Characteristics of the church reforms of Peter 1. Financial reforms of Peter I - briefly

The church reform of Peter I should be considered not only in the context of his other state reforms, which created new Russia, but also in the context of church-state relations of the previous period.

First of all, within the framework of that conflict, between the royal and patriarchal authorities, which unfolded almost throughout the entire 17th century. And above all, which included Peter's father, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. This conflict itself had quite deep and understandable reasons. The 17th century is the time when Russian state turns from a monarchy based on the representation of estates, when the sovereigns of the Russian land relied on bodies, one way or another chosen by estate representatives, turns into absolute monarchy. The absolute monarch relies on professional bureaucracy, not necessarily associated with any official class groups, and on the same more or less permanent army. This process of transformation into an absolutist type of state took place throughout Europe. Earlier or later, all European states passed this path - England in the 16th century, France in the 16th-17th centuries, and so on. And an indispensable circumstance, an indispensable attribute of this transformation of the state into a new state formation was the conflict with the Church, which took more or less severe and even bloody forms for the Church.

We may recall in this case the Reformation in England under Henry VIII, or milder forms of the same interaction between the absolutist state and the Church in France. Russia followed the same path, and already in the second quarter of the 17th century, under the first Romanovs, the state in one way or another set the task of limiting church independence. One of the first acts of this kind was Cathedral code Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in 1649, when the state took away from the hierarchy certain judicial functions over people who inhabited church estates. This was perceived by all as one of the first steps towards secularization, towards the selection of these same church estates in favor of the state, which happened later in the 18th century. It was the Council Code that became the main reason for the conflict between the royal and patriarchal authorities in the 17th century.

For Peter, this experience of conflict relations was very relevant. He perfectly remembered the relationship of his father with Patriarch Nikon, and in this case, the reform to abolish the patriarchate should have been understood in this vein. Another thing is that Peter, apparently, did not immediately come to those forms of relations between the Church and the state that became characteristic of the entire subsequent imperial period. After the death of the last patriarch XVII - Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter takes a break at the age of 21. True, already in 1701, he recreated the monastery order, abolished several decades earlier, which just managed the church estates from the state and had judicial functions in relation to the people who inhabited these church estates. That is, at the very beginning, Peter is interested in the fiscal aspect, he is interested in the income of church property, which is brought by the patriarchal region and other dioceses, respectively - first of all, the patriarchal region, those possessions that were at the disposal of the patriarch, it is they that are controlled by the monastery order. But somewhere towards the end of the great Northern War, which had just been going on for 21 years, Peter gradually gropes new form state-church relations. Because during this twenty years it was not clear whether Peter would convene the Council, give sanctions on the choice of a new patriarch, or something else. Peter apparently himself at first was not sure of the decision he would make. But in 1721, he finds an employee who can offer him a new scheme of state-church relations - Bishop Feofan Prokopovich of Pskov and Narva, whom Peter instructs to draw up a new document - Spiritual Regulations, which would describe the new relationship between the Church and the state. According to the Spiritual Regulations, the patriarchate is abolished, and instead of the patriarch, a collegiate body is established - the Most Holy Governing Synod.

Moreover, the Spiritual Regulations is a rather interesting document, it is not so much a law as such, but a journalistic work that substantiates the new relationship between the Church and the state in imperial Russia. The synod is a collegiate body whose members are appointed by the emperor, it depends on him, and is not elected by the Church Council, the Synod depends on it, on the imperial power. The composition of the Synod at first was supposed to be mixed - it was supposed to include both representatives of the monastic clergy and the white clergy, that is, married priests, and bishops. And its head under Peter was called the president of the spiritual college. This later, as a rule, only bishops will be appointed to it, and the first member will lead the Synod. Thus the patriarchate is abolished, and with it, for almost 200 years, the Russian Church will also forget about Church Councils.

A year later, in 1722, Peter supplemented the synodal structure with one very important decree, according to him, the position of Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod was formed. Moreover, Peter's initial decree on the approval of this position was formulated quite in general terms - this should be an officer of sober behavior, who should keep order in the Synod. But what is order in the Synod? Should this officer interfere in the proceedings of the Synod, oversee the proceedings, or should he, first of all, ensure that the synodals do not get into a fight if they have some kind of sharp disagreement? This was not stated in Peter's decree. And so, throughout the 18th century, chief prosecutors interpreted the provisions of the decree in accordance with their inclinations. Someone who was determined to interfere actively enough in church affairs interpreted it in favor of expanding their functions, and those who perceived the chief prosecutor's position as a kind of honorary pension, an honorary sinecure, strove not to interfere in these affairs.

The 19th century will be the century of the real flourishing of the chief prosecutor's office. But that will be a different story.

The wise man avoids all extremes.
Lao Tzu

The reforms of Peter 1 are his main and key activities, which were aimed at changing not only the political, but also the social life of Russian society. According to Pyotr Alekseevich, Russia was very far behind in its development from Western countries. This confidence of the king was further strengthened after he conducted a great embassy. Trying to transform the country, Peter 1 changed almost all aspects of the life of the Russian state, which took shape over the centuries.

What was the reform of the central government

Reform central control this was one of Peter's first conversions. It should be noted that this reformation continued long time, since it was based on the need to completely restructure the work of the Russian authorities.

The reforms of Peter 1 in the field of central administration began in 1699. At the initial stage, this change affected only the Boyar Duma, which was renamed the Near Chancellery. With this step, the Russian tsar removed the boyars from power, allowed him to concentrate power in a more pliable and loyal office. This was an important step that required priority implementation, since it allowed the centralization of the country's administration.

The Senate and its functions

At the next stage, the king organized the Senate as the main body of government in the country. It happened in 1711. The Senate became one of the key bodies in governing the country, with the broadest powers, which were as follows:

Legislative activity
Administrative activity
Judicial functions in the country
Control functions for other bodies

The Senate consisted of 9 people. These were representatives of noble families, or people who were exalted by Peter himself. In this form, the Senate existed until 1722, when the emperor approved the post of prosecutor general, who controlled the legality of the activities of the Senate. Prior to this, this body was independent and did not carry any report.

Creation of boards

The reform of the central government continued in 1718. For three whole years (1718-1720) it took the reformer tsar to get rid of the last legacy of his predecessors - orders. All orders in the country were abolished and boards came in their place. There was no actual difference between the colleges and orders, but in order to radically change the administrative apparatus, Peter went for this transformation. In total, the following bodies were created:

College of Foreign Affairs. She was in charge of foreign policy states.
Military board. Engaged in ground forces.
Admiralty Board. Controlled the Russian Navy.
Office of Justice. Handled litigation, including civil and criminal cases.
Berg College. Under her command was the country's mining industry, as well as factories for this industry.
Manufactory College. Engaged in the entire manufacturing industry in Russia.

In fact, only one difference between collegiums and orders can be singled out. If in the latter the decision was always made by one person, then after the reform all decisions were made collectively. Of course, not many people decided, but the leader always had several advisers. They helped to take the right decision. After the introduction of the new system, a special system was developed to control the activities of the collegiums. For these purposes, the General Regulations were created. It was not general, but was published for each collegium in accordance with its specific work.

secret office

Peter created a secret office in the country, which dealt with cases of state crimes. This office replaced the Preobrazhensky order, which dealt with the same issues. It was a specific state body that was not subordinate to anyone except Peter the Great. In fact, with the help of the secret office, the emperor maintained order in the country.

Decree on unity. Table of ranks.

The decree on single inheritance was signed by the Russian tsar in 1714. Its essence boiled down, in addition to everything else, to the fact that the courts, which belonged to the boyar and noble estates, were completely equated. Thus, Peter pursued one single goal - to equalize the knowledge of all levels that were represented in the country. This ruler is known for the fact that he could bring a person without a family closer to him. After signing this law, he could give each of them what they deserved.

This reform continued in 1722. Peter introduced the Table of Ranks. In fact, this document equalized the rights in the public service for aristocrats of any origin. This Table divided the entire public service into two large categories: civil and military. Regardless of the type of service, all state ranks were divided into 14 ranks (classes). They included all key positions, ranging from simple performers to managers.

All ranks were divided into the following categories:

14-9 levels. An official who was in these ranks received the nobility and peasants in his possession. The only restriction was that such a nobleman could use the property, but not dispose of it as property. In addition, the estate could not be inherited.
8 - 1 level. This top management, which not only became the nobility and received in full control possessions, as well as serfs, but also got the opportunity to transfer their property by inheritance.

Regional reform

The reforms of Peter 1 affected many areas of the life of the state, including the work of local governments. The regional reform of Russia was planned for a long time, but was carried out by Peter in 1708. It completely changed the work of the local government apparatus. The whole country was divided into separate provinces, of which there were 8 in total:

Moscow
Ingermanlandskaya (later renamed Petersburg)
Smolensk
Kievskaya
Azov
Kazanskaya
Arkhangelsk
Simbirskaya

Each province was governed by a governor. He was personally appointed by the king. The entire administrative, judicial and military power was concentrated in the hands of the governor. Since the provinces were quite large in size, they were divided into counties. The counties were later renamed provinces.

The total number of provinces in Russia in 1719 was 50. military authority. As a result, the power of the governor was somewhat curtailed, since the new regional reform took away all military power from them.

City government reform

Changes at the level of local government prompted the king to reorganize the system of government in the cities. This was an important issue, since the urban population increased every year. For example, by the end of Peter's life, there were already 350,000 people living in the cities, who belonged to different classes and estates. This required the creation of bodies that would work with every estate in the city. As a result, the city administration was reformed.

Special attention in this reform was paid to the townspeople. Previously, their affairs were handled by governors. The new reform transferred power over this estate into the hands of the Chamber of Burmese. It was an elected body of power, which was located in Moscow, and in the field this chamber was represented by individual burmisters. It was only in 1720 that the Chief Magistrate was created, who was in charge of control functions in relation to the activities of the burmisters.

It should be noted that the reforms of Peter the Great in the field of city government introduced clear distinctions between ordinary citizens, who were divided into "regular" and "mean". The first belonged to the highest inhabitants of the city, and the second - to the lower classes. These categories were not unambiguous. For example, "regular citizens" were divided into: wealthy merchants (doctors, pharmacists and others), as well as simple artisans and merchants. All "regular" enjoyed great support from the state, which endowed them with various benefits.

The urban reform was quite effective, but it had a clear bias towards wealthy citizens who received the maximum support from the state. Thus, the tsar created a situation in which it became somewhat easier for cities to live, and in response, the most influential and wealthy citizens supported power.

Church reform

The reforms of Peter 1 did not bypass the church. In fact, new transformations finally subordinated the church to the state. This reform actually began in 1700, with the death of Patriarch Adrian. Peter forbade the election of a new patriarch. The reason was quite convincing - Russia entered the Northern War, which means that electoral and church affairs can wait for better times. Stefan Yavorsky was appointed to temporarily perform the duties of the Patriarch of Moscow.

The most significant transformations in the life of the church began after the end of the war with Sweden in 1721. The reform of the church was reduced to the following main steps:

The institution of the patriarchate was completely eliminated, from now on there should not have been such a position in the church
The church was losing its independence. From now on, all its affairs were managed by the Spiritual College, created specifically for these purposes.

The spiritual college lasted less than a year. She was replaced new organ state power- Holy Governing Synod. It consisted of clerics who were personally appointed by the emperor of Russia. In fact, from that time on, the church was finally subordinated to the state, and the emperor himself, through the Synod, was actually involved in its management. To exercise control functions over the activities of the synod, the position of chief prosecutor was introduced. This was an official whom the emperor also appointed himself.

Peter saw the role of the church in the life of the state in that it had to teach the peasants to respect and honor the tsar (emperor). As a result, laws were even developed that obliged the priests to conduct special conversations with the peasants, convincing them to obey their ruler in everything.

The significance of Peter's reforms

The reforms of Peter 1 actually completely changed the order of life in Russia. Some of the reforms really brought a positive effect, some created negative prerequisites. For example, the reform of local government led to a sharp increase in the number of officials, as a result of which corruption and embezzlement in the country literally rolled over.

In general, the reforms of Peter 1 had the following meaning:

The power of the state was strengthened.
The upper classes of society were actually equated in opportunities and rights. Thus, the boundaries between classes were erased.
Complete subordination of the church to state power.

The results of the reforms cannot be singled out unambiguously, since they had many negative aspects, but you can learn about this from our special material.

What is the Church reform of Peter 1? This whole line events that significantly changed the management of the Orthodox Russian Church. During the church reform of Peter 1, the system of "caesaropapism" was introduced - this is when the head of state was at the same time the head of the church. The term "caesaropapism" denotes the right of the head of state to ecclesiastical supreme power.
Church reform of Peter 1 reasons:
The Russian church at the end of the 17th century had a huge number of both internal and external problems, which were connected, first of all, with the position of the church in the state. At that time, the system of religious education and enlightenment was practically not developed. And in the second half of the 17th century, the reform of Patriarch Nikon led to a split.
The Council of 1654 began the procedure for unifying Moscow books in accordance with the Greek ones printed in Western printing houses. By order of Patriarch Nikon since 1653 to make the sign of the cross“three fingers” were needed, although since 1551 two-fingering was fixed. The Moscow Council of 1656 decided to consider everyone who is baptized with "two fingers" as heretics. As a result, there was church schism- Old Believers, "Nikonians" (supporters of Patriarch Nikon) and Old Believers (opponents of reforms - the common people, the main part of the Church) appeared. Patriarch Nikon was quite an ambitious person, he tried in every possible way to strengthen his influence in the state. The Russian tsars saw this and clearly feared the growing position of the Church in opposition to the development of autocracy in Russia. On the part of the head of state, there was a need for changes in the management of the church. But the government did not take radical measures. There were huge land holdings of the church and the fact that the population of these lands and monastic enterprises were exempted by the church from paying all kinds of taxes to the state. As a result, prices for the products of church industrial enterprises were lower, and this, in turn, prevented the development of the merchant business. But in order to seize church property, funds were needed, and under the same Peter the Great, Russia fought almost non-stop.
But in the 17th century, more and more lands continued to become the property of the clergy. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich issued the Monastic order, trying to administer trials against churchmen outside the church. But the strength and protest of the clergy was so significant that the Monastic Order had to be cancelled.
The essence of the church reform of Peter 1
Peter the Great is called a "Westernizer". At that time, pro-Western sentiments were already quite "heard" in Moscow. In turn, the clergy were clearly dissatisfied with the reforms that had begun in Russia, aimed at modernizing the country. Peter I did not like the clergy, also because among him there were many opponents of what Peter aspired to, namely, to create a state according to the Western European model. The visit to the Protestant European countries contributed to the strengthening of views on the relationship between the state and the church. The clergy, on the other hand, had high hopes for Tsarevich Alexei, the eldest son of Peter I. Having fled abroad, Alexei maintained contact with the metropolitans and bishops. The Tsarevich was found and returned to Russia. The charges imputed to him included, among other things, unnecessary "conversations with priests." And the representatives of the clergy who were convicted of communicating with the Tsarevich suffered punishment: they were all deprived of dignity and life. It is noteworthy that in preparing for the reform of church administration, Peter I was in close contact with the Jerusalem Patriarch (Dositheus) and the Ecumenical Patriarch (Cosmas). In particular, both for himself and for the Russian soldiers who are on military campaigns, Peter asked them for permission to "eat meat" during fasting.
The reforms of Peter I were aimed at:
to prevent the Russian patriarch from being raised into a second sovereign.
to the subordination of the church to the monarch. The clergy is not another state, but, on an equal basis with everyone else, must obey the general laws.
The patriarch at that time was Adrian, who was very disposed to antiquity and not disposed to the reforms of Peter I. In 1700, Patriarch Adrian died, and shortly before that, Peter himself had already banned the construction of new monasteries on the territory of Siberia. And in 1701 the Monastic order was restored. Bishop's houses, the Patriarch's court, monastic farms were transferred to him. The secular boyar Musin-Pushkin became the head of the Monastic order. Then a series of decrees were issued one after another, which significantly reduced the independence of the clergy from the secular authorities. “Purges” took place in the monasteries: all the “unshorn” were expelled, women were allowed to take tonsure in women’s monasteries only after forty years, and the monastery property and household were given to the Monastic order. A ban was imposed on the possession of land by monks.
Of the indulgences, it is worth noting the softening of the harsh persecution of schismatics and the permission of free religion for Catholics and Protestants. Peter spoke on this subject in such a way that "the Lord gave power to the king, but only Christ has power over the conscience of the people." All significant events both in the life of the country and in the life of the king personally were accompanied by church services in a solemn atmosphere. The bishops were instructed not to "invent miracles": not to take unknown remains for holy relics and not to ascribe miraculous powers to icons, not to encourage holy fools. People of various ranks were forbidden to give alms to the poor. It was possible to donate in almshouses.
The results of the church reform of Peter 1
Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky was appointed Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne, that is, Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky was appointed to lead the affairs of the church. He was completely under the authority of the head of state, and his authority was reduced to zero. He was authorized in Moscow to hold meetings with representatives of the clergy, about which he immediately had to report to the sovereign. And since 1711, the Governing Senate began its work (instead of the Boyar Duma), all the services of the state had to obey the decrees of the Senate: secular and spiritual. The appointment of any clergyman to a position has now become possible only with the permission of the Senate, moreover, the permission to build churches is now issued by the Senate.
Gradually, all institutions were concentrated in St. Petersburg, and here, on the orders of the sovereign, the guardian of the patriarchal throne moved. And in 1721, Peter I established the Theological College, which was soon renamed the Holy Governing Synod - a new church administration. The synod was obedient to the sovereign, and the system was built in such a way that Peter arranged for supervision over the activities of the Synod. In the Synod, a chief prosecutor was appointed, whose task was to control communications with the civil authorities and not coordinate the decisions of the Synod if they differed from the decrees of the king. The chief prosecutor was the "eye of the sovereign." And the "correct" state of affairs in the Synod was monitored by the inquisitors. The main goal of the Synod, according to Peter's plan, was to correct the vices church life: supervise the activities of the clergy, check the texts of sacred writings, fight superstitions, observe services, prevent various false teachings from penetrating the faith and administer the patriarchal court.
It so happened that in ancient Russia, almost everyone could go to the clergy. Any clergyman could freely walk from one city to another, from one temple to another. Even a landowner or a non-free person could go to the clergy. For many, this was also an opportunity to find income easier. The parishioners often chose the right person"of his own" for the position of a clergyman. And instead of the deceased clergyman, his children or relatives were often appointed. And sometimes in a church or parish, instead of one priest, there were several people - priests - relatives. In ancient Russia, the so-called "wandering priesthood" or "sacral" was developed. In ancient Moscow (as in other cities), crossroads were called crossroads, where large streets intersected. There have always been crowds of people for various reasons. In Moscow, the Spassky and Varvarsky sacraments were the most famous. Representatives of the clergy who left their parishes and went to "free bread" gathered here. Those who needed a priest "one-time" came here - a prayer service at home, celebrate magpie, a blessing.
At the very beginning of the 18th century, Peter I ordered to limit the availability of entry into the spiritual rank. Moreover, at the same time, the system for leaving the clergy is being simplified. All this leads to a reduction in the number of clergymen. At the same time, peculiar quotas for new churches are being introduced - strictly according to the number of parishioners.
Theological schools were also established to train priests. It was prescribed for every bishop to have a school for children at home or at home.
Peter I did not like monks. It was in the walls of the monasteries, according to Peter, that a hostile force was hiding for him, capable of bringing confusion into the minds of people. All decrees on monasteries came down to reducing their number, complicating the conditions for admission to monks. Peter tried to adapt the monastic farms to "useful" institutions for the good of Russia: hospitals, schools, almshouses, factories. Peter began to use monasteries as shelters for beggars and disabled soldiers. Monks and nuns were ordered to leave the monasteries for two or three hours by special permission, long absences were prohibited.

Reforms of Peter I

Reforms of Peter I- transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All state activity of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: -1715 and -.

A feature of the first stage was haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for warfare, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.

Decisions in the Senate were taken collectively, on general meeting and supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, then the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time placed personal responsibility on its members.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the post of fiscals appeared. The duty of the Chief Fiscal in the Senate and the Fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: they identified cases of violation of decrees and abuses and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was monitored by the auditor general, who was renamed the chief secretary. Since 1722, the control over the Senate has been carried out by the Prosecutor General and the Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Attorney General. The Prosecutor General and his Deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but their implementation required an administrative apparatus. In -1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 colleges were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each collegium were strictly delineated, and relations within the collegium itself were based on the principle of collegiality of decisions. Were introduced:

Collegium of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs - replaced the Posolsky Prikaz, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.
Military Collegium (Military) - acquisition, armament, equipment and training of the land army.
Admiralty Board - naval affairs, fleet.
The patrimonial collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the investigation of fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.
Chamber College - collection of state revenues.
State-offices-collegium - was in charge of the state's expenses,
Revision Board - control of the collection and spending of public funds.
Commerce College - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
Berg College - mining and metallurgical business (mining and plant industry).
Manufactory College - light industry (manufactories, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).
The College of Justice was in charge of civil proceedings (the Serf Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, on the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). Worked in civil and criminal litigation.
Theological College or the Holy Governing Synod - managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This collegium/Synod included representatives of the higher clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the king, and the decisions were approved by him, we can say that Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular power were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an enlightening mission among the peasants: to read sermons and instructions to them, to teach children prayers, to instill in them reverence for the tsar and the church.
The Little Russian Collegium - exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who owned power in Ukraine, because there was special treatment local government. After the death in 1722 of hetman I. I. Skoropadsky, new elections of hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by tsar's decree. The collegium was headed by a tsarist officer.

The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

In addition, there were the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office.

Control over the activities of civil servants

To control the execution of decisions on the ground and reduce rampant corruption, since 1711, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to "secretly visit, denounce and denounce" all abuses, both higher and lower officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the king and subordinate to him. The Chief Fiscal was a member of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate Chancellery. Denunciations were considered and monthly reported to the Senate by the Punishment Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).

In 1719-1723. the fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, with the establishment in January 1722 of the post of prosecutor general were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal was the general fiscal, appointed by the sovereign, his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the College of Justice and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

Ordinary archers in 1674. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

Reforms of the army and navy

The reform of the army: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet began necessary conditions victory in the Northern War -1721. Preparing for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and start training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhenians and Semyonovites. This first recruitment gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households had to put up one recruit for life service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment to the fleet, as well as to the army, was carried out from recruits.

Private army infantry. regiment in 1720-32. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of the navigation, artillery, engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the nobility. In 1715, the Naval Academy was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1716, the Military Charter was issued, which strictly defined the service, rights and duties of the military. - As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army and a powerful navy were created, which Russia simply did not have before. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground troops reached 210 thousand (of which there were 2600 in the guard, 41 560 in the cavalry, 75 thousand in the infantry, 14 thousand in the garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; 787 galleys and other vessels; there were almost 30 thousand people on all the ships.

Church reform

Religious politics

The age of Peter was marked by a trend towards greater religious tolerance. Peter terminated the “12 Articles” adopted by Sophia, according to which the Old Believers who refused to renounce the “schism” were to be burned at the stake. The "schismatics" were allowed to profess their faith, subject to the recognition of the existing public order and double taxes. Complete freedom of belief was granted to foreigners who came to Russia, restrictions were lifted on the communication of Orthodox Christians with Christians of other faiths (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).

financial reform

Some historians characterize Peter's policy in trade as a policy of protectionism, which consists in supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of mercantilism). So, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be manufactured or already produced by domestic enterprises.

The number of factories and factories at the end of the reign of Peter extended up to , including about 90 were large manufactories.

autocracy reform

Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was in no way regulated by law, and was entirely determined by tradition. Peter in 1722 issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch during his lifetime appoints himself a successor, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint “the most worthy” as his successor). This law was in effect until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not use the law of succession to the throne, since he died without indicating a successor.

estate policy

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society developed, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights and duties of the nobility were expanded, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

Key milestones:

Decree on education of 1706: Boyar children must receive either primary school or home education without fail.
Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.
Decree of uniform inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate only one of them of your choice. The rest were required to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the difference between the two estates of feudal lords.
"Table of Ranks" () of the year: division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of hereditary nobility. Thus, a person's career depended primarily not on his origin, but on achievements in public service.

The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of the ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed the representatives of the former tribal nobility with people raised by the service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed his duties. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all sections of the population. The nobleman of the time of Peter the Great still has the exclusive right to land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on uniform inheritance and on revision, he is responsible to the state for the tax serviceability of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in order to prepare for the service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening, through the length of service through the Table of Ranks, access to the environment of the gentry to people of other classes. On the other hand, by the law of single inheritance, he opened the exit from the nobility to merchants and the clergy to those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia becomes a military-bureaucratic estate, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the position of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landlords or the church (black-eared peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new single category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying dues to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as fortresses. State. peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act as one of the parties in court, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (up to early XIX centuries, when this category is finally approved as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts relating to the serfs proper were contradictory. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to put serfs in their place as defendants in court and keep them on the right for the debts of the owner. The norm was also confirmed on the transfer of landowners' estates, who ruined their peasants, to custody, and the serfs were given the opportunity to enroll in soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Empress Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, the serfs lost this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were granted the right to move into the settlements, freeing themselves from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against fugitive peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. A decree on 7 April 1690 was allowed to yield, for the unpaid debts of "local" serfs, which was effectively a form of serf trading. The taxation of serfs (that is, personal servants without land) with a poll tax led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the power of the monasteries. Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessive. By a decree of 1721, nobles and merchants-manufacturers were allowed to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought to the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufactory. Posessional peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Urban population

The urban population in the era of Peter I was very small: about 3% of the country's population. the only major city was Moscow, which until the reign of Peter was the capital. Although in terms of the level of development of cities and industry, Russia was much inferior to Western Europe, but in during the XVII v. there was a gradual increase. The social policy of Peter the Great, concerning the urban population, pursued the provision of the payment of the poll tax. To do this, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, artisans of workshops) and irregular citizens (everyone else). The difference between the urban regular inhabitant of the end of the reign of Peter and the irregular one was that the regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate, was enrolled in the guild and workshop, or carried a monetary duty in the share that fell on him according to the social layout.

Transformations in the sphere of culture

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ”. The year 7208 of the Byzantine era became the year 1700 from the Nativity of Christ, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, the uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced under Peter.

After returning from the Great Embassy, Peter I led the fight against the outward manifestations of the "outdated" way of life (the most famous ban on beards), but no less paid attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Seculars began to appear schools, the first Russian newspaper was founded, translations of many books into Russian appear. Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education.

There have been changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) forbade forced marriage and marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least six weeks between the betrothal and the wedding, "so that the bride and groom could recognize each other." If during this time, the decree said, “the bridegroom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insisted, “there is freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to terminate the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither side had the right to “beat with a forehead for a penalty”. Legislative prescriptions 1696-1704 about public festivities introduced the obligation to participate in the celebrations and festivities of all Russians, including "female".

Gradually, among the nobility, a different system of values, worldview, aesthetic ideas took shape, which was fundamentally different from the values and worldview of most representatives of other estates.

Peter I in 1709. Drawing of the middle of the 19th century.

Education

Peter was clearly aware of the need for enlightenment, and took a number of decisive measures to this end.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met with fierce resistance and was canceled. Peter's attempt to create an all-estate elementary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death, most of the digital schools under his successors were redesigned into class schools for the training of the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign, the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

Peter I remained in the history of our country as a cardinal reformer who abruptly turned the course of life in Russia. In this role, only Vladimir Lenin or Alexander II can compare with him. For 36 years independent government autocrat, the state not only changed its status from a kingdom to an empire. All spheres of the life of the country have changed. The reforms affected everyone - from the homeless to the nobleman from St. Petersburg under construction.

The Church was not left out. Possessing infinite authority among the population, this organization was distinguished by its conservatism and inability to change and interfered with the growing power of Peter. Inertia and adherence to the traditions of the priests did not prevent the emperor from making changes in religious circles. First of all, it is, of course, an Orthodox synod. However, it would be erroneous to say that this is where the changes ended.

The State of the Church on the Eve of the Reforms

The highest church body under Peter 1 at the beginning of his reign was the patriarchy, which still had great power and independence. The crown bearer, of course, did not like this, and on the one hand he wanted to subordinate all the higher clergy directly to himself, and on the other, he was disgusted by the prospect of the appearance of his own Pope in Moscow. The guardian of the throne of St. Paul did not at all recognize anyone's authority over himself. In addition, Nikon, for example, strove under Alexei Mikhailovich.

The young tsar's first step in relations with the Orthodox clergy was a ban on the construction of new monasteries in Siberia. The decree is dated 1699. Immediately after this, the Northern War with Sweden began, which constantly distracted Peter from clarifying his relationship with Orthodoxy.

Creation of the title of locum tenens

When Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, the tsar appointed a locum tenens of the patriarchal throne. They became the Metropolitan of Ryazan. Adrian's successor was allowed to deal only with "works of faith." That is to engage in heresy and worship. All other powers of the patriarch were divided between orders. This concerned primarily economic activity in the lands of the Church. The war with Sweden promised to be long, the state needed resources, and the tsar was not going to leave extra funds to the “priests”. As it turned out later, it was a prudent move. Soon the parish bells began to be sent to be melted down for new cannons. The highest church body under Peter 1 did not resist.

The locum tenens had no independent power. For all important issues he had to consult with the rest of the bishops, and send all reports directly to the sovereign. At the time of the reform were frozen.

At the same time, the importance of the monastic order increased. In particular, he was instructed to take control of the ancient Russian tradition - begging. Fools and beggars were caught and taken to the order. Those who gave alms were also punished, regardless of rank and position in society. As a rule, such a person received a fine.

Creation of the Synod

Finally, in 1721, the Holy Governing Synod was created. At its core, it has become an analogue of the Senate Russian Empire, who was responsible for the executive power, being the highest body of the state, directly subordinate to the emperor.

The synod in Russia meant positions such as president and vice president. Although they were soon canceled, such a step perfectly shows the habit of Peter I to use the practice of the Table of Ranks, that is, to create new ranks that have nothing to do with the past. Stefan Yarovsky became the first president. He had no prestige or power. The position of Vice President served as an oversight function. In other words, it was an auditor who informed the tsar about everything that happened in the department.

Other positions

The post of chief prosecutor also appeared, which regulated the relationship of the new structure with society, and also had the right to vote and lobbied for the interests of the crown.

As in secular ministries, the Synod has its own spiritual fiscals. In their sphere of influence was all spiritual activity on the territory of the country. They monitored the implementation of religious norms, etc.

As noted above, the Synod was created as an analogue of the Senate, which means that it was in constant contact with it. The link between the two organizations was a special agent who delivered reports and was responsible for the relationship.

What was the Synod responsible for?

The responsibility of the Synod included both the affairs of the clergy and matters related to the laity. In particular, the highest church body under Peter 1 was supposed to monitor the performance of Christian rites and eradicate superstition. Here it is worth mentioning education. The synod under Peter 1 was the last authority responsible for textbooks in all kinds of educational institutions.

Secular clergy

According to Peter, the white clergy were to become an instrument of the state, which would influence the masses and monitor their spiritual state. In other words, the same clear and regulated estate was created, like the nobility and merchants, with their own goals and functions.

The Russian clergy throughout its previous history was distinguished by its accessibility to the population. It was not a caste of priests. On the contrary, almost everyone could enter there. For this reason, there was an overabundance of priests in the country, many of whom ceased to serve in the parish, and became vagabonds. Such ministers of the Church were called "sacral". The lack of regulation of this environment, of course, became something out of the ordinary during the time of Peter 1.

A strict charter was also introduced, according to which the priest in the service had only to praise the new reforms of the king. The synod under Peter 1 issued a decree obliging the confessor to inform the authorities if a person confessed in confession to a state crime or blasphemy against the crown. Disobedient were punishable by death.

church education

Numerous audits were carried out, checking the education of the clergy. Their result was a mass deprivation of dignity and a reduction in class. The highest church body under Peter 1 introduced and systematized new norms for obtaining the priesthood. In addition, now each parish could only have a certain number of deacons and no more. In parallel with this, the procedure for leaving one's dignity was simplified.

Speaking about church education in the first quarter XVIII century, it should be noted the active opening of seminaries in the 20s. New educational institutions appeared in Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov, Tver, Kazan, Kolomna, Pskov and other cities of the new empire. The program included 8 classes. Boys with primary education were accepted there.

Black clergy

The black clergy also became the object of the reforms. In short, the changes in the life of the monasteries boiled down to three goals. First, their number has steadily decreased. Secondly, access to ordination was hampered. Thirdly, the remaining monasteries were to receive a practical purpose.

The reason for this attitude was the personal hostility of the monarch to the monks. This was largely due to childhood experiences in which they remained rebels. In addition, the way of life of a schemnik was far from the emperor. He preferred practical activity to fasting and prayer. Therefore, it is not surprising that he built ships, worked as a carpenter, and did not like monasteries.

Wanting these institutions to bring some benefit to the state, Peter ordered them to be converted into infirmaries, factories, factories, schools, etc. But the life of the monks became much more complicated. In particular, they were forbidden to leave the walls of their native monastery. Absences were severely punished.

The results of the church reform and its further fate

Peter I was a convinced statesman and, in accordance with this conviction, made the clergy a cog in common system. Considering himself the sole bearer of power in the country, he deprived the patriarchate of any power, and over time completely destroyed this structure.

Already after the death of the monarch, many excesses of the reforms were canceled, however, in general terms, the system continued to exist until the revolution of 1917 and the Bolsheviks came to power. Those, by the way, actively used the image of Peter I in their anti-church propaganda, praising his desire to subordinate Orthodoxy to the state.