The main trend in the development of Russia, especially noticeable since the second half of the 17th century, is associated with the attempts of the authorities and the enlightened elite of Russian society to determine possible ways modernization of the country. In the sixteenth century Western Europe entered the era of a civilizational revolution, the essence of which was the transition from a traditional (feudal, agrarian) society to an industrial (bourgeois, capitalist) society with its corresponding economic, political and spiritual culture. The focus of modernization at that time was only a small group of countries - England, the Netherlands, France. The impulses of this region have gradually spread to all more countries and eventually reached Russia. The process of modernization captured her not before the second half of the seventeenth century And it proceeded in a peculiar way, superimposed on the features of the “strong”, in the words of S.M. Solovyov, Russian autocracy, property relations, Russian national character formed under the influence of Orthodoxy.
If in the West the progress of industry was accompanied by a continuous movement towards the rule of law, then in Russia economic development, the successes of science, the secularization of spiritual life were carried out against the backdrop of increasing despotism supreme power and with the further spread of feudal relations, practically obsolete in the West.
Beginning in the seventeenth century transformations were generated by the desire of the government to catch up the developed countries primarily in military-technical terms. Given this circumstance, it becomes clear why the reforms could only be carried out in strict forms with the growing despotism of power and serfdom. Stirring up the country, the government did not rely on encouraging private initiative, which could lay the foundations for progress, but on strengthening state intervention in all spheres of the economic and public life. The modernization breakthrough did take place, however, the overstrain of the forces of society soon gave rise to another crisis and stagnation, an increase in social tension and a new lag behind the West, which was moving ahead.
Concerned about the lag in the military field, the Russian statesmen of the pre-Petrine era were not limited in their reformist plans to military and fiscal issues. Their transformative projects proceeded from the conviction that a certain turn had taken place in the consciousness of a part of society: in foreign lands, much is done better, Western peoples are stronger in their knowledge, skill, art, we must learn from them.
Already in the reign of the first Romanov, there was a tendency to borrow some Western achievements. Western customs, household items gradually became part of the life of the upper classes of Russian society. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who himself was not a consistent supporter of innovations, at the same time favored domestic reformers: A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin, F.M. Rtishchev, A.S. Matveev and others. V.O. Klyuchevsky calls "the most remarkable of the Moscow statesmen of the 17th century", proposed an extensive plan of transformations aimed at improving the central and local government, taxation systems, the development of industry and trade, the strengthening of the army and the construction of the fleet. In foreign policy, A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin defended the need to fight Sweden for Russia's access to the Baltic Sea. Most of the reformer's projects were not destined to be realized during this period.
At that time, two social trends were already quite clearly visible in Russia. One of them, which would later be called "Western", united "theoreticians and practitioners, who knew the sweetness and superiority of European civilization with science and experience" (S.F. Platonov). The other, the national conservative, was directed against reforms in both the civil and ecclesiastical spheres.
In the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682), the activity of the talented Western reformer V.V. Golitsyn began. One of the main reforms carried out during this period was the abolition of parochialism (1682). The sovereign finally got the opportunity to decide for himself “where to be”, taking into account the talents and merits of the applicant, and not the ancient order of the official hierarchy, when appointing to state and military positions.
Numerous reform projects that Golitsyn developed (plans for the liberation of the peasants from the power of the landlords, the creation of a mercenary army, the spread of religious tolerance), basically remained the same. One can only point to laws that softened morals, such as, for example, easing the conditions of servitude for debts, the abolition of execution for "outrageous" words and the most severe punishments for criminals, as well as a number of innovations, mainly related to life and education.
At the end of the seventeenth century the country was on the threshold of decisive changes, already prepared by previous developments. The overdue reforms could be carried out by reducing state pressure on society while encouraging private initiative and gradually weakening the lack of class freedom. Such a path would be a continuation of the reform activities of A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin and V.V. Golitsyn. The other path suggested even greater tightening of the regime, extreme concentration of power, strengthening of serfdom and - as a result of exorbitant exertion of forces - a reformist breakthrough. Despotic traditions state power in Russia and the nature of the reformism that appeared at the end of the century made the second option more likely.
The turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the history of Russia is associated with the name of Peter I, the great reformer, whose transformations covered the most diverse spheres of the country's life. Peter was the first person who understood the full depth of Russia's backwardness from the advanced European countries and realized the need for reform.
What was Russia in this period? Several ironworks, several manufactories (20-30 for the whole country). There was essentially no army. It consisted of several regiments, and poorly armed. Between wars, this army was sent home so as not to spend state funds on it. Schools were attached to churches, in which they taught literacy and holy scripture. Yes, and those were few. There was no secular education, there was no national medicine, there was not a single Russian doctor, except for rare foreigners. Stagnation reigned in state affairs, trade and industry were in decline, factories were destroyed, the army was in a deplorable state. At the same time, the country was on the eve of great transformations, which were demanded by National economy Russia, and public administration, and the army. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms? We note the most important of them:
1) activation foreign policy and diplomatic activities of the Russian state;
2) intensive development of internal and foreign trade;
3) reforming and improving the financial and tax systems;
4) the transition from handicraft production to manufacturing with the use of elements of hired labor and the simplest mechanisms;
5) a tendency to absolutize the supreme power (liquidation of activities Zemsky Sobors as class-representative bodies), the inclusion of the word "autocrat" in the royal title;
6) registration of national legislation ( Cathedral Code 1649) subject to European legislation;
7) reorganization and improvement of the armed forces (creation of regiments of a foreign system, change in the order of recruitment and recruitment into regiments, distribution of military corps by districts);
8) the delimitation of society under the influence of Western European culture and church reform Nikon; the emergence of national conservative and Western trends.
Despite the emerging trend of Europeanization of Russia in the 17th century, in general, it lagged far behind the level of development of Western European states. The country needed strong personality, which would have not only supreme power, but also an understanding of the need for change, courage and determination, intelligence, energy and the talent of a reformer. Such a figure appeared on the historical arena in the person of Peter I. Figuratively speaking, Peter I, having curbed Russian society, forced him to close the gap from Europe and overcome the path from the patriarchal Muscovy to the European state of St. Petersburg.
All state activity Peter's can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1695 - 1715. and 1715 - 1725.
An important feature the transformational activity of the first period is its conditionality, first of all, by the tasks of internal reorganization, caused by the needs of the Northern War. The reforms were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active state intervention in the affairs of the economy (regulation of trade, industry, tax, financial and labor activities). Many reforms were ill-conceived, hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power.
In the second period, when hostilities had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. There was a further improvement of the apparatus of power, manufactories not only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy was somewhat weakened, merchants and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action.
Analyzing the transformations of Peter as a whole (goals, character, pace, methods of implementation, significance), it should be emphasized that the reforms were subordinated not to the interests of individual estates, but to the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and familiarization with Western European civilization. The whole domestic and foreign policy of the emperor was based on this.
Historical conditions and prerequisites for Peter's reforms.
The country was on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?
Russia was a backward country. This backwardness was a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people. Industry in its structure was serf-owning, and in terms of output it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.
The Russian army for the most part consisted of a backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy ordering state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country. Russia also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Enlightenment hardly penetrated the masses of the people, and even ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.
Russia of the 17th century, by the very course of historical development, was faced with the need for fundamental reforms, since only in this way could it secure a worthy place for itself among the states of the West and East.
Peter's reforms were prepared throughout the previous history of the people. Already before Peter the Great, a fairly coherent program of transformation was outlined, which in many respects coincided with Peter's reforms. The reforms touched literally all aspects of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people, but the main ones include the following reforms: the military, government and administration, the estate structure of Russian society, tax, church, as well as in the field of culture and life. It should be noted that the main driving force behind Peter's reforms was the war.
Military reforms of Peter I.
Military reforms occupy a special place among the Petrine reforms. They had the most pronounced class character. The essence of the military reform was the elimination of the noble militias and the organization of a permanent, combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline, and charters.
In 1689, Peter built on Lake Pleshcheyevo, near Pereslavl-Zalessky, several small ships under the guidance of Dutch craftsmen. In the spring of 1690, the famous "amusing regiments" - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky - were created. Peter begins to conduct real military maneuvers, the "capital city of Preshburg" is being built on the Yauza. The Semyonovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments became the core of the future permanent (regular) army and proved themselves during the Azov campaigns of 1695-1696. Peter I pays great attention to the fleet, the first baptism of fire of which also falls at this time. With the outbreak of the Northern War, the focus shifts to the Baltic, and with the founding of St. Petersburg, shipbuilding is carried out almost exclusively there. By the end of Peter's reign, Russia became one of the strongest maritime powers in the world, having 48 linear and 788 galley and other ships. The beginning of the Northern War was the impetus for the final creation of a regular army. Before Peter the Great, the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations (archers, Cossacks, regiments of a foreign system). The revolutionary change was that Peter introduced a new principle of manning the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic recruiting sets. The basis of the recruiting system was based on the estate-serf principle. Recruitment kits were extended to the population that paid taxes and carried state duties. In 1699, the first recruitment was made, since 1705, the sets were legalized by the relevant decree and became annual. From 20 yards they took one person, a single person aged 15 to 20 years (however, during the Northern War, these terms were constantly changing due to a shortage of soldiers and sailors). The Russian village suffered most of all from recruiting sets. The service life of a recruit was practically unlimited. The officers of the Russian army were replenished at the expense of the nobles who studied in the guards noble regiments or in specially organized schools (Pushkar, artillery, navigation, fortification, Naval Academy, etc.). In 1716, the Military Charter was adopted, and in 1720 - the Naval Charter, a large-scale rearmament of the army was carried out. By the end of the Northern War, Peter had a huge strong army - 200 thousand people (not counting 100 thousand Cossacks), which allowed Russia to win a grueling war that stretched for almost a quarter of a century.
The main results of the military reforms of Peter the Great are as follows:
Creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight and defeat its main opponents;
The emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fedor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.)
Creation of a powerful navy;
A gigantic increase in military expenditures and covering them through the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.
administrative changes.
The transformation of management is perhaps the most ostentatious, façade side of Peter's transformative activity; for it especially willingly appreciated all this activity. Management reforms were carried out hastily and illiterately. These or those changes in the state administration, the administrative-territorial division of Russia were dictated by military necessity, and their main task was to extort funds from the people as efficiently as possible to cover the ever-growing military expenses. For Peter, the reformer sought to transfer military principles to the sphere of civil life and government. Very indicative in this regard is the Decree of April 10, 1716. Peter belonged to government agency as to a military unit, to the regulations - as to a military charter, and to an official - as to a serviceman.
Lack of system and haste often led to confusion: regulations, orders were replaced by one another, often directly opposite, or nullified by endless changes in state institutions, sometimes institutions duplicated each other in their functions. Many positions, military and civil, only changed their old Russian names to European ones, essentially remaining the same.
The first administrative reform was the creation in 1699 of a special department of cities. Decrees introduced self-government for the urban merchants, as well as for the population of Pomeranian cities. The power of governors was abolished, from now on, elected burmisters were in charge of court and tax collection. The City Hall was in charge of the main receipts of state revenues from the cities, as well as general supervision over the actions of self-government bodies. At the head of the Town Hall was the Oberinspector of the Town Hall Board.
But with the growth of public spending, Peter is gradually losing confidence in the financial capabilities of the Town Hall. The tsar comes to the decision to transfer the bulk of the administration to the localities. Such a management organization ensured a higher degree of satisfaction of the financial needs of the state, and after the end of the Northern War, it was supposed to simplify the process of deploying and providing regular troops.
At the end of 1707, the implementation of a new reform began, and in 1708 the creation of eight provinces was proclaimed, which in turn were divided into provinces: Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov and Siberia. At the head of the border provinces were governors-general, the rest - governors. The provinces were ruled by voivods, while the governors and voivodes had a zemstvo office as a body that enforced orders and orders; since 1710 governors began to be called district commandants. Subordinate to the governor were the vice-governor (deputy), the landrichter, who was in charge of the court, the food master and other officials. Thus, the provincial reform actually abolished the reforms of 1699, and the Moscow City Hall turned from a nationwide into a provincial institution.
In 1710, a household census was conducted and a special payment unit was established in 5536 households, which was supposed to provide one "share" of the funds needed to cover military expenses. Commandantships were abolished, and instead of them, new "shares" were created, headed by landrats - in large provinces, 12 each, in medium ones - 10 each, in smaller ones - 8 each. It was envisaged that, in accordance with the number of "shares", each province would contain a certain amount regiments. However, this reform did not give the desired effect, the Northern War dragged on, and it was not possible to place the regiments assigned to them in the provinces. Money was still not enough, which created fertile ground for various frauds.
These two reforms caused a complete breakdown of public administration. As a result of the provincial reform, the system of orders was destroyed, at the beginning of the 18th century. Russia was actually left without a capital, since Moscow has ceased to be one, and St. Petersburg has not yet become. All power was still concentrated in the hands of the "team", which was called either the "close office" or the "council of ministers."
The turning point was the Decree of March 2, 1711, which proclaimed the creation of a new body of state power - the Senate. The formal reason was the departure of Peter to the war with Turkey. The decree was. At first, the Senate consisted of nine of the closest employees of the king, and Peter insisted on recognizing the Senate as the highest state body, to which all persons and institutions should obey, as the king himself.
In order to establish strict control over the administration, Peter in 1711 created a system of fiscals who were subordinate to the chief fiscal. They were charged with reporting to the Senate and the tsar about all abuses and unseemly actions of officials.
In 1712, Peter had the idea to create a collegium following the Swedish model. The first note of the king on the number of colleges refers to March 23, 1715 - only six colleges without deciphering their duties: Justice, Foreign Affairs, Admiralty, Military, Chambers and Commerce Collegia. The reform began in late 1717 - early 1718, when Peter drew up a kind of program for the upcoming transformations: he determined the number and competence of the colleges, and also staffed them with leadership. Decree of December 15, 1717 appoints the presidents and vice-presidents of the colleges:
In 1721, the Spiritual Collegium - the Synod, was formed, which was removed from the subordination of the Senate, in 1722 Berg and the Manufactory College were divided into the Berg College and the Manufacture College, the Little Russian Collegium was formed to improve the management of Ukraine, and the Patrimony Office The College of Justice received the status of a college.
In 1720, the General Regulations were adopted - a document defining the staff of the collegiums, definitively delimiting their functions and competence. The formation of the collegial system was completed. It functioned for almost a century - from 1717 to 1802.
After the establishment of the collegiums, Peter decided to reform the local government, following the Swedish model. Another reform of the local administrative-territorial structure has begun. In 1719-1720, "shares" and positions of landrats were abolished, the provinces were now divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into districts, headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium.
City government was transferred to the hands of the city leaders. The position of burmisters was abolished. The entire township population was divided into three parts: the 1st guild (wealthy merchants and owners of handicraft workshops), the 2nd guild (small merchants, wealthy artisans) and the "mean people", who made up the vast majority of the urban population. Only representatives of the "regular" population - members of the guilds - were given the right to elect to the new bodies of city self-government - magistrates, only members of the 1st guild could be elected. The activities of all city magistrates were controlled by the Chief Magistrate, created in 1720.
Along with the division of the urban population, transformations were also carried out in relation to the large class of the non-serf population - it was united into the estate of state peasants with a significant narrowing of rights and opportunities. Census 1719-1724. serfdom was abolished by merging it with the serfs.
The new system of governing bodies created a powerful layer of the bureaucratic nobility in Russia, and an extensive bureaucratic apparatus of nobility was formed. After the complete equalization of the land holdings of the nobles (estates) and boyars (estates), the noble land ownership finally turned into the dominant one, and the decree on the majorate of 1714 prevented the fragmentation of possessions. But this measure has not been fully implemented.
The Table of Ranks adopted in 1722, a set of laws on the procedure for public service, was a peculiar result of the administrative transformations of Peter I. The report card obligated all nobles to serve and declared service the only way to obtain any state rank, and it opened up opportunities for promotion and people from the "mean people", and reaching the eighth rank meant the assignment of the nobility, which was a well-known democratization of the management system. According to the Table, all posts were divided into six parts - military (land, guard, artillery, naval), civilian and courtier, and into 14 classes or ranks.
Many historians consider administrative reforms to be the weakest point of the Petrine reforms.
Church reform.
Peter's church reform played an important role in establishing absolutism. In the second half of the XVII century. the positions of the Russian Orthodox Church were very strong, it retained administrative, financial and judicial autonomy in relation to the royal power. The last patriarchs Joachim (1675-1690) and Adrian (1690-1700) pursued a policy aimed at strengthening these positions.
Peter's church policy, as well as his policy in other areas of public life, was aimed primarily at the most efficient use of the church for the needs of the state, and more specifically, at squeezing money out of the church for state programs, primarily for the construction of the fleet ("kumpanships"). "). After Peter's journey as part of the Great Embassy, he is also occupied with the problem of the complete subordination of the church to his authority.
In 1701, the Monastic order was formed - a secular institution - to manage the affairs of the church. The church begins to lose its independence from the state, the right to dispose of its property.
In 1701, the royal decree limited the number of monks: now one had to apply to the Monastic order for permission to be tonsured. Subsequently, the king had the idea to use the monasteries as shelters for retired soldiers and beggars. In the decree of 1724, the number of monks in the monastery is directly dependent on the number of people they look after.
The existing relationship between the church and the authorities required a new legal formalization. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were drawn up, which provided for the destruction of the institution of the patriarchate and the formation of a new body - the Spiritual College, which was soon renamed the "Holy Government Synod", officially equal in rights with the Senate. The creation of the Synod was the beginning of the absolutist period of Russian history, since now all power, including church power, was concentrated in the hands of Peter.
The adoption of the Spiritual Regulations actually turned the Russian clergy into state officials, especially since a secular person, the chief prosecutor, was appointed to supervise the Synod.
The reform of the church was carried out in parallel with the tax reform, the registration and classification of priests were carried out, and their lower strata were transferred to the head salary. A stormy reaction among the priests was caused by the Resolution of the Synod of May 17, 1722, in which the clergy were charged with the obligation to violate the secrecy of confession if they had the opportunity to communicate any information important to the state.
As a result of the church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and turned into a part of the state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular authorities.
Economic transformations.
In the Petrine era Russian economy, and above all, the industry has made a giant leap. At the same time, the development of the economy in the first quarter of the XVIII century. followed the path outlined by the previous period. In the Muscovite state of the XVI-XVII centuries. there were large industrial enterprises - Cannon Yard, Printing Yard, arms factories in Tula, a shipyard in Dedinovo, etc. Peter's policy in relation to economic life was characterized by a high degree of command and protectionist methods.
In agriculture, opportunities for improvement were drawn from the further development of fertile lands, the cultivation of industrial crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of animal husbandry, the advancement of agriculture to the east and south, as well as the more intensive exploitation of the peasants. The increased needs of the state for raw materials for Russian industry led to the widespread use of crops such as flax and hemp. The decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and hemp, as well as tobacco, mulberry trees for silkworms. The decree of 1712 ordered the creation of horse breeding farms in the Kazan, Azov and Kiev provinces, sheep breeding was also encouraged.
In the Petrine era, the country was sharply divided into two zones of feudal economy - the lean North, where the feudal lords transferred their peasants to quitrent, often letting them go to the city and other agricultural areas to earn money, and the fertile South, where landowning nobles sought to expand corvee .
The state duties of the peasants also increased. They built cities (40 thousand peasants worked on the construction of St. Petersburg), manufactories, bridges, roads; annual recruiting was carried out, old fees were increased and new ones were introduced. The main goal of Peter's policy all the time was to obtain the largest possible financial and human resources for state needs.
Two censuses were carried out - in 1710 and 1718. According to the census of 1718, the male "soul" became the unit of taxation, regardless of age, from which the poll tax was levied in the amount of 70 kopecks per year (from state peasants - 1 rub. 10 kopecks per year). This streamlined the tax policy and sharply raised state revenues (by about 4 times; by the end of Peter's reign, they amounted to 12 million rubles a year).
In industry, there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories. Under Peter, at least 200 new manufactories were founded, he encouraged their creation in every possible way. The policy of the state was also aimed at protecting the young Russian industry from competition from Western Europe by introducing very high customs duties (Customs Charter of 1724)
Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use of predominantly the labor of peasants - possession, ascribed, quitrent, etc. - made it a serf enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state, merchant and landowner. In 1721, industrialists were granted the right to buy peasants to secure them to the enterprise (possession peasants).
State state-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, bonded peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which produced mainly consumer goods, employed both sessional and quitrent peasants, as well as civilian labor. Landlord enterprises were fully provided by the forces of the serfs of the landowner-owners.
Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in various industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc. Entrepreneurial activity was encouraged, favorable conditions were created for people who created new manufactories or rented state ones. In 1711, in a decree on the transfer of linen manufactory to Moscow merchants A. Turchaninov and S. Tsynbalshchikov, Peter wrote: "If they multiply this plant with their zeal and make profit in it, and for that they ... will receive mercy."
There are manufactories in many industries - glass, gunpowder, paper, canvas, linen, silk weaving, cloth, leather, rope, hat, colorful, sawmill and many others. A huge contribution to the development of the metallurgical industry of the Urals was made by Nikita Demidov, who enjoyed the special favor of the king. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of the Ural ores, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk Canal, contributed to the development of metallurgy in new areas and brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry. At the beginning of the XVIII century. about 150 thousand poods of pig iron were smelted in Russia, in 1725 - more than 800 thousand poods (from 1722 Russia exported cast iron), and by the end of the 18th century. - more than 2 million pounds.
By the end of Peter's reign in Russia there was a developed diversified industry with centers in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Urals. largest enterprises there were the Admiralty shipyard, the Arsenal, the St. Petersburg powder factories, the metallurgical plants of the Urals, the Khamovny yard in Moscow. There was a strengthening of the all-Russian market, the accumulation of capital thanks to the mercantilist policy of the state. Russia supplied competitive goods to world markets: iron, linen, yuft, potash, furs, caviar.
Thousands of Russians were trained in Europe in various specialties, and, in turn, foreigners - weapons engineers, metallurgists, locksmiths were hired into the Russian service. Thanks to this, Russia was enriched with the most advanced technologies in Europe.
As a result of Peter's policy in the economic field, a powerful industry was created in an extremely short period of time, capable of fully meeting military and state needs and not dependent on imports in anything.
Changes in the field of science, culture and life.
The process of Europeanization of Russia in the era of Peter the Great is the most controversial part of the Petrine reforms. Even before Peter the Great, the prerequisites for broad Europeanization were created, ties with foreign countries, Western European cultural traditions gradually penetrate into Russia, even barbering goes back to the pre-Petrine era. In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened - the first institution of higher education in Russia. Yet Peter's work was revolutionary. V.Ya. Ulanov wrote: "What was new in the formulation of the cultural issue under Peter the Great was that now culture was recognized as a creative force not only in the field of special technology, but also in its wide cultural and everyday manifestations, and not only in application to the chosen society ... but also in relation to the broad masses of the people.
The most important stage in the implementation of the reforms was the visit of Peter as part of the Great Embassy of a number of European countries. Upon his return, Peter sent many young nobles to Europe to study various specialties, mainly to master the marine sciences. The tsar also took care of the development of education in Russia. In 1701, in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened, headed by the Scotsman Forvarson, professor at the University of Aberdeen. One of the teachers of this school was Leonty Magnitsky - the author of "Arithmetic ...". In 1711 an engineering school appeared in Moscow.
Peter sought to overcome as soon as possible the disunity between Russia and Europe that had arisen since the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. One of its manifestations was a different chronology, and in 1700 Peter transferred Russia to a new calendar - the year 7208 becomes 1700, and the celebration of the New Year is transferred from September 1 to January 1.
In 1703, the first issue of the Vedomosti newspaper, the first Russian newspaper, was published in Moscow; in 1702, the Kunsht troupe was invited to Moscow to create a theater.
Important changes took place in the life of the Russian nobility, which remade the Russian nobility "in the image and likeness" of the European one. In 1717, the book "An Honest Mirror of Youth" was published - a kind of etiquette textbook, and since 1718 there were Assemblies - noble assemblies modeled on European ones.
However, we must not forget that all these transformations came exclusively from above, and therefore were quite painful for both the upper and lower strata of society. The violent nature of some of these transformations inspired disgust and led to a sharp rejection of the rest, even the most progressive ones, undertakings. Peter aspired to make Russia a European country in every sense of the word and attached great importance to even the smallest details of the process.
The world in which we live today has largely robbed us of the illusion of ""full knowledge"" of our history. And yet, it seems that we feel the Peter's era, sometimes even "see" it deeper and better than the later periods of our historical movement. We understand the very personality of Peter I with his dissimilarity to the offspring of European imperial families, with his fundamentally unconventional attitudes of behavior and thinking. What is the secret of this "understanding effect"? Perhaps, in the fact that the well-known novel by A.N. Tolstoy "Peter the Great"? Or in the fact that we watched television series that conveyed the charm of the era in visible images (remember the movie "Young Russia"!)? Or is it that we often counted our statehood not from its ancient times, but from the reforms of Peter the Great?
In the era of Peter the Great, the purpose of the voyage was clear: Peter was obsessed with the idea of Europeanizing Russia, bringing it closer to its more economically and politically developed western neighbors. What were the attributes of European life for Peter, from the organization of the army to the fashion for "drinking coffee" or smoking tobacco? It seems that the remarkable Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, when he wrote that "" rapprochement with Europe was in the eyes of Peter only a means to achieve the goal, and not the goal itself "". Fixing a certain entourage of European life in Russian life, Peter tried to change not only the external (shave off beards, wear a European camisole), but also the internal appearance of a Russian about the extra-class value of a person, about civic honor and dignity of a person. Blind servility to a foreigner was generally alien to both Peter himself and his "eagles". Evidence of this is the brilliant victories of Russian weapons, which forced the astonished Europe to plan its relations with the unexpectedly awakened "Russian bear" in a new way. Russia strengthened its borders, expanded its borders, became an equal partner in all European affairs - military, trade, state, and later cultural.
Cultural contacts with Europe in the conditions of huge Russian distances, with bad roads, were carried out mainly in two ways. First of all, trips of Russian people abroad became more frequent, and not only with business or diplomatic assignments, but also for the purpose of study. It is hardly possible to list all those ""pensioners"" (i.e. those sent to study abroad at public expense) who were educated in the best European educational institutions. Some Russians, for example M.V. Lomonosov, lived in Europe for years. According to the custom of that time, many kept diaries, which to this day serve as an excellent source of knowledge about the ""eighteenth century"". Each diary is a living communication with the distant past, the breath of a past era that has come down to us.
The first thing that impresses in these notes is the lack of surprise at foreign “miracles”, which is so characteristic of the diary notes of Russian travelers of the 17th century. It is especially valuable that almost all the authors left a memory of the cultural image of Europe. Through the prism of these memories, one can still look at the then life in Western cities, take part in entertainment and carnivals, and stand in front of the masterpieces of the Renaissance. European architecture, painting, music gradually entered the cultural consciousness of Russians.
Before us is the diary of the stolnik P.A. Tolstoy, a representative of an old noble family, sent in 1697 to Italy to study navigation. The steward writes ... about the opera! Of course, it is difficult to imagine the life of an Italian city without opera. Born at the end of the 16th century under the influence of the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance, the opera genre became a symbol of the Italian national vocal genius, the personification of Italian music. At the beginning of the 18th century, many enlightened peoples of Europe paid tribute to opera. For Russia, this type of art has so far been a "closed book"
So, let's imagine Venice, the famous carnival with its multicolored colors and abundance of performances, among which opera performances occupy a worthy place. How did P.A. perceive this holiday? Tolstoy? Unlike his predecessors, he not only described in sufficient detail the staging of the opera, the scenery, the number of performers on stage and in the orchestra, but also carefully calculated how much such a production would cost in terms of money (in rubles) in Russia.
As a result of visiting foreign countries, deeper conclusions were drawn. Thus, Fyodor Saltykov, an ardent admirer of European culture, spent many years in England and outlined a wide range of reforms there that would contribute to the Europeanization of the Russian economy, education, science, and culture. It is curious that in the number of compulsory disciplines in men's educational institutions he included "" music, pictura, sculpture, miniature "". In an effort to equate "" and our women's people ... with European states "" he suggested in educational institutions to study "" instrumental and vocal music, that is, on all kinds of instruments and sing. Dance"".
Another way of ""acquaintance"" of Russian culture with the culture of European countries is due to the activities and creativity of foreigners in Russia. Their contribution to development is due to the activities and creativity of foreigners in Russia. Their contribution to the development of Russian art can hardly be overestimated. Is it really that, for example, the architect Rastrelli was born under the sky of Italy? It is much more important that in Russia he found a second home and created masterpieces that we rightfully consider our national treasure. Or the German Jacob von Steili, who left us a work on the history of Russian music, which is still almost the only reliable document for modern historians? Or the Italian bandmaster Francesco Araya, who created the first opera in a Russian text? All this is a touch to the overall picture of the rapprochement of Russian and European cultures.
Does it mean that Russian art was ready to adopt European traditions, mutually enriching dialogue? That it, having parted with "ancient piety", linked its future with the new secular cultural practice? How did this new correlate with the old, which was firmly rooted in society and had centuries-old traditions?
The combination of the old and the new in the era of Peter the Great gives a surprisingly variegated, ambiguous and aesthetically unequal picture of the development of the arts. Masterpieces of national artistic culture have not yet been created. But from this the general panorama of the construction of a new building - secular art - does not lose its attractiveness. Rather the opposite. Works of music, literature, painting, architecture give rise to a sense of this movement, convey the pulse of fast-paced life, the hot breath of history ...
So, it seems, we have come to the main thing that makes us see in the art monuments of the Petrine era an amazing historical document, which speaks better than any other sources about a stormy, bright, contradictory time.
Petra (2) ? Russia...
reforms Petra (15)
Abstract >> History16 I. historical conditions and background petrovsky reforms The reign of Peter I began in an atmosphere of cruel ... great transformations. What were background petrovsky reforms? Russia was a backward country. This...
Introduction
petrine church foreign policy emperor
V late XVII centuries in the historical arena Russian state a personality of the first magnitude, a global scale, appeared - Tsar Peter I. He was the grandson of the founder of the new ruling dynasty of the Romanovs, Mikhail Fedorovich, who was called to royal throne Zemsky Sobor in 1613
The personality of Peter occupied a large place in the work of poets and writers, painters and sculptors at all times. But already in the same century when Peter lived and died, the attitude towards him was ambiguous. Already during his lifetime, not everyone agrees with what and how he did, introducing his famous innovations. Later, in the second half of the century, some, recognizing the successes in Peter's reforming activities, mourn the ancient customs and customs of Muscovite Russia that have gone under him, the decline of aristocratic families, and the damage to morals. Others, such as A.N. Radishchev, also recognizing the great Peter the reformer, they reproach him for having exterminated "the last signs of the wild liberty of his Fatherland." These disputes carried over into the 19th century and continue today.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to recognize the merit of Peter I. He, undoubtedly, was a product of his era, absorbing its main features, and at the same time the creator of the new era, who largely determined the milestones of the country's future path. That is why it is important to try to understand this complex, contradictory personality, which bore a clear imprint of psychological non-standard, since this non-standard was generated by the totality of the realities of not only the personal, but also the social life of the tsar-reformer, and it, in turn, left an indelible mark on the fate of Russia.
The purpose of this work is to analyze the activities of the reforms of Peter I and its significance for the Russian state.
Prerequisites for the Petrine reforms
In the 17th century as a result of the activities of the first representatives of the Romanov dynasty, the socio-economic and political crisis of the state and society, caused by the events of the Time of Troubles, was overcome. At the end of the 17th century, there was a tendency for the Europeanization of Russia, and the prerequisites for future Peter's reforms were outlined. Researcher V.N. Rodenkov names the most important of them as follows:
1) the tendency to absolutize the supreme power (the elimination of the activities of the Zemsky Sobors as class-representative bodies), the inclusion of the word "autocrat" in the royal title;
2) formalization of national legislation (Conciliar Code of 1649). Further improvement of the code of laws associated with the adoption of new articles (in 1649-1690, 1535 decrees were adopted to supplement the Code);
3) activation of foreign policy and diplomatic activity of the Russian state;
4) reorganization and improvement of the armed forces (creation of regiments of a foreign system, changes in the order of recruitment and recruitment into regiments, distribution of military corps by districts);
5) reforming and improving the financial and tax systems;
6) the transition from handicraft production to manufacturing with the use of elements of hired labor and the simplest mechanisms;
7) the development of domestic and foreign trade (the adoption of the "Statutory Customs Letter" of 1653, the "New Trade Charter" of 1667);
8) the demarcation of society under the influence of Western European culture and Nikon's church reform; the emergence of national conservative and Western trends.
However, despite the emerging trend of Europeanization of Russia in the 17th century, in general, it lagged significantly behind the level of development of Western European states. Significant foreign policy efforts of Russia in the XVII century. led to very modest results. Access to the Baltic and Black Seas was still closed. In order to fight on equal terms with the European powers and Ottoman Empire, it was necessary not just to borrow individual achievements of Europe, but to make the European economy and culture, the European way of life a special value. Only then would the modernization of Russia's life acquire a really wide scale, the country could enter the circle of European powers.
A strong personality appears on the historical arena, who possessed not only supreme power, but also an understanding of the need for change, courage and determination, intelligence, energy and the talent of a reformer.
In the history of the Petrine reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mostly chaotic and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state associated with the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active state intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived, hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when hostilities had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. There was a further strengthening of the apparatus of power, manufactories not only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy was somewhat weakened, merchants and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action.
The goal of the reforms was to acquire the role of Russia as one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries in the military and economic terms. The main instrument of reform was deliberately applied violence. The pace of transformation depended on the urgency of solving a particular problem facing the state. At the same time, some transformations often caused the need for others, because a radical break in one area, as a rule, required an immediate reorganization in another or the creation of new structures and institutions.
18th century entered history as the era of modern times. It meant a civilizational shift: the destruction of the foundations of traditional European civilization and the establishment of a new one. This shift is called modernization. Russia has also embarked on the path of modernization. The beginning of this process was laid by the reforms of Peter I, which covered many spheres of society.
Prerequisites for the Peter the Great reforms:
Activation of foreign policy and diplomatic activity of the Russian state;
intensive development of domestic and foreign trade associated with the further implementation of the reform of the "township building", the adoption of the "Statutory Customs Charter" (1653), the "New Trade Charter" (1667);
reform and improvement of financial and tax systems;
Transition to manufacturing using elements of hired labor and the simplest mechanisms;
The tendency to absolutize the supreme power(liquidation of the activities of the Zemsky Sobors as class-representative bodies), the inclusion of the word "autocrat" in the royal title;
Registration of national legislation(Council Code of 1649), taking into account European legislation, in particular the Lithuanian Statute. Further improvement of the code of laws associated with the adoption of "newly indicated" articles (from 1649 to 1690, 1535 decrees were adopted supplementing the Code);
Reorganization and improvement of the armed forces(creation of regiments of a foreign system, changes in the order of recruitment of regiments, distribution of regiments by districts),
The division of society under the influence of Western European culture and Nikon's church reform, the emergence of national conservative and Western trends.
Despite the emerging trend of Europeanization of Russia in the 17th century, in general, it lagged significantly behind the level of development of Western European states. The country needed a strong personality who would have not only supreme power, but also an understanding of the need for change, courage and determination, intelligence, energy and the talent of a reformer. Such a figure appeared on the historical arena in the person of Peter I.
All state activity of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: from 1695 to 1715, and from 1715 to 1725.
An important feature of the transformational activity of the first period is its conditionality, first of all, by the tasks of internal reorganization, caused by the needs of the Northern War. The reforms were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active state intervention in the economy (regulation of trade, industry, tax, financial and labor activities). Many reforms were ill-conceived, hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power.
In the second period, when hostilities had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. There was a further improvement of the apparatus of power, manufactories not only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy was somewhat weakened, merchants and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action.
As for the pace of transformations, they depended on the urgency of solving one or another task facing the state. Reforms were often accidental, unplanned and carried out under the influence of circumstances. At the same time, some transformations often caused the need for others, because a radical break in one area, as a rule, required an immediate reorganization in another or the creation of new structures and institutions.
Public Administration Reforms
Under Peter I, absolutism was finally established in Russia, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant strengthening the power of the tsar himself, he became an autocratic and unlimited monarch.
In Russia, a reform of the state apparatus was carried out - instead of the Boyar Duma, the Senate was established, which included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. It was the legislative body, controlled the country's finances and the activities of the administration. At the head of the Senate was the prosecutor.
Regional reform
In the years 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. The country was divided into 8 provinces. Since the provinces were huge, they were subdivided into 50 provinces. In turn, the provinces were divided into counties. These measures testified to the creation in Russia of a unified administrative-bureaucratic system of government - an indispensable attribute of an absolutist state. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5536 households.
Reforms of the army and navy
Since 1705, recruitment duty has been introduced in the country, the norm for putting up a soldier for life-long service has been established - one recruit from 20 peasant households. The Table of Ranks (1722), which was a law on the order of public service, was an important result and legislative consolidation of all the reforming activities of Peter I.
Thus, under Peter I, the noble militia and the archery army were finally liquidated. The Russian army became permanent, had a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline.
The development of metallurgy contributed to a significant increase in the production of artillery pieces, outdated artillery of various calibers was replaced by new types of guns.
In the army, for the first time, a combination of cold and firearms was made - a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the fire and strike power of the troops.
Church reform
In 1700 Patriarch Adrian died, and Peter I forbade him to choose a successor. In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the "Holy Governing Synod" was created to govern the church.
Church reform meant the elimination of the independent political role of the church. She turned into constituent part bureaucracy of the absolutist state. In parallel with this, the state increased control over the income of the church and systematically withdrew a significant part of them for the needs of the treasury. These actions of Peter I caused discontent church hierarchy and black clergy and were one of the main reasons for their participation in all kinds of reactionary conspiracies.
financial reform
Peter I carried out a reform of the monetary business. The reform of the coinage provided for the minting of gold, silver and copper coins. The new monetary system was based on the decimal principle: 1 ruble = 10 hryvnias = 100 kopecks. Fifty kopecks (50 kopecks), half-fifty kopecks (25 kopecks), nickels (5 kopecks) were issued. Subsequently, altyn (3 kopecks) and five-altynny (15 kopecks) appeared in circulation. The minting of coins became a monopoly of the state, it was forbidden to export gold and silver (precious metals) abroad. Peter I was a supporter of mercantilism.
Already under Alexei Mikhailovich, many trends appeared in the development of the state, which would later appear in the transformations of Peter I. Already in the 17th century, the first manufactories appeared, large industrial enterprises appeared. Trade with foreign countries of both the West and the East was actively developing. Trade with Western Europe was carried out through the seaport of Arkhangelsk.
A relic of the past, requiring reform, was the system of orders. Branched out, with intertwined functions, clumsy, based on patriarchal methods of work. Office work was delayed, what was called red tape.
The immediate prerequisites for Peter's reforms can be traced in the policy of the tsar. Important changes in public life were:
- the military district reform of 1679, which introduced voivodship and local command administration in district cities. This transformation prepared the state for the organization of regular military service;
- unification of the system of ranks in 1681. A document was developed that brought together the hierarchy of ranks of the sovereign's court, ranks and the clerk's apparatus. This reform can be seen as a prototype of the "Table of Ranks";
- the abolition of parochialism in 1682 gave the opportunity to hold high positions, regardless of the nobility of origin;
- the introduction of a single tax (“streltsy money”) instead of many taxes. It was a prologue to reforming taxation;
- support for private initiatives in construction and trade. Encouragement of stone construction;
- clothing reform. Introduced "Hungarian caftans" in the Western manner for the royal subjects.
Events
1682-1725- the reign of Peter I (until 1696 - together with Ivan V).
1682- shooters uprising. It arose as a result of the ambiguous situation with the inheritance of the Russian throne. Tsar Fedor left no direct heirs. By right of seniority, the throne was to pass to his brother Ivan (the future Ivan V), but the Boyar Duma and the patriarch supported the candidacy of Peter (the future Peter I). The Streltsy army rebelled against the supporters of Peter. As a result of the rebellion, Peter and Ivan were proclaimed kings. Ivan was a formal co-ruler, until his death he did not accept active participation in the affairs of the state.
1682-1689- . Sophia, the sister of Ivan and Peter, actually ruled the state during the infancy of the kings.
During her reign, it was possible to maintain a compromise position between the interests of opposing social groups.
1686 - « Eternal Peace» with the Commonwealth. Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev became part of Russia in exchange for Russia's entry into the anti-Turkish military coalition.
1687, 1689 - Crimean campaigns that ended unsuccessfully. The campaigns failed to secure the southern borders of the country and revealed the need to reform the army.
1687- the foundation of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow.
1689- the uprising of archers, prepared by Sophia. It happened in connection with the marriage of Peter to E. Lopukhina, which meant the end of Sophia's regency. Sophia's attempt to retain power was unsuccessful. As a result, Sophia lost power and was imprisoned in a monastery.
1689- Nerchinsk treaty with China. Russia has lost significant territories on the left bank of the Amur, developed by Russian explorers.
1695- The first Azov campaign. The beginning of the implementation of Peter's plans to gain access to the sea. The unsuccessful siege of the Azov fortress showed the need to build a fleet.
1696- Second Azov campaign. By this time, the first fleet had already been built, with its participation it was possible to take Azov. Positions on the Sea of Azov were secured by the construction of the Taganrog fortress.
1697-1698- Great embassy. A diplomatic mission, with which, under the guise of a simple officer, Tsar Peter visited the Western European countries (Holland, England, Brandenburg, Austria) and got acquainted with the European way of life.
1698- uprising of archers under the leadership of Sophia. It happened during the absence of Peter in the country. The rebellion is suppressed by government troops.
1699- the formation of the Northern Union (Russia, the Commonwealth, Denmark, Saxony), directed against Sweden.
Members
Fedor Alekseevich
Peter I- Russian tsar and emperor, son of Alexei Mikhailovich from his second marriage with Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina.
Ivan V- Russian Tsar, son of Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage with Maria Miloslavskaya.
Sofia Alekseevna- Russian princess, daughter of Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage to Maria Miloslavskaya, regent under Peter I and Ivan V.
Golitsyn Vasily Vasilievich - statesman, headed the Russian government during the regency of Sophia.
Lopukhina Evdokia Fyodorovna- Russian empress, first wife of Peter I.
Conclusion
Peter's reforms in many aspects were prepared during the reign of his predecessors. The features of many of Peter's reforms can be seen even in early years his reign. Passion for shipbuilding and crafts, the desire to get access to the sea and have a powerful fleet predetermined large-scale reforms that would provide a source of funds and training for specialists. Peter learned a lot of examples of the realization of his aspirations from the life he saw with his own eyes. Western Europe during the Great Embassy.
Parallels
Unlike Russia, which did not have overseas colonies, in Western Europe, by the beginning of the 18th century, full swing a new type of society developed both in politics and in economics, social sphere and culture. Therefore, while traveling with the Great Embassy, Peter saw a striking contrast between Russia and the advanced countries of the West, which he visited.
In Western Europe, by the beginning of the 18th century, international trade was already flourishing, banks and stock exchanges were being created, and a market economy was developing. V European countries(especially in England and the Netherlands) manufactories are already widespread. The influx of gold and silver from colonial possessions increases the demand for handicraft products, it becomes possible to invest a lot of money in the development and enlargement of production.
It should be noted the difference between the factories of Western Europe, which employed workers from the naturally formed class of hired workers, and the factories of Peter I, state-owned, with serfs attached to them.