due to ill-conceived domestic policy... The growth of tension in society was also facilitated by inter national conflicts in Georgia, Baku, Nagorno-Karabakh, etc. The Baltic republics already during this period headed for secession from the Union.
Gorbachev's foreign policy, the so-called "policy of new thinking", helped to defuse the difficult international situation and end the Cold War.
In 1989, Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev held the post of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, and in 1990 he became the first and only president of the USSR.
In 1990 M. Gorbachev received Nobel prize peace as a person who has done a lot to ease international tension. But the country at that time was already in a deep crisis.
As a result of the August 1991 putsch organized by Gorbachev's former supporters, the USSR ceased to exist. Gorbachev resigned after the signing of the Belovezhskaya Agreements. Subsequently, he continued his social activities, headed the organizations "Green Cross" and "Gorbachev Foundation".
RUSSIA IN THE YEARS OF BN YELTSIN
June 12, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin elected president Russian Federation... After the election, the main slogans of Boris Yeltsin were the struggle against the privileges of the nomenklatura and the independence of Russia from the USSR.
On July 10, 1991, Boris Yeltsin took the oath of allegiance to the people of Russia and the Russian Constitution, and took office as President of the RSFSR.
In August 1991, the confrontation between Yeltsin and the putschists began, which led to a proposal to ban the activities of the Communist Party, and on August 19, Boris Yeltsin made a famous speech from a tank, in which he read out a decree on the illegitimate activities of the State Emergency Committee. The putsch was defeated, the activities of the CPSU were finally banned.
In December 1991, the USSR ceased to exist officially.
December 25, 1991 B.N. Yeltsin received full presidential power in Russia in connection with the resignation of Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev and the actual collapse of the USSR.
1992 - 1993 - a new stage in the construction of the Russian state - privatization has begun, an economic reform is being carried out.
In September-October 1993, the confrontation between Boris Yeltsin and the Supreme Soviet began, which led to the dissolution of parliament. In Moscow, the riots, the peak of which falls on October 3-4, supporters of the Supreme Soviet seized the television center, the situation was brought under control only with the help of tanks.
In 1994, the 1st Chechen War began, which led to a huge number of casualties both among the civilian population and among the military, as well as among law enforcement officers.
In May 1996 g. Boris Yeltsin forced to sign in Khasavyurt an order on the withdrawal of troops from Chechnya, which theoretically means the end of the first Chechen war.
In 1998 and 1999. in Russia, as a result of unsuccessful economic policy, there is a default, then a government crisis.
On December 31, 1999, in a New Year's address to the residents of Russia, B. Yeltsin announced his early resignation. Prime Minister V.V. Putin, who provides guarantees of complete safety to Yeltsin and his family.
Ascending the throne, this king said: "With me everything will be like with my grandmother" (that is). As a monarch, he did not reach the level of his grandmother, but the similarities of the reigns are still visible. Like Catherine, Alexander I spoke a lot of liberal words and did a lot of despotic, serfdom deeds.
Domestic policy (grandmother's heir)
At the beginning of his reign, Alexander 1 spoke a lot about the need for reforms in Russia. But for each of his innovations there was a countermeasure.
- Alexander expanded the rights of merchants and endowed them with various privileges - the right to appear at court, wear class rank, etc. But at the same time, immediately after accession to the throne, he resumed the deed of grant to the nobility of 1785, which turned the nobility into a privileged class with virtually no responsibilities.
- The tsar repeatedly declared his desire to expand the rights of the peasants and in 1803 signed a decree on free farmers, which allowed peasants to buy land from the land by agreement with the landlords. But over 20 years this right was used by ... as many as 47 thousand people (0.5% of the peasant population), and after the war of 1812, military settlements appeared in the country, representing an unprecedented level of peasant lack of freedom.
- The tsar brought liberals closer to him (such as Rumyantsev or), but Arakcheev, who became a symbol of the soldier's suppression of any dissent, was a person close to him.
We must pay tribute to the tsar - Alexander 1 centralized and streamlined the administration of the country, creating in 1810 the State Council (something like a cabinet of ministers), accumulating all information on the state and making proposals for solving existing problems. He was also the patron saint of education - during his reign such educational institutions as the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, Kharkov and Kazan universities were opened, and other educational institutions raised their class and increased the number of departments and faculties. The treasury provided assistance to educational institutions, and even financed the trips of students and teachers abroad.
Foreign policy (winner of Napoleon)
Of the achievements of Alexander's foreign policy, this fact is best known. True, only the second campaign against the emperor of the French became successful for Russia, and the war of 1805-1807 ended in the rather humiliating Peace of Tilsit. But it's a fact: the foreign policy of Alexander I was consistent with the domestic one. He showed himself to be a consistent monarchist, wishing to increase his possessions, to strengthen the authority of the monarch's power as such and his own among his colleagues in particular. Under him, Russia has grown geographically, and its international authority has grown.
- Alexander 1 waged successful wars, Sweden (1808-1809),. This is not to mention the subsequent defeat of France.
- Under him, Finland, Bessarabia, Georgia, Abkhazia, Dagestan, Transcaucasia were annexed to Russia. Only part of these lands were annexed by military means; Georgia, for example, became part of the empire under an international treaty.
- Alexander I initiated the creation of the Holy Alliance - the unification of monarchies for the sake of preserving monarchies and combating revolutionary teachings. Russia then played the role of a kind of "flagship of the counter-revolution" for a long time.
- The emperor attached great importance to foreign trade. In particular, under him England became an important trading partner of Russia.
- Alexander did not want the strengthening of German influence in Europe, and to some extent he managed to prevent him, pushing during
Alexandra 1 is known to many. Of course, this is the same Russian emperor who at one time managed to defeat Napoleon. However, many prefer to stop at this, not knowing how much this person brought for the country. His skillful diplomacy and cunning, his concern for the Motherland can serve as a real example for modern Russian politicians.
Third anti-French coalition
Revolutionary France at the end of the eighteenth century was the enemy of almost everyone. The monarchs were afraid that the republican infection would not visit their homes, and therefore they waged many wars against the carrier state.
Alexander's father, Pavel, successfully participated in the first two coalitions against France. However, for his son, the beginning of the path in foreign policy began with a grandiose failure.
While Napoleon was persistently gaining power and transforming his state into a mighty empire, the Third Anti-French Coalition from Russia, England and Austria gathered. She had to prevent the plans of the Corsican from coming true.
Unfortunately, the Austrians, despite the support of the Russian army, began to lose quickly. Not looking at Kutuzov's demand not to give a decisive battle, Alexander 1 met Napoleon's army at Austerlitz, which ended in a grandiose victory for the French emperor and the strengthening of France as a potential world ruler.
In short, the foreign policy of Alexander I after this incident has changed a lot.
Union of enemies
The wise Alexander 1 saw in Bonaparte something that many did not notice - the absence in this man of the very thought of losing. It was clear that now this Corsican with eyes burning with thirst for conquest could not be defeated. You have to wait.
The direction of foreign policy changed dramatically. He severed ties with Britain and personally met Napoleon on rafts in the middle of the river near the town of Tilsit.
It seemed that the agreement concluded there created extremely unsatisfactory conditions for the existence of the Russian Empire (recognition of all the conquests of Bonaparte, rejection of a number of regions conquered from Turkey). However, in reality, it was more than a profitable world. There are at least two reasons for this agreement.
- Alexander 1 got the opportunity to focus on domestic politics, which also needed his presence.
- In fact, such an agreement gave Russia peace of mind and freed its hands in everything related to eastern part the world. If everything went according to plans, there should have been two superpowers in the world - Western empire with Napoleon at the head and the East - with Alexander 1.
It is worth digressing from diplomacy and figuring out what was the internal policy of Alexander I (briefly, to understand further events).
Politics inside
The reign of his son Paul 1 changed Russia forever. What's new brought Alexandra 1? This can be summarized in four main directions.
- For the first time, the Russian emperor decided to discuss the issue of abolishing serfdom - one of the pillars of the Russian legal system. He even gave orders to prepare three projects. However, none of them have been implemented. But the very fact of working with this topic shows colossal changes in the moral character of the country.
- Deep reforms of the government were carried out. This concerned the change of the state council, its final strengthening as the chief adviser to the emperor. In addition, many privileges were bestowed, and a single set of responsibilities for the Senate was established.
- But the most important is by far the ministerial reform, which has created eight ministries. Their heads were obliged to report to the emperor and bear full responsibility for the subject sector.
- Education reform, thanks to which literacy became available even to the lowest stratum of the population. Primary schools became free, and the "secondary-higher" hierarchy educational institution finally began to fully work.
The assessment of the internal policy of Alexander I can be given objectively only on the basis of further events. Because all of his reforms have played a decisive role.
Calling Bonaparte
Probably everyone knows what years are. Usually, when the foreign policy of Alexander I is briefly described, they stop only at it. Let us note only the main facts of this event.
So it all started with the treacherous French attack on Russia. It was really unexpected, because before that, as already mentioned, a treaty that was beneficial to the French had been signed. The reason for the invasion was Russia's refusal to actively support the blockade of Great Britain. Bonaparte saw in this a betrayal and unwillingness to cooperate.
What happened after must be called the greatest mistake of the French emperor. After all, he did not know that Alexander 1 and Russia were not going to simply surrender, like many states before that. The strategic talent of Kutuzov, to which the Russian ruler now listened, outplayed Napoleon's tactics.
Very soon the Russian troops were in Paris.
Other wars
Do not think that France was the only one on which Alexander 1's foreign policy was based. Briefly, it is worth recalling his other conquests.
One of the achievements of Alexander I is the conflict between the Russians and the Swedes, which turned into a complete defeat for the latter. Thanks to the cunning and courage of Alexander I, who ordered the transfer of troops across the frozen Gulf of Bothnia, the Russian Empire acquired the entire territory of Finland. In addition, Sweden, at that time the only big player on the European field who tried to stay out of the France-England conflict, had to boycott Great Britain.
Alexander 1 successfully helped the Serbs to acquire autonomy and successfully completed the Russian-Turkish campaign, which was one of the most important stages of the long confrontation with Russia. And of course, one cannot but recall the war with the Persians, which made Alexander 1 a full-fledged Asian player.
Outcomes
This is the foreign policy of Alexander I (summarized).
The Russian emperor annexed many territories to the state: Transnistria (during the war with Turkey), Dagestan and Azerbaijan (due to the confrontation with the Persians), Finland (thanks to the campaign against Sweden). He significantly raised the world authority of Russia and made the whole world finally fully reckon with its homeland.
But, of course, no matter how briefly the foreign policy of Alexander I would have been stated, his main achievement would be his victory over Napoleon. Who knows what the world would be like today if Russia had been conquered then.
And he replaced revolutionary anarchy with a strong military dictatorship. The assassination of Paul in 1801 did not take place without the participation of the British, who wanted to prevent a hostile Russian-French rapprochement. , having ascended the throne, based his foreign policy on the rejection of the alliance with Bonaparte, but did not return to the anti-French coalition, deciding that Russia still needed peace.
Portrait of Alexander I. Painter F. Gerard, 1817
Over the next few years, however, Napoleon's influence in Europe increased dangerously. He strengthened his power in France, proclaiming himself first consul for life (1802), and then emperor (1804). Believing that Bonaparte's ambition threatened to destroy the European equilibrium, Alexander I in late 1804 - early 1805 joined the new, Third, coalition against France. In addition to Russia, its main participants were again England and Austria.
The Russian army of Kutuzov moved to the West, but even before her arrival, Napoleon managed to force the main Austrian army to surrender at Ulm and soon took Vienna. The balance of forces was now such that Kutuzov advised avoiding the decisive battle with the French, but Alexander I insisted on giving it at Austerlitz (November 20, 1805). Napoleon won in this battle a complete victory over the Russians and the remnants of the Austrians. A month later, the Austrian Emperor Franz signed the Peace of Presburg with the French, and the Third Coalition ceased to exist.
Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz. Painting by F. P. S. Gerard, 1810
The unheard-of strengthening of France now prompted the Prussians to oppose her, who in the Third Coalition War behaved favorably towards Napoleon. In the summer of 1806, through the efforts of the foreign policy of Alexander I, the Fourth Coalition against France was formed, whose main participants were Russia, Prussia and England. However, Bonaparte, acting swiftly this time, managed to defeat the main Prussian army in the double battle of Jena and Auerstedt (October 14, 1806) before the arrival of the Russians. Most of Prussia was occupied by the French, and in its eastern provinces, the troops of Alexander I started a stubborn struggle with them. On January 26-27, 1807, a stubborn two-day battle between the French and the Russians took place at Preussisch-Eylau - the bloodiest battle ever given by Napoleon. It ended in a draw, in many European capitals the army of Alexander I was even considered the winner. But in the summer of 1807 Napoleon concentrated the prevailing forces in East Prussia and on June 2 defeated the Russian commander Bennigsen near Friedland.
Alexander I could continue the struggle, but for Russia it was hampered by the war with the Turks that began in 1806 and the struggle against the Persians in the Caucasus since 1804. In addition, Alexander was outraged by the selfish behavior of Russia's allies. All the main burden of both the Third and the Fourth Coalition War fell on the Russian shoulders. Austria and Prussia were defeated, making almost no contribution to the struggle, and England was limited to the seizure of French colonies on the seas. Turkey, which participated in the Second and Third coalitions as a partner of Russia, after the Battle of Austerlitz hastened to go over to Bonaparte's side.
Realizing that Russia remains a very formidable enemy, Napoleon himself offered Alexander I an alliance and a profitable peace. According to its terms, the Russians and the French were supposed to share domination over the European continent: Napoleon got hegemony in the west, and Alexander I in the east. After the signing of the Russian-French alliance, Sweden, friendly to the British, became an enemy of Russia, and Bonaparte suggested that Alexander I take Finland from her. France promised not to interfere with the defeat of the Turks by the Russians. In exchange for this, Alexander I had to agree to the territorial cuts of Prussia and join the continental blockade - a trade boycott of England, which Napoleon ordered to arrange in all Western European harbors.
Alexander I accepted these conditions. Meeting in person on June 13, 1807 with Napoleon on rafts in the middle of the Neman river against the city of Tilsit, the tsar signed the Peace of Tilsit with him. With this treaty, Alexander I left his former European friends and entered into an alliance with Napoleon against them. However, such an act could not be considered a "betrayal": on the contrary, in the Second, Third and Fourth coalitions the former friends of the tsar always cared only about their own benefits to the detriment of the interests of Russia's foreign policy.
The following years were marked by the rapid growth of Russian power. In the war of 1808-1809, the armies of Alexander I took Finland from the Swedes. A glorious episode of this war was the heroic transition of Russian troops across the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia to the outskirts of Stockholm. Finland was annexed to Russia on the basis of broad autonomy, as a special “grand duchy”.
Retreat of the French in 1812. Painting by I. Pryanishnikov
In Poland, opposition to the Russian government grew, despite all the generous benevolence of Alexander I (granting the Poles broad autonomy, their own government, their own parliament-Diet, permission to create a special Polish army, large financial and customs benefits at the expense of the Russian regions, which in a few years provided the devastated in years of Napoleonic domination of the country material prosperity). The Polish aristocracy began to demand the revival of the independent Rzeczpospolita within the borders of 1772 (along the Dnieper in the east). V last years Alexander I, Russian foreign policy was hampered by several clashes between the tsar and the Polish Sejm. They were not too sharp, but the further growth of the Polish movement led to the uprising of 1830-1831 during the reign of Nicholas I. Its main slogan was the restoration of the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772 and the rejection of not only the Polish regions proper from Russia, but also Lithuania, Right-Bank Ukraine and more parts of Belarus.
During the reign of Emperor Alexander I, Russia was already largest country the world in size, so a huge number of people lived on its territory different nations and nations. The constant annexation of new lands led to the fact that territories with their own culture, traditions and customs were included in the Russian Empire. All this had to be taken into account when conducting the country's internal policy. Therefore, the national policy of Alexander 1 is a very important topic that allows you to understand the processes that took place in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century, as well as demonstrate the position of the authorities in relation to the annexed lands and peoples.
Each of these regions is unique, each with its own traditions and customs. Therefore, we will study the features of the internal policy of the Russian Empire during the era of Alexander 1, aimed at the national outskirts of the country.
Grand Duchy of Finland
Finnish lands long time were part of Sweden. The situation changed in 1809 when the Swedes lost the Russo-Swedish War. Peace conditions turned out to be rather moderate, but the Swedes lost Finland. On the new land, Russia had to carry out a national policy, since the empire included lands with peoples that did not exist before. There were mainly 2 ethnic groups living in Finland: the Swedes and the Finns. Alexander 1 chose a very restrained policy for this region, endowing these lands with great independence.
Distinctive features of the national policy of Russia in Finland in the era of Alexander I are as follows:
- Office work in the principality was conducted in Swedish. I draw your attention to the fact that the language is not Finnish, since Finland has never had an independent status. For centuries the Swedes ruled here and the main language was Swedish.
- The administration of the principality was carried out by the Seim - a collection of representatives of various categories of the population. The Diet is something similar to the Slavic veche. Without the consent of the Diet on the territory of the Finnish principality, it was impossible to introduce new laws, or to cancel the old ones.
- The principality was ruled by a governor-general. He, like any other officials, was appointed by the Emperor.
- Finland Headquarters Committee supervised all administrative matters. It consisted of 12 local residents who were subordinate to the Governor-General. Of these 12 residents, 6 were from the nobility, and 6 were not.
- The principality retained full independence in the education and self-government system.
Finland, in the status of a separate principality of the Russian Empire, received the status of a state within a state. Yes, the Russian emperor appointed a governor-general and other officials, but, as a rule, this nomination was initially coordinated with the Finnish Sejm. In other aspects of the development of the principality, there are no restrictions and no attempts to crush national movement or completely subjugate the peoples of Finland or Sweden to Russia were not undertaken. Therefore, Finland developed very confidently in Russia and lived without any upheavals.
Polish kingdom
Poland was annexed to the Russian Empire in 1815. As a territorial unit and official name was used - Polish kingdom... In the same year, the Constitution was approved, according to which the current emperor was approved as the head of the kingdom. The constitution was quite liberal, so the Poles were very happy about it. On the other hand, this led to big problems, which resulted in Russian-Polish conflicts 10 years later, after the death of Alexander 1. The Polish question is very important, since there were many Poles in Russia. They ranked third in number among all the peoples inhabiting Russia, second only in number to Russians and Ukrainians. It is noteworthy that the fourth largest number of national representatives in the Russian Empire were Jews, who lived in huge numbers on the territory of Poland.
The national policy of Alexander I towards Poland assumed:
- The Russian emperor became the full and only ruler of the Kingdom. However, the Constitution was introduced, which was the main law of this region, and to which the emperor also swore.
- Legislative power belonged to the emperor. In part, these functions fell to the local diet, which was attended only by Poles. The Diet had the right to recommend the necessary laws to the tsar, but the adoption of laws was assigned exclusively to the State Council under Alexander I.
- Only Poles were to be appointed in all key positions of Kingdom administration.
- The official language in the region remained Polish. Office work was also conducted in Polish.
The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland is an important topic, since it is impossible to interpret it unequivocally. On the one hand, it retained Russia's liberal attitude towards the Poles (especially towards the nobility), but on the other hand, it created huge contradictions. The Constitution itself was perceived differently by the emperor and the Polish nobility. The Polish nobility was convinced that the liberal constitution was only the first step, and in the future the territory of Poland could grow at the expense of the territories of Ukraine and Belarus in order to recreate the later disintegrated Rzeczpospolita. Alexander the First was convinced that the adoption of the liberal Constitution gave the Polish kingdom and so huge advantages and opportunities, which, perhaps, were even superfluous. Therefore, on the part of the Emperor, the national policy towards the Poles assumed the transfer of specific rights and opportunities, the expansion of which was not intended, and the Polish nobles were sure that Russian Emperor and must further increase their rights. As a result, the foundation was laid for subsequent national conflicts in the region.
Comparative position of Poland and Finland
For a detailed description of the national policy of Russia in the era of Alexander I, I propose to compare the position of Finland and Poland within the Russian Empire, to find common and distinctive features in the management of each of these regions. For this, we will prepare a special table.
Comparing the position of the two regions of the Russian Empire, it is important to note that the Finnish principality had more independence than the Polish kingdom. This was largely due to the fact that the Poles had historical differences with the Russian Empire, and giving them full independence could create big problems.
Baltic lands
In the western national outskirts of Russia, the Baltic states, there was a very sharp national question... Basically, this question was about the land. To begin with, the Baltic States at the time of the reign of Alexander 1 consisted of 3 provinces:
- Courland. It became part of the Russian Empire with the collapse of the Commonwealth.
- Liflyandskaya. Added to the Russian Empire in 1721.
- Estland.
The Baltics did not have such broad national privileges as Poland or Finland had. The main issue in this region was about land. The question was very acute, since the peasants were mainly Estonians and Latvians, and the landowners, by virtue of historical reasons were Germans. Therefore, the national conflicts in this region were not Russian, but exclusively German-Baltic. To solve this problem, in 1804 Alexander actually abolished serfdom in the Baltic states. By a decree issued by the emperor, each peasant received land at his disposal, which he had the right to inherit. The landlords lost the right to sell or exchange peasants without land. At the same time, the land and other obligations of the peasants to the landowners were significantly reduced.
The implementation of such a national policy on the part of Alexander I led to contradictions with the Baltic landowners. To eliminate them, in 1816-1819, in the territory of all 3 Baltic provinces, partial counter-reforms were carried out, which partially rolled back what had been done earlier. The peasants retained their independence from the landlords, but they lost their right to land, even personal, not to mention inherited. All the land returned to the landlords. The peasants received only the right to lease this land. All controls and executions for the peasants were their own, but now their landowners controlled.
Territory of the Caucasus
The Caucasus has always been a difficult region for Russia. At the beginning of the 19th century, about 50 nationalities lived here, each of which had its own language, culture and religion. The main language groups The Caucasus of this period are as follows:
- Iranian. Representatives are Tats, Kurds and Ossetians.
- Armenian. The representative is the Armenians.
- Turkic. Representatives are Balkars, Kumyks, Azerbaijanis, Karachais, Nogays.
- Karelian. Representatives are Georgians.
- North Caucasian. Representatives - Ingush, Circassians, Abazins, Lezgins, Sokurs, Abkhazians, Dargins, Rutuls and others.
All peoples possessed their own language. They had a different religion. They had different cultures and customs. They were engaged in different things and different trades. Russian empire expanded its possessions in the Caucasus. The national policy here was rather soft and the regions did not lose their status and their right to religion, language and traditions. For the Russian Empire itself, the annexation of the Caucasus regions spoiled relations primarily with Iran and Turkey. These countries also claimed their rights to the region.
The accession of different peoples took place in different ways. Many of them, fleeing from Turkey and Iran, voluntarily entered the Russian Empire, and some peoples had to be subdued by force.
Siberia
The national question in Siberia was no less acute for the Russian Empire. Suffice it to say that at the beginning of the 19th century 200 thousand people lived here, and by the middle of the century more than 600 thousand people already lived here. This growth is associated not only with demographic factors, but also with the resettlement of people from the western part of the Empire to the east. At this time, all Siberian peoples were called foreigners... There were a lot of such foreign peoples, and the Russian Empire set itself the task of preserving the national identity of each of these peoples. The second task was to smoothly and gradually integrate these peoples into the life of the empire. To solve these problems in 1822 was adopted Charter on the management of foreigners... Its author was Speransky, who as of that year held the post of Governor-General of Siberia. The charter was very progressive and divided all foreigners into three large groups:
- Stray. These included the Nenets, Koryaks and others. They lived according to tribal rules. The leaders of these foreigners were princes from the local nobility.
- Nomadic. These included the Buryats, Yakuts, Khakases and others. In terms of the control system, they looked like stray ones.
- Sedentary. These included Tatars, Altaians, Mansi and others. These are people who “settled on the earth”, therefore they were equated in rights with peasants. But these were not serfs. and the state peasants.
Speransky's charter suggested that wandering and nomadic peoples should eventually move to the status of sedentary, and also receive the rights of state peasants. It is important to note only the fact that all foreigners of Siberia were exempted from military service... Even sedentary peoples, who were equated with state peasants, were exempted from military service, and were not admitted to it. Speransky's charter from the point of view of history is interesting in that similar document in relation to national outskirts and nationalities was not in any other country in the world. In this respect, the national policy of Alexander I was very flexible and very progressive. He did not seek to subjugate and destroy the annexed peoples, but, on the contrary, sought to preserve their identity.