SCIENCE IN THE 19th CENTURY

The development of science in the period under review was characterized by the following features: there was an intensive assimilation of European experience, new research centers arose in the country, specialization increased. scientific knowledge, applied research has received priority development.

The creation of new universities in the country significantly changed the form of organization of science. Until the beginning of the 19th century, the concentration of the scientific life of the empire was the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. After at the end of the XVIII century. the academic university was closed, and after it the academic gymnasium, the academy specialized exclusively in the field of science and its popularization.
However, Russian universities very soon began to declare their scientific research. Moreover, in the first half of the XIX century. was designated
the trend towards the creation of university scientific schools. Academicians did not recognize non-academic science. The antagonism between academic and university corporations tragically affected the fate of the discovery of the mathematician N.I. Lobachevsky.
Maths. NI Lobachevsky, a graduate of Kazan University, began his teaching career in 1811 with lectures on celestial mechanics and number theory. The Kazan professor entered the history of world science as the creator of a new system, the so-called "non-Euclidean geometry", which revolutionized the views on modern mathematics. However, members of the academy V.Ch.Bunyakovsky and M.V. Ostrogradsky gave unfairly harsh comments about it. Academic mathematicians, prominent scientists (V.Ya.Bunyakovsky was known as the author of the theory of inequalities, and M.V. Ostrogradsky was considered a recognized authority in mathematical physics) could not overstep corporate interests for the sake of high science.
During the life of Lobachevsky, his discovery was never recognized. For almost 19 years, the scientist headed the Kazan University, paid much attention to the formation of the university library.
Astronomy. Historians of Russian astronomical science divide it into two periods: before and after the establishment of the Pulkovo Observatory (1839). At the beginning of the first period, astronomical work was carried out mainly by academic astronomers. But the obsolete observatory of the Academy of Sciences no longer met the requirements for the accuracy of measurements.
Soon the leading position was taken by the Dorpat University observatory. It was there that Academician V.Ya. Struve and his students founded a new direction in astronomy. Using the latest mathematical and physical methods, they have achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances. Struve's work on astrometry and the study of binary stars became world famous.
The Nikolaev Pulkovo Observatory, built according to Struve's design, and equipped with the latest instruments, has become the main center of astronomical research. It was intended for the production of constant observations and, in addition, was obliged to contribute to practical astronomy.
The first professor of astronomy at Kazan University was Litgrove, who built a small observatory. Better known in astronomy is his student I.M. Simonov, a participant in the journey to Antarctica. Most of his works are devoted to the study terrestrial magnetism... For a number of years Simonov was the rector of Kazan University.
Physics. In the center of attention of Russian physicists in the first half of the 19th century. was the study of the properties of electricity and the physical phenomena of nature.
At the beginning of the century, the best physics study in Russia was the laboratory at the Medical-Surgical Academy. The equipment for it was purchased by the government in recognized European centers. Carrying out numerous experiments in it, V.V. Petrov discovered an electric arc, which began to be used in metallurgy and in lighting. Later, the scientist studied chemical action current, electrical conductivity, luminescence, electrical phenomena in gases.
After the opening of the University of Dorpat, one of the oldest Russian physics schools was formed there. A lot of TBMU was assisted by the rector of the university, professor of physics G.F. Parrot. One of his i. ^ O-famous students was E.H. Lenz, the creator of the laws "Lenz Rule", "Joule-Lenz Law".
At the University of Dorpat, Academician B.SYakobi made his first experiments on electromagnetism. In 1834 he first tested it to drive a ship. Jacobi founded a new direction in physics - electroplating. In the 1840-1850s. the scientist was engaged in the development of the telegraph apparatus and invented several of its modifications.
Chemistry. In the first half of the century, a strong school of chemistry began to take shape at Kazan University. Its creation was stimulated by the special concern of the government to overcome the country's technological backwardness. The university reform of 1835 prescribed the allocation of special subsidies for the organization of chemical laboratories in universities. In the late 1830s. professors of Kazan University P.P. Zinin and K.K. Klaus founded a chemical and technological laboratory.
In them, already in 1842, Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for the artificial production of aniline and some other aromatic bases. These discoveries became the basis for the development in the country of the production of synthetic dyes, fragrances and drugs... And in 1844 Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element - ruthenium.
A little later, in the second half of the 1840s, the second Russian center of chemical science was formed at St. Petersburg University. He gave such famous chemists as Professor NN Beketov, whose discoveries in the field of metal chemistry improved Russian metallurgical production.
The formation of medical science is associated with the opening of the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy (1799) and medical faculties at universities. The professor of the academy was a famous Russian; rug N.I. Pirogov, the founder of military field surgery and anatomical expert direction in science. He first performed an operation under anesthesia on the battlefield (1847), introduced an immobile plaster cast, and proposed a number of new surgical operations. Pirogov's atlas "Topographic Anatomy" (T. 1-4, 1851-1854) was world-famous.
Medicine. The inclusion of new territories in the Russian Empire contributed to the interest in geographical and ethnographic research. Their routes in the first half of the 19th century. ran into the vastness of the Urals, Siberia, the Far East and Alaska. Another direction of Russian travels was the southern steppes and Central Asian countries. Simultaneously with the study of the inner parts of the empire and the lands bordering on it, there were works on the inventory of the seas and inland water basins. As a result, maps were compiled, a description of the territory, ethnographic and statistical materials were collected.
Geography. During the reign of Alexander I, Russian geographical science powerfully declared itself in the world with a number of round-the-world expeditions and works in Arctic Ocean... In 1803-1806. the first such expedition took place on two bark *** x "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the command of IF Kruzenshtern and YF Lisyansky. After that, about 40 more round-the-world travels were made.
Taken in the 1820s and 30s. polar expeditions proved the existence of the Northern Sea Route between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. This refuted the hypothesis of the presence of an isthmus between Asia and America.
Russian navigators FF Bellingshausen and MP Lazarev on the military ships "Vostok" and "Mirny" undertook an expedition, the purpose of which was to continue the exploration "to the farthest latitude that can only be reached." In January 1821 it ended with the event of the century: the discovery of the sixth part of the world of Antarctica.
Thus, the first half of the 19th century. became the time of the organizational formation of Russian science, the formation of scientific schools in it.Russian scientists made breakthroughs in many fields of knowledge, which made Russia a scientifically advanced country, but the delay in economic and political transformations contributed to the fact that science developed largely in isolation from social needs, as it were, operas, that of them. Scientific research were rarely subsidized by Russian preachers, as in Europe
Science in Russia was a child of the government and therefore was very dependent on the government, on the government's attitude towards it.
By the middle of the XIX century. completed one of the major stages in the history of Russian culture. The main content of the cultural process of the time under consideration was the development of national culture.
First half of the 19th century - the formation and development of Russian literature, and with it the theater. During the period under review, the formation of the Russian language took place, a close connection of Russian literature with the development of social thought was determined. There is a further development of the genres of national professional music, the emergence of new techniques and means of musical expression, the development of the musical heritage of the people. During this period, musical classics appeared, a national school in Russian music was created.
For artistic culture of the first half of the 19th century. there were larak-thorns fast change artistic directions, the simultaneous coexistence of different artistic styles. In the visual arts, great success has been achieved in the development of new genres, new means of expression, in the search for new themes.
Continuity in development (the basis for the formation of the cultural heritage of society) is one of the characteristic features of the cultural process in Russia.
Russian culture was characterized by the ability to perceive, to accumulate all that was best in European culture, while maintaining national identity.

The educational system in the 19th century

The very beginning of the 19th century was characterized by liberal endeavors in the field of education. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created - a special state body, which became not so much a body contributing to the development of public education, as "as an oversight body." Under the ministry, the Main Directorate of Schools was created, which included F.I. Yankovich.

In 1804, the Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire and the Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to the Universities were published. In accordance with them, a new system of public education and management of educational institutions was introduced.

The system was based on three principles:

Free,

Desolation (except for serfs),

Continuity of educational institutions.

The public education system subordinated to the ministry included:

1) Parish schools - 1 year of study;

2) County schools - 2 years:

3) Gymnasiums in the provinces - 4 years;

4) Universities - 5-7 years.

At the same time, children of serfs and girls were not allowed in the gymnasium and universities.

Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, each headed by a university. They were headed by the trustees of the educational districts.

Responsibilities of the trustee are to open a university or transform the existing leadership of the district's educational institutions on a new basis through the rector of the university.

The rector of the university was elected by professors at a general meeting and was subordinate to the trustee. The rector headed the university and, in addition, managed the educational institutions of his district.

The directors of the gymnasiums (in each provincial town), in addition to their direct supervision, managed all the schools of the given province. They were subordinate to the superintendents of the district schools, who supervised all the parish schools.

Thus, the head of the higher school was the administrator of the lower schools. As a result of this, the administration of education was created from specialists who knew the business.

The following universities were opened in Russia: Moscow, Vilensky (Vilnius), Derpt (Tartu), Kharkov and Kazan were opened in 1804, in 1816 - the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg (in 1819 transformed into St. Petersburg University), in 1834 - Kiev University. All universities in Russia existed primarily as secular educational institutions. The Orthodox Church had its own theological academies: Moscow, Petersburg, Kiev and Kazan.

The gymnasium gave a completed secondary education and prepared for entering the university. The content of training was encyclopedic: it was supposed to study foreign new and Latin languages, mathematics, geography and history of general and Russian, natural history, philosophy, political economy, fine arts, technology and commerce. At the same time, their native language, Russian literature and the Law of God were not taught in the gymnasium.

County schools prepared students for continuing education in gymnasiums, as well as for practical activities. The curriculum contained many subjects - from the Law of God to drawing (Sacred history, reading a book about the positions of man and citizen, geography, history, etc.). The heavy workload of the curriculum led to a heavy load of teachers and students: 6-7 hours of classes at school every day. Teachers were required to use only textbooks recommended by the ministry.

Parish schools could open in provincial and district towns and villages at each church parish. They also had two goals: to prepare for education at the district school and to give children general education knowledge (boys and girls could study together). Subjects of study: The Law of God and moralizing, reading, writing, the first steps of arithmetic.

At the gymnasiums, boarding schools were opened, their pupils, in addition to the gymnasium course, studied French, dance, music, fencing, and horseback riding. By 1850 there were 47 such boarding houses in Russia.

The gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. In the "classical" ones they prepared for admission to universities and other educational institutions, most of the time was devoted to the study of ancient languages, Russian literature, new foreign languages ​​and history. The "real" ones were trained for military and civilian service, instead of the ancient languages, the teaching of practical mathematics was strengthened, and jurisprudence was introduced.

The network of private educational institutions also expanded, but the government deliberately held back their growth. In 1883 it was forbidden to open them in Moscow and St. Petersburg, although later they were allowed again. Private schools were also under strict government control.

The beginning of the second half of the 19th century in Russia was characterized by a great reform movement that shook society. Following the reform of 1861 on the emancipation of the peasants from serfdom, other reforms were outlined: judicial, rural, educational, educational. By this time, issues of upbringing and education began to be understood as "the most important issues of life."

During these years, many outstanding people turned to pedagogical theory and activity: Pirogov N.I. (famous surgeon, public figure, teacher), Ushinsky K.D., Tolstoy L.N. and others. For them it was the time of the most intensive innovative work. Many interesting figures have become familiar with the problems of pedagogy and pedagogical work in various provinces of Russia. With a light hand N.I. Pirogov began a lively discussion in the press of the problem of human upbringing and other pedagogical issues: “What should be the school? What should be its program? Estates or non-estates school? What to teach at school? How to prepare a teacher? ”And many others.

The main attention of society at this time was drawn to the folk school, which, one might say, did not exist in the empire. Parish schools were obliged to support the peasants and landowners themselves, so they developed very poorly. The villagers were still taught to read and write by sextons, pilgrims and similar people.

Public schools were subordinate to different departments:

The Ministry of State Property;

The Ministry of the Court;

The Ministry of the Interior;

The Holy Synod (more than half of all schools);

The Ministry of Public Education (it accounted for about 20% of schools).

The abolition of serfdom necessitated the opening of schools for all strata of the population: peasants and landowners, city dwellers. The injustice of the class policy in the field of education and restrictions in the field of female education became obvious. The inadequacy of secondary education based on classicism was revealed. The need for the development of domestic pedagogical science began to be acutely realized, a need arose for pedagogical periodicals, new textbooks, and the development of new teaching methods. The training of teachers for different types of schools, the creation of the schools themselves - all these were pressing problems of the middle of the 19th century.

In 1864, the "Statute on the elementary public schools" was developed. According to him, public schools could be opened by various government departments, societies, private individuals, who themselves decided whether they were paid or free of charge. The aim of public schools is "to establish religious and moral concepts among the people and to disseminate initial useful knowledge." Teaching subjects: The Law of God, reading (civil and church books), writing, four actions of arithmetic, church singing. Public schools were run by district and provincial school councils.

In 1864, the "Charter of gymnasiums and gymnasiums" was introduced. Two types of gymnasiums were established: classical and real. The purpose of the "classical" is to give the general education necessary for admission to the university and other higher specialized educational institutions. "Real gymnasiums" did not give the right to enter universities. There were also "pro-gymnasiums" - the initial stage of the gymnasium. Pedagogical advice received great rights: they could approve teaching programs, choose textbooks.

In 1860, the "Statute on Women's Schools of the Ministry of Public Education" was published. Two types of non-class women's schools were established:

I category - 6 years of study;

II category - 3 years of study.

Their goal is "to inform the pupils of the religious, moral and mental education that should be required from every woman, especially from the future wife and mother of the family." Individuals and societies could open them. The curriculum of women's schools of the first category included: the Law of God, the Russian language, grammar and literature, arithmetic and concepts of measurement, general and Russian geography, history, the beginnings of natural science and physics, calligraphy and handicrafts.

In 1863, the "University Charter" was introduced, granting some autonomy to universities - a University Council was created, which directed all educational work, and at which the rector was elected. The strict restrictions on the activities of universities established under Nicholas I were partially lifted, but the university remained subordinate to the trustee of the educational district and the Ministry of Public Education. Women were not admitted to the university. The universities had 4 faculties: history and philology, physics and mathematics (with a natural department), law and medicine. Many new departments have been opened.

"Zemstvos", created in the 60s, received the right to open educational institutions; they also had to deal with their material support. The zemstvos developed plans for universal education, opened schools, held courses and congresses for teachers, developed new programs and textbooks, and created teacher's seminaries (before 1917, about 1/3 of the primary rural schools were zemstvo schools).

Literature in the 19th century

Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated with a flourishing culture. Spiritual enthusiasm and important historical processes are reflected in the immortal works of writers and poets. This article is dedicated to the representatives of the Golden Age of Russian literature and the main directions of this period. Historical events Literature in the 19th century in Russia gave rise to such great names as Baratynsky, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Fet, Yazykov, Tyutchev. And above all Pushkin. Nearby historical events this period was marked. The development of Russian prose and poetry was influenced by the Patriotic War of 1812, the death of the great Napoleon, and the death of Byron. The English poet, like the French commander, for a long time ruled the minds of revolutionary-minded people in Russia. The uprising of the Decembrists and the Russian-Turkish war, as well as the echoes of the French revolution, which were heard in all corners of Europe - all these events turned into a powerful catalyst for advanced creative thought. While revolutionary movements were carried out in Western countries and a spirit of freedom and equality began to emerge, Russia strengthened its monarchical power by executing the Decembrists and suppressing uprisings. This could not be ignored by artists, writers and poets. The literature of the early 19th century in Russia is a reflection of the thoughts and experiences of the advanced strata of society. Classicism This aesthetic trend is understood as an artistic style that originated in the culture of Europe in the second half of the 18th century. Its main features are rationalism and adherence to strict canons. The classicism of the 19th century in Russia was also distinguished by the appeal to antique forms and the principle of three unities. Literature, however, began to lose ground in this artistic style at the beginning of the century. Classicism was gradually superseded by such directions as sentimentalism, romanticism. The masters of the artistic word began to create their works in new genres. Gained popularity works in the style of a historical novel, romantic story, ballad, ode, poem, landscape, philosophical and love lyrics. Realism Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated primarily with the name of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Closer to the thirties, realistic prose took a strong position in his work. It should be said that the founder of this literary movement in Russia is precisely Pushkin. Publicism and satire Some features of the European culture of the 18th century were inherited by the literature of the 19th century in Russia. Briefly, you can outline the main features of poetry and prose of this period - satirical character and journalism. The tendency to depict human vices and shortcomings of society is observed in the work of writers who created their works in the forties. In literary criticism, a literary movement was later determined, which united the authors of satirical and journalistic prose. "Natural school" - this was the name of this artistic style, which, incidentally, is also called the "school of Gogol". Other representatives of this literary movement are Nekrasov, Dal, Herzen, Turgenev. Criticism The ideology of the "natural school" was substantiated by the critic Belinsky. The principles of the representatives of this literary movement became the denunciation and eradication of vices. Characteristic feature social issues have become in their work. The main genres are essay, socio-psychological novel, and social story. Literature in the 19th century in Russia developed under the influence of the activities of various associations. It was in the first quarter of this century that there was a significant rise in the journalistic field. Belinsky had a huge influence on literary processes. This man possessed an extraordinary ability to feel a poetic gift. It was he who first recognized the talent of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky. Pushkin and Gogol The literature of the 19th and 20th centuries in Russia would be completely different and, of course, not so bright without these two authors. They have had a tremendous impact on the development of prose. And many of the elements they introduced into literature have become classic norms. Pushkin and Gogol not only developed such a direction as realism, but also created completely new artistic types. One of them is the image of the "little man", which later received its development not only in the works of Russian authors, but also in foreign literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Lermontov This poet also influenced the development of Russian literature. After all, it was he who created such a concept as a "hero of the time." With his light hand, it entered not only literary criticism, but also social life... Lermontov also took part in the development of the genre of the psychological novel. The entire period of the nineteenth century is famous for the names of talented great personalities who worked in the field of literature (both prose and poetry). Russian authors at the end of the eighteenth century took over some of the merits of their Western colleagues. But due to a sharp leap in the development of culture and art, Russian classic literature as a result, it became an order of magnitude higher than the Western European one that existed at that time. The works of Pushkin, Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Gogol have become the property of world culture. The works of Russian writers became the model on which German, English and American authors later relied.

MUSIC OF THE 19th CENTURY

Music occupied a special place in the life of Russian society in the first half of the 19th century. Music education was a necessary component of upbringing and enlightenment young man... The musical life of Russia was quite eventful. In 1802 the Russian Philharmonic Society was founded. Sheet music becomes available to the general public.

Public interest in chamber and public concerts has increased. Especially attracted the attention of many composers, writers, artists musical evenings with A.A. Delvig, V.F. Odoevsky, in the literary salon of Z.A. Volkonskaya. Great success the public enjoyed the summer concert seasons in Pavlovsk, which began to be arranged in 1838, when a railway from St. Petersburg was built here. The Austrian composer and conductor I. Strauss performed at these concerts several times.
In the first decades of the XIX century. wide distribution received chamber vocal music. The listeners were especially fond of romances by A.A. Alyabyev ("Nightingale"), A.E. Varlamov ("Red Sarafan", "Along the street a snowstorm met g ...", etc.), (romances, songs in folk style - "Bell", "A gray-winged swallow is twisting ..." by A.L. Gurilev).
The operatic repertoire of Russian theaters at the beginning of the century consisted mainly of works by French and Italian composers. Russian opera developed mainly in the genre of an epic character. The best representative this direction was A.N. Verstovsky, the author of the opera "Askold's Grave" (1835), as well as several musical ballads and romances ("Black Shawl" and others). In the operas and ballads of A.N. Verstovsky, the influence of romanticism was felt. The opera "Askold's Grave" reflected the appeal to historical plots and the epic, characteristic of romantic art, which captured the people's idea of ​​their past.
It was possible to approach the level of the great works of Western European composers - Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and others only on the basis of a deep mastering of folk-national melodism with its simultaneous transformation in line with the main achievements of European musical culture. This work began in the 18th century. (E. Formin,
F. Dubyansky, M. Sokolovsky) and continued successfully in the first decades of the 19th century. A. Alyabyev, A. Gurilev, A. Varlamov, A. Verstovsky. However, the beginning of a new (classical) period in the development of Russian music is associated with the name of M.I. Glinka.
MI Glinka (1804-1857) belonged to a noble family from the Smolensk province. Glinka received his first musical impressions from his uncle's serf orchestra. Russian folk songs heard in childhood had a great influence on the character musical works Glinka. In the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century. Glinka created a number of outstanding vocal works, including such romances as "Night Marshmallow" (poems by A. Pushkin, 1834), "Doubt" (1838), "I remember a wonderful moment ..." (1840). An outstanding event in the musical life of Russia was the staging in 1836 of the opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin). In the person of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, the composer showed the greatness of the common people, their courage and resilience. Glinka's innovation consisted in the fact that the representative of the Russian people, the Russian peasant, became the central figure of musical narration. The people's heroic pathos was vividly embodied on the basis of virtuoso technique and a wide variety of vocal and instrumental parts. The opera "A Life for the Tsar" became the first classical Russian opera, which marked the beginning of the worldwide recognition of Russian music. High society greeted opera rather dryly, but true connoisseurs of art enthusiastically greeted the performance. The opera admirers were A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky, V.F. Odoevsky and others.
Following the first opera, Glinka wrote the second - "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (1842) based on the tale of A.S. Pushkin. On the verses of Pushkin, Glinka wrote a number of wonderful romances, which are still widely known today. The romance "I Remember a Wonderful Moment" convinces how much Glinka's musical style was close to Pushkin's lyrics. Glinka was the author of instrumental pieces, the Kamarinskaya symphonic poem.
It is difficult to overestimate the contribution of Glinka to the development of Russian national music. Glinka is the founder of Russian professional music genres. He created a national Russian opera, a Russian romance. Glinka was the first Russian musical classic. He was the founder of the national school of music.
Another remarkable composer was A.S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869), a student of M.I. Glinka. His work is characterized by great dramatic tension (opera "Mermaid", 1856). Dargomyzhsky took plots from everyday life and chose as his heroes ordinary people... Russian intelligentsia welcomed Dargomyzhsky's opera
"Mermaid", which depicted the bitter fate of a peasant girl deceived by the prince. This work was in tune with the public sentiment of the pre-reform era. Dargomyzhsky was an innovator in music. He introduced into it new techniques and means of musical expression. It was in Dargomyzhsky's opera "The Stone Guest" that an intertwining melodic recitative appeared. The declamatory form of singing had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian opera.
Music history of the first half of the 19th century. indicates that there is a further development of genres, the emergence of new techniques and means of musical expression, the development of the musical heritage of the people. The main result of this period is the emergence of musical classics, the creation of the Russian national school in music:

19th century architecture

The architecture of the 19th century is a rich heritage of the entire world society. How important are buildings such as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in the capital or General Staff in St. Petersburg! Without these structures, we can no longer imagine the architectural ensemble of these cities. Russian architecture of the 19th century is characterized by such directions as classicism, empire - the last stage in the development of classicism, as well as the Russian-Byzantine style. What belongs to each of these areas? Let's figure it out now. Classicism is an appeal to antiquity, which means that these are magnificent buildings, most often with columns. The architecture of the 19th century in this direction was represented by the following buildings. St. Petersburg: Smolny Institute and the building of the Academy of Sciences were built by Quarenghi. Perhaps these are the only buildings of the 19th century in this style. Moscow: the Triumphal Gates, the building of the Bolshoi Theater, the Manege and the Alexandrovsky Garden should be noted here - these are the buildings without which our capital will not be the same. The architecture of Moscow in the 19th century in the classicism style was presented by such outstanding architects as Bove and Gilardi. The Bolshoi Theater is a symbol of Russian art and the cultural life of the people to this day, and the Triumphal Gates, erected in honor of the victory over Napoleon, create an image of the greatness and power of our Motherland. The works of Gilardi include the Board of Trustees and the Kuzminki estate. Empire style is the next trend in 19th century architecture. This is the last stage in the development of classicism. The style is presented in large numbers on the streets of the cultural capital of Russia: Zakharov rebuilt the Admiralty, the spire of which is one of the symbols of the city; Voronikhin's Kazan Cathedral is a symbol of Nevsky Prospect, and the Mining Institute is the pinnacle of this trend. K. Rossi is one of the greatest architects of Old Palmyra, his Mikhailovsky Palace became the Russian Museum - a repository of all the artistic traditions of our country. The General Staff building, the building of the Senate and Synod - all of this is not just an architectural ensemble of the city, but also an integral part of history. The great brainchild of Montferrand is St. Isaac's Cathedral. It is simply impossible not to fall in love with this large, majestic building: all the details and decorations of the cathedral make you freeze with delight. Another piece of art by this architect is the Alexander Column. The architecture of the 19th century was also represented by the Russian-Byzantine style, prevalent mainly in Moscow. The most famous are the following buildings: the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the famous Armory, complemented the Kremlin (architect Ton). The Sherwood Historical Museum has made Red Square an even more significant place. Thus, the architecture of the 19th century in Russia is more than structures. These buildings left a mark on history, great things were done in their premises and important issues were resolved. We cannot imagine our country without these architectural monuments.

Secondary school number 60

Project work

Prepared by:

Natalia Maksimchuk

Yuri Kolesnikov

Vladislav Vileito

Margarita Krupenya

Work manager

Methodist teacher

Tatiana Anufrieva

First half of the 19th century

Education system

At the beginning of the 19th century, this system underwent a fundamental restructuring.

The high school curriculum has been expanded and made more complex, and education has been extended to

7 years (sequentially in four types of educational institutions - parish

school, district and main and main schools and gymnasium). Famous

reservations to general education include those created in the second half

century missionary schools for children of non-Russian peoples of the Volga region (Tatars,

Chuvashes, etc.), where they trained translators, teachers and the lower Orthodox

clergy. The main form of education for the taxable population continued

remain a literacy school. For noble children, a network of closed

educational institutions. (Corps of Pages, late 50s; "Educational

society of noble maidens "at the Smolny Monastery (Smolny Institute),

1764; Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, 1811, etc.). These educational institutions have enjoyed

the greatest financial support from the government. For comparison: one

Smolny Institute received 100 thousand rubles a year, while all

public schools of the whole province - only 10 thousand rubles, moreover, some of these

money was intended for the needs of hospitals, almshouses, etc.

closed vocational and art schools, which are not

accepted the children of serfs (the ballet school at the Moscow

an orphanage, 1773; Academy of Arts, 1757, which gave

professional training in the field of painting, sculpture and architecture, etc.).

By the end of the 18th century, there were 550 educational institutions in the country with the number of students

about 60-70 thousand

Although the creation of a system of public schools and other general education

schools was an important contribution to the formation of the Russian secular school, but

proclaimed "all-estate", it actually remained an appendage of the estate

education system. This situation reflected the attitude of the authorities towards

the spread of knowledge among the lower classes. “The rabble should not give

education, - wrote Ekaterina to the Moscow Governor-General P.S.

Saltykov, - since she will know as much as you and me, she will not

will obey us to the extent that it obeys now. " This

the situation did not change until the beginning of the 20th century.

Significant advances have been made in higher education.

At the beginning of the XIX century. 5 universities were established - Derpt (Tartu),

Kazan, Kharkov, etc. The increased number of schools has made relevant

the problem of training teachers, who were sorely lacking (for

each district school, for example, had an average of 2 teachers,

taught 7-8 subjects each). Petersburg main folk

school for the training of teachers of public schools, opened in 1782, was

transformed into the Pedagogical Institute. The pedagogical institutes were

created at all universities.

Home education

If we determine the effectiveness of the educational system by the number

bright pupils, it is best in Russia that it has proved itself to be

home education and upbringing system. Each family created its own

educational structure as a result of creative communication between parents,

teachers and the child. However, this arbitrary design had a rigid

Governess - Home Tutor - Tutor

Here is the triad that made up the home education and upbringing system.

A foreign governess was usually invited to a child 5-6 (sometimes 3-4)

years and settled next to the nursery. In order to instill good manners in the child,

the governess ate with the child, walked, played with him. And studied with him

- in a foreign language. For the time being, they studied their native language without

programs and teachers. By the age of 10-12, the child was able to read in

two or three languages ​​books from the home library.

And then it was time to invite a home tutor. That's where

the real pedagogical creativity of parents began. Governess

foreign language was confirmed by foreign origin. And where

trained as home tutors? Nowhere! As it is today. Who was invited to

mentors? Yes anyone, to the extent of perspicacity and ingenuity

parents.

If the child mastered the house with the governess, then with the home tutor

he mastered the world. The home tutor was a friend, confidante for the child,

patron, travel companion, playmate,

an object to follow, a positive example. That is, everyone. He could be

an eccentric, but could not but be a person, and the absence of a teacher's diploma

did not bother.

In Russian literature of the 19th century, domestic teachers were portrayed

much more often than, say, gymnasium teachers. Memoirs

testify that in the last century, almost every person from

a wealthy family had at least one good mentor who left

kind and grateful memory. So, A.S. Griboyedov, who did not forget in his

to remember comedy with a well-aimed word and home teachers, brought up by a scientist

encyclopedist I.B. Petrozilius, who served in the university library.

I.A.Krylov was a talented home tutor, for some time

who lived in the family of Prince Golitsyn. As F. F. Vigel recalled, “despite

his laziness, out of boredom he invited Prince Golitsyn to teach Russian

to his younger sons and, consequently, to those who share with them. And in this case

he showed himself to be a master. Almost everyone learned the lessons in conversations; he knew how

arouse curiosity, loved questions and answered them in the same interpretive way,

as clear as he wrote his fables. He was not content with one Russian

tongue, and mixed with his instructions many moral teachings and

explanations of various subjects from other sciences ”.

Of the Russian home tutors, V.

A. Zhukovsky, who raised the Emperor Alexander II. Before joining

the post Zhukovsky presented to Nicholas I "Plan of the Exercise", in which he outlined

principles of the special system of upbringing and education of the future created by him

monarch, as well as their pedagogical and political views. And being

adopted into the house, first of all obliged the crowned parent to follow

approved plan.

In addition to a permanent mentor in the home, parents often invited

and visiting teachers. "We take the tramps both into the house and on tickets", -

Famusov lamented. At the end of the lesson, the teacher was given a ticket that

then served as a document for payment. Among the visiting teachers prevailed

Russian people are students forced to give lessons to pay for their

training, seminarians. They often came from educated families and

possessed deeper knowledge than many of their foreign colleagues.

But famous people did not hesitate to be among those who gave paid lessons.

So, the famous Dobuzhinsky gave drawing lessons to little Volodya

Nabokov, and his mother, when she was a girl, taught zoology

famous scientist Shimkevich.

At the same time, the child could attend gymnasium at the same time, but this does

does not mean that parents abandoned home tutors and tutors.

The matter was for everyone.

Home parenting principles

All successful examples of home education allow us to highlight the main

its principle is trust in the teacher, to whom the parents partially gave their

educational rights, including the right to "execute and have mercy."

By trusting the home teacher, the parents avoided openly interfering.

into the educational process and emphasized by a respectful attitude towards the teacher

routine and acting as the highest court. Insincerity in the relationship between

family and home "school" in this case was completely excluded - otherwise

a governor or mentor would not have been able to get along in the house. Usually he was treated

as a member of the family and a participant in all its joys and worries. Family knowledge

way of life, the atmosphere in the house, the character of the pupil helped the "school" to find

and make the right pedagogical decisions.

In the middle of the 19th century, special methods of homemade

upbringing that took into account the accumulated experience. They envisaged

"Educational conversations" and "educational walks" during which

quite complex things could be explained in a relaxed manner -

moral and philosophical ideas, logical categories,

classification of biological processes and much more. Conversations

classes. They were supposed to serve to summarize what was learned and seen on

walks, as well as for thinking aloud and developing speech. Transfer experience

knowledge through easy communication was reflected in children's literature - in

the genre of edifying conversation (teacher with student, father with son, etc.).

"Conversations of a prudent mentor with well-bred pupils",

"Letters from a mother to her son about righteous honor and to her daughter about virtues,

decent female "entered the circle of the few publications at that time

for youth in Russian.

Learning "jokingly" did not at all exclude systematic lessons ("classes")

and self-preparation to them. Usually for a course in a company

two or three more children living in the neighborhood were taken to the pupil. In that

a small team developed communication skills with peers, the spirit

competition had a good effect on the quality of training. Regular classes

supplemented by communication with a mentor while doing household chores

or on walks, which were mandatory at any time of the year and at any

Perfect portrait of a governess

AP Kern draws the ideal image of the governess in his memoirs: “In this

it was about time that two governesses were discharged from England, m-lle Benoit came to

Bernovo at the end of 1808. My parents immediately instructed us to complete it

order. No one dared to interfere in her business, to do any

remarks, disturb the peace of her studies with us and disturb her in a peaceful

the orphanage where we studied. We were placed in a room adjacent to her

bedroom.

M-lle Benoit was a very serious, reserved girl of 47 years old, with a very

pleasant, intelligent and kind appearance. She was always dressed in white and so

loved this color, which was delighted with the white hare fur and made on

he has a cloak of expensive silk fabric. Her legs were chilly and she held them

always on a bag of hot prune pits. She herself

dressed and cleaned the room herself. When everything was ready in it, then

she opened the doors and invited us to have breakfast. We were served coffee

tea, eggs, bread and butter and honey. She always drank a glass of white wine at dinner.

after soup and the same after dinner and loved very black bread. After

breakfast, we walked in the garden, no matter what the weather, then sat down at

lessons. We taught all subjects, of course, in French and Russian.

studied for only six weeks during the vacations for which he traveled from Moscow

student Marchinsky. M-lle Benoit was so good at inspiring us to learn

variety of activities, patient and clear interpretation, without even elevating

we studied, not at all burdensome, all day, except for the time

walks and hours of lunch, breakfast and dinner. We loved our lessons and classes,

(like knitting and sewing) next to m-lle Benoit, because they loved and respected her

and we were in awe of her power over us, which excluded any other will.

Nobody dared to say a word to us! She took care of our toilet too,

grew our hair, tied our heads with brown velvet, similar to

with our eyes. She took a lively part in everything that touched us and

of our families ... at dusk she made us lie down on the floor so that

straighten backs, or ordered to walk around the room and bow on the go,

sliding, or lay down on the bed and taught us, standing by the bed, to sing

French romances. She talked about her students in London, about

William Tell and Switzerland ”.

Ideal home tutor Vasily Zhukovsky

“Teaching according to the proposed plan can only have perfect success,

when nothing, in any case, will disturb the order, once for all

established; when persons, time, and everything around the Grand Duke

will be subordinate to those people without any limitation to whom His Highness

will be charged. Sovereign Emperor, having approved this plan, may he deign to be

its first performer.

The door of the study room during the lecture must be inviolable;

no one should allow himself to enter into it at that time, which the great

the prince will devote to the occupation; from this rule should not be for anyone

exceptions. The Grand Duke will learn to value his time when he sees

that others also cherish it and that the strictest

accuracy. His Highness, during his upbringing, must not honor

nothing beyond their responsibilities. He must go forward constant and even

step: order is inviolable is the main condition for this ...

the approval of the Emperor should be the greatest reward for our

pupil, and the expression of disapproval of His Majesty - the most difficult

punishment. This is an important tool that must be highly valued. I dare to think that

the sovereign the emperor should never praise the grand duke for diligence,

but simply to show your pleasure with affectionate treatment ... to the Grand Duke

should get used to seeing in the performance of their duties a simple

a necessity not worthy of any particular approval; so

the habit forms the firmness of character. Every single good deed

very unimportant; only one lasting constancy in goodness

deserves attention and praise. His highness must learn to

to act without reward: the thought of a father should be his secret conscience ...

The same can be said for expressions of parental disapproval. His highness

should tremble at the thought of the reproach of the father. The sovereign will always know about

his petty misdeeds, but let it be a secret between his majesty and

mentors; let the pupil feel his guilt and punish himself

painful feeling. But experiencing the obvious anger of his father must be for him

the only case in my life ... "

From the "Plan

teachings "Vasily Zhukovsky, 1826.

Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens

Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens - the first in Russia

privileged female secondary general education teaching and educational

a closed institution for the daughters of nobles. Founded in 1764 at

Resurrection Smolny Convent in St. Petersburg. Upbringing

lasted from 6 to 16 years. Closed after 1917.

institutions ". This name was explained by the fact that long before its end

he was in the center of a large educational complex: in 1764 in the southern

the building of the monastery housed the newly founded Educational

society of noble maidens, and a year later in the north opened a "school for

young girls of non-noble origin "(Smolny Institute and

Bourgeois school). Later, Catherine ordered to establish in Smolny

community of nuns, selecting for this from other monasteries twenty "old women

honest and kind life ", which could be used for

service of "noble" pupils. It turned out to find such "old women"

not easy at all. From the Moscow and Smolensk monasteries, they hardly recruited

fourteen nuns, distinguished by the dignity that they "know how to read and write."

However, they too soon disappeared from the monastery. Based in it

educational institutions existed until the Great October Revolution.

Architectural monuments erected in the vicinity of the monastery were laid

the beginning of women's education in Russia and thus played an important role in

history of national education. Before their discovery, literate Russian women

even among the nobility there were very few, and if such was found in

other estate, it was "a very strange phenomenon."

The emergence of the Educational Society was affected by the impact

French educational writers. Catherine, approving the charter

educational society, introduced into it a clause depriving parents of the right

claim the child back before the end of the full twelve-year course

learning. The institute accepted only "girls of natural (hereditary)

nobility and daughters of officials with military service ranks not lower than

colonels, and according to the state code not lower than the state councilor. " Grown in

artificial, greenhouse conditions for "decorating the family and society",

"Smolyanka" also replenished the court staff - of which the empress chose

to myself a state lady and a lady-in-waiting.

The daughters of grooms, soldiers, clerks, lackeys and

other "vile people". These girls were prepared "for use by all

women's work and handicrafts, that is, sewing, weaving, knitting, cooking, washing,

clean...". However, the graduates of the school also had their "highest

granted "privileges, similar to those enjoyed by

pupils of the Academy of Arts: if any of them married

serf, her husband received freedom, and children born

from their marriage.

Throughout their existence, both educational institutions

were under the auspices of the "eminent persons" who personally viewed

accepted lists with all data about them and their parents. Out of the list

was crossed out "the daughter of a father known for his misbehavior", in another

once - the daughter of an exiled. In 1808, a daughter was introduced to admission to the school

"Chamber-lackey of arap", about which the list said: "Healthy, turning off

the real color of the arapka. " The empress's resolution read: "Don't take her."

Of course, the living conditions and education of the pupils at the school were

much worse than at the institute, although at Smolny the level of teaching

was not always high. In addition to general education subjects,

female schoolgirls were taught music, dance, drawing, as well as performance

theatrical plays. Performances in Smolny were prepared by the best dance masters,

conductors and artists of the court theaters. The situation was much worse

with teaching sciences. The commission of public schools noted among the pupils “very

insufficient knowledge of foreign languages ​​and especially Russian ”, and

since all subjects were taught in French, "which girls are happy with

They do not understand this, ”and they received very little knowledge. Later teach

became in their native language and the situation improved somewhat. But genuine

the turning point came only in the middle of the nineteenth century, when the inspector

classes of both institutions was appointed a wonderful teacher-democrat

Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky.

Having carried out a radical reform of education and training, Ushinsky attracted

teaching at the institute and school for young, democratically inclined

teachers, with him for the first time curricula in both institutions were

equalized. The leading place in them was taken by the native language and literature. Ushinsky

managed to achieve an almost complete eradication of the traditional neglect

the relationship of "noble smolyanka" to "bourgeois". Such democratization

Smolny, naturally, caused discontent in the "higher circles". The boss

institute and conservative teachers began a campaign against Ushinsky,

which ended with a denunciation accusing him of political

unreliability. Outraged by the very fact of denunciation, Ushinsky left

Smolny. However, his stay there did not go unnoticed. “Thanks to energy

and the talent of one person, - the historian notes, - in any three years

completely renewed and healed with a new, full of life, a huge educational

an institution, hitherto closed, routine. " Some of his graduates now

entered the Women's Higher and Pedagogical Courses, the Women's Medical

institute.

The Smolny Institute was called upon first of all to inspire its

pets "unshakable devotion to the throne and reverent

gratitude to their august patrons ”. But maybe not worth it

forget that, along with the maids of honor of the empresses and the favorites of the emperors,

his pupils were Radishchev's wife, who followed her husband into exile and there

deceased, wives and sisters of the Decembrists, mother of Plevna's hero General Skobelev,

herself in Russian-Turkish war who served in the infirmary and was killed in Bulgaria, and

also mothers and wives of other glorious sons of Russia.

The building of the Meshchansky School is still used for educational purposes - in

it is studied by students of the Faculty of Geography and the Faculty of Applied

mathematics of the Leningrad University.

The educational society for noble maidens was located in the monastery

buildings are much longer than the school. Only at the beginning of the next century

the architect Quarenghi erected for him from the south side of the monastery, on the site,

where there was a "master yard" with an employee's infirmary, a bakery,

sheds and other things, a new building.

The young ladies were taught not only languages ​​and manners, but also patience. That's how

the former "Smolyanka" Anna Vladimirovna Suslova recalled the years of study:

In Smolny there was discipline, like in the army. Physically I had to

hard. My first impression of Smolny is cold. It's cold everywhere: in

bedrooms, classrooms, dining rooms. The temperature is not higher than plus 16 degrees. In the morning

I had to wash ice water up to the waist. This was watched by a classy lady

(a teacher attached to a class). Then everyone got dressed

and walked along the corridor to the church, which was at the opposite end

building. During prayer, one should stand still, looking forward. It is forbidden

turn your head, step from foot to foot. Festive service

continued for a long time, and the girls sometimes fainted.

We followed the posture very much. Girls dressed in dresses in which

whalebone inserted so that the waist is tight and straight. God forbid

hunch over. A classy lady was always with us and monitored posture,

behind the hair. It was necessary to be completely "licked" so that not a single

the hair did not hang. There must be one pigtail, two are not allowed. Into it

weaved a black ribbon. Any flirtation, desire to stand out

was persecuted very severely. We always walked in pairs, in silence. You can't smile.

A few points for behavior were immediately reduced for a smile.

The education was generally good. We have learned a lot of languages

due to the fact that we were not allowed to speak Russian. Only after

German or French. Everywhere: in bedrooms, while relaxing, etc. taught

cook us, sew, embroider, dance, play a musical instrument.

You could choose one of three: violin, piano or harp.

I didn't like Smolny. I was cold, coughed and half the time

spent in the infirmary. It was difficult for me to withstand this regime. But then I have

immense patience developed. It was very useful to me in my life.

Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum

students: they were on average 12 years old, but after graduating from their academic

institutions they could not study anywhere else. This was the first course

Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum - a new educational institution for Russia, and

remaining one of a kind.

In this educational institution, according to the plan of Mikhail Speransky, the closest

adviser to Tsar Alexander I, a small number of noble children should have

to study, in order to then participate in the management of Russia.

There were only thirty boys. Among them were representatives of the noble

families such as Prince Alexander Gorchakov; were the children of tsarist officials,

like Ivan Pushchin, among them was the great-grandson of the famous "arap of Peter the Great"

Abram Petrovich Hannibal - Alexander Pushkin.

Lyceum students were waiting for 6 years of study. The strict regime of the day in which

alternated "classes" and walks, "dancing" and fencing. Home ride

it was impossible - all the lyceum students lived in the Lyceum in small rooms, in which

the large hall was divided by wooden partitions that did not reach the ceiling.

Studied many subjects: foreign languages, history, geography,

mathematics, law (legal sciences), artillery and fortification (the science of

military installations), physics. In the senior years, classes were conducted without strict

programs - the approved charter determined only the sciences to be studied:

provided for knowledge in the sections of moral, physical,

mathematical, historical sciences, literature and languages. Studied

seriously, but did not miss the opportunity and make a joke. Once in a lesson lyceum student

Myasoedov described the sunrise in verse in the following way:

the king of nature ... "Another lyceum student (Pushkin or Illichevsky, it is not known for sure)

immediately continued:

“And the astonished peoples

Not sure what to start:

Go to bed or get up. "

The teachers were respected and loved. They understood their pupils well.

Preserved memories of Ivan Pushchin about the mathematics teacher Kartsov,

who called Pushkin to the blackboard and set a problem. Pushkin hesitated for a long time with

legs crossed and kept writing some formulas in silence. Kartsov asked him

finally: “What happened? What is X equal to? " Pushkin, smiling, replied:

"Zero!" - "Good! With you, Pushkin, in my class everything ends in zero.

Sit down in your seat and write poetry. "

Six years of study have passed. Fifteen graduation exams passed in 17

celebrate the Lyceum anniversary, remembering those who are no longer ...

Nikolay Rzhevsky will leave (in 1817, shortly after graduation), the last -

Alexander Gorchakov (in 1883).

Gorchakov will become chancellor (senior official), Kuchelbecker -

Decembrist, Pushkin - "the sun of Russian poetry."

Wherever fate throws us

And happiness wherever it takes

We are all the same: the whole world is a foreign land for us;

Fatherland to us Tsarskoe Selo.

The Lyceum was an educational institution that repeated fate in miniature and

the nature of many of the reforms and undertakings of the "days of a great start":

brilliant promises, broad plans with a complete ill-considered general

tasks, goals and plan. Accommodation and external schedule of the new educational

the institution was given a lot of attention, the questions of the form of lyceum students were discussed

by the emperor himself. However, the teaching plan was ill-conceived, the composition

professors - by chance, most of them did not answer for their training and

pedagogical experience even the requirements of a good gymnasium. And the Lyceum gave

graduates of the right of graduates of a higher educational institution. It was not clear

the future of lyceum students has also been determined. According to the original plan, the Lyceum should

the younger brothers of Alexander I, Nikolai and Mikhail, were also brought up.

This idea probably belonged to Speransky, who, like many

advanced people of those years, it was alarming how the characters evolved

great princes, on whom the fate of millions of people could depend in the future.

Growing up Nikolai and Mikhail Pavlovich got used to the belief in indifference and

divine origin of his power and with a deep conviction that

the art of management consists in "Feldwebel Science" ...

These intentions, apparently, caused the opposition of the Empress Maria

Fedorovna. The general offensive of reaction before the war of 1812, expressed by

in particular, in the fall of Speransky, led to the fact that the initial

plans were abandoned, with the result that Nicholas I entered in 1825 on

the throne was monstrously unprepared ... the Lyceum was located in Tsarskoe Selo -

summer imperial residence, in the wing of the Catherine Palace. Already by itself

the location made it like a court educational institution. But,

apparently not without the influence of Speransky, who hated court circles and

striving to limit their political role in the state as much as possible and

influence on the emperor, the first director of the Lyceum V.F. Malinovsky tried

to protect your educational institution from the influence of the courtyard by means of strict isolation:

The lyceum was isolated from the surrounding life, the pupils were released outside

its walls are extremely reluctant and only in special cases, visiting relatives

were limited.

There was an indisputable positive side in the lyceum classes: it was

that "lyceum spirit", which was remembered for the whole life by the lyceum students of the first -

"Pushkin" - issue and which very soon became the theme of numerous

denunciations. It was this “spirit” that Nicholas I later carefully knocked out of the Lyceum.

When the Lyceum was created, it was assumed that they would study there.

the great dukes are the younger brothers of Emperor Alexander I. Therefore, many

sought to put their children in this, in modern parlance,

prestigious (respected) educational institution. This is how he writes about the first lyceum

course Natan Yakovlevich Eidelman, writer, historian, literary critic.

“... Members of the royal family in the end“ did not get ”to the Lyceum, but between

that summer of 1811, a competition was formed, because for thirty places there were

much more willing. One (Gorchakov) will be helped by a sonorous title (prince -

Rurikovich). Others - important posts held by relatives: at Modest

Korfa's father is a general, a prominent justice official; ten-year-old Arkady

Martynov is still small for the Lyceum, but he is the godson of Speransky himself, and his father

writer, director of the department of public education; Ivan Malinovsky

fifteen years old, he is already called a "foreign college student", but his father

him, Vasily Fedorovich, is appointed director of the Lyceum and wants to "test"

a new establishment on their own son ...

More and more - courtier parents, or retired, or short

officials; there are no offspring of the richest surnames like the Stroganovs,

Yusupovs, Sheremetevs ... The aristocrats of their children in some Lyceum are not

give (especially when they found out that the royal brothers were not there

determined): after all, they would have to study in the same class on equal terms and,

maybe getting slapped on the head from small, small, or

(scary to think!), say, from Vladimir Volkhovsky, the son of a poor hussar

from the Poltava province; the boy goes to the Lyceum ... as the first student

Moscow University Boarding School.

From N. Ya. Eidelman's nnigi

"Our union is beautiful ..."

60-90s of the XIX century

School, education and printing

The fall of serfdom and liberal education reforms caused

serious shifts in public education. In the 1860s and 90s, it grew noticeably

the literacy level of the population (on average 3 times), in the city more than

in the village (2.5 times). According to the data of the all-Russian population census

1897, average level literacy in the Russian Empire was 21.1%,

among men - 29.3%, among women - 13.1%. At the same time, higher and secondary

just over 1% of the population had an education. So the general level

education in Russia until the second half of the XIX century. defined the initial

In the 60s, the government carried out reforms in the field of education.

"Regulations on elementary public schools" 1864. allowed, in particular,

opening primary schools public organizations(city authorities

self-government and zemstvos in the countryside). This allowed a wide public

movement to create public schools(Moscow and St. Petersburg committees

literacy and other public education organizations) to implement

the progressive pedagogical ideas of K. D. Ushinsky (1824 - 1870/71)

and his students. Under the influence of the public, primary education received

significant impetus for further development. Along with parish

schools (teachers for which church-teacher schools were trained,

under the jurisdiction of the Synod), three-year zemstvo

schools (at this time the most common type of primary school),

taught in which representatives of the zemstvo intelligentsia, as a rule,

true devotees, bearers of democratic culture. The training in them was

staged better: in addition to the usual subjects for the parish school -

writing, reading, the four rules of arithmetic and the law of God, here were studied

geography, natural history, history.

Secondary education at the same time as humanitarian classical

gymnasiums (the number of students in which increased in the 60-80s by almost 3 times

) gave schools - since 1864 real (the curriculum included a large

the amount of knowledge in the exact and natural sciences) and since 1873 commercial (

where they studied - accounting, commodity science, etc.). During the period of reforms

women's gymnasiums were opened, of which there were about 200 by the 90s;

for the daughters of the Orthodox clergy, there were about 60 diocesan

schools. During the counter-reform period, the famous circular "about the cook's children" 1887

year closed access to education for the poor.

In the pre-reform era, qualitative changes were outlined in the highest

education. New universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk. Liberal

the university charter of 1863, which provided these educational institutions

autonomy, led not only to an increase in the number of students (in the 60-90s, almost

3 times), but also to the democratization of their composition, however, unevenly (in 1897

year at the St. Petersburg University, the proportion of children of noblemen and officials was

about 2/3, and in Kharkov - less than 40%). The country's universities have become

concentrate the best scientific personnel (A.M.Butlerov, D.I. Mendeleev, K.

A. Timiryazev and others), livened up scientific work and increased educational

the level of graduates. The first shoots of higher education for women appeared -

higher courses for women that trained doctors and teachers (Alarchinskie in

Petersburg and Lubyansky in Moscow, 1869; courses of Professor V.I.Ger'e in

Moscow, 1872; Bestuzhevskys (named after their director, historian,

Professor K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin) in St. Petersburg, 1878, etc.).

Understanding the shortcomings of the existing education system, representatives

the leading public contributed to the formation in Russia of extracurricular

education: free Sunday schools began to operate in 1859,

the program of which was broader than in state schools, and included acquaintance with

the basics of physics, chemistry, natural history, etc. The government is also in

in a number of cases, she initiated out-of-school education. So, starting with

1871, held popular readings that aroused wide interest, in

which was dominated by historical, military and religious-moral

subject.

In the 70-90s, the number of periodicals almost tripled by

Russian (up to 1 thousand titles in 1900). Finally

the type of "thick" magazine was formed, publishing literary

artistic, journalistic, critical, scientific materials and had

significant influence on social and cultural life ("Contemporary",

"Russian word", "Bulletin of Europe"). Book publishing grew even faster (in

1860s-90s from 1800 to 11,500 titles per year). All this was possible, so

how the printing base in Russia has grown over the three post-reform decades

more than three times (in 1864 there were about 300 printing houses, in

1894 there were already more than a thousand). Among the publishers, the leading place was occupied by

private firms M.O. Wolf, F.F. Pavlenkov, I.D.Sytin, which produced

educational, popular science, fiction, including cheap

editions of Russian classics. The number of bookstores has increased 6 times (up to

3 thousand at the end of the 90s). In cities and villages, the number of libraries grew and

readers opened by public institutions and local authorities

management. The first Public Library in Moscow was opened in 1862

(now the Russian State Library). Main role in development

cultural and educational institutions belonged to the intelligentsia, including

number of zemstvo.

End of the 19th century

Education and enlightenment

The education system in Russia at the turn of the 20th century still included

three levels: primary (parish schools, folk schools),

secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher

school (universities, institutes). According to 1913 data, literate among

subjects of the Russian Empire (except for children under 8 years old)

averaged 38-39%.

To a large extent, the development of public education was associated with

activities of the democratic community. The policy of the authorities in this

the area does not appear to be consistent. So, in 1905, the Ministry

public education passed a draft law "On the introduction of universal

elementary education in the Russian Empire "for consideration II

The State Duma, however, this project never received the force of law.

The growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher,

especially technical, education. Number of students many

universities has grown significantly - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.5

thousand in 1907. Private higher education institutions have become widespread

institutions (Free Higher School P.F. Lesgaft, Psychoneurological

Institute of V.M.Bekhterev, etc.). Shanyavsky University, which worked in 1908-

18 years at the expense of the liberal leader of public education A.L.

Shanyavsky (1837-1905) and who gave higher and secondary education, played an important

role in the democratization of higher education. Persons were admitted to the university

of both sexes regardless of nationality and political

views.

Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types began to operate

cultural and educational institutions for adults - working courses

(for example, the Prechistenskys in Moscow, among whose teachers there were such

outstanding scientists such as I.M.Sechenov, V.I.Pichet and others), educational

workers' societies and folk houses- a kind of clubs with a library,

assembly hall, tea and trade shop (Ligovsky people's house Countess S.

V. Panina in St. Petersburg).

The development of periodicals had a great influence on education.

and book publishing. Circulation of mass literary and artistic and scientific

popular "thin" magazine "Niva" (1894-1916) by 1900 grew from 9 to

235 thousand copies. By the number of published books, Russia ranked third

place in the world (after Germany and Japan).

The largest book publishers A.S. Suvorin (1835-1912) in St. Petersburg and I.

D. Sytin (1851-1934) in Moscow contributed to the introduction of the people to

literature, releasing books affordable prices("Cheap Library"

Suvorin, "Library for Self-Education" by Sytin). In 1899 - 1913 in

Petersburg there was a book publishing partnership "Knowledge".

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Architectural ensemble of Smolny" N. Semennikov Leningrad. "Art"

"History of Russian Culture" T. Balakina Moscow. "Spectrum-5" 1994

"I get to know the world" N. Chudakova Moscow. "AST" 1996

"Russian language" R. Pankov / L. Grishkovskaya Kaunas. "Shviesa" 2002

Introduction

The first year of the new 19th century was marked for Russia by a number of events that dramatically changed the direction of its domestic and foreign policy. The young monarch Alexander I ascended the throne of Russia. To strengthen his position, he was forced to look for new social forces that he could oppose to the leaders of Pavlov's time and the dignified opposition of Catherine's nobles.

The "young friends" of the emperor — the younger generation of the richest and most distinguished noble families — were involved in the preparation of a whole series of liberal reforms. In 1801, they formed an informal meeting, the so-called Secret Committee, which was supposed to study the state of the state and develop a series of reforms critical issues economic, social and cultural life.

Science and education in Russia in the 19th century

Development of education in Russia

Along with the peasant question and the reorganization of the state apparatus, much attention of the Secret Committee was paid to public education.

In August 1802, Ministry of Education, whose primary task was to prepare and carry out a complete reorganization of all links of the educational process in Russia. In 1804, two statutes were issued - the "Statutes of the Universities of the Russian Empire" and the "Statute of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities."

A harmonious and consistent system of administrative management of all educational institutions was created. Public education in Russia was divided into four stages: 1) parish schools, 2) county schools, 3) gymnasiums, 4) universities. All these steps in the educational and administrative terms were interconnected.

According to the charter, parochial schools became the initial link of the school, which were intended to give the children of the "lower strata" a religious education and the skills of reading, writing and numeracy within one year, preparing them for admission to the district school.

County schools with a two-year period of study, they were created in county and provincial cities and were intended for the children of artisans, small merchants, and wealthy peasants. The curriculum of the county schools was designed to prepare students for admission to the gymnasium.

Gymnasiums were supposed to open in provincial cities. The course of study in them was four years. The purpose of the training was to prepare the children of the nobility for public service or admission to the university.

Finally, universities completed the training system. According to the "Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire", their management, the development of curricula, etc. were carried out by elective academic councils headed by the rector, professors and deans of the faculties were also elected by the academic council. The rector of the university was elected with subsequent confirmation.

The reform of educational institutions in 1804, of course, was distinguished by a number of progressive features, reflecting the influence of the ideas of the Russian educators of the 18th century and the progressive public of the beginning of the 19th century. A significant step forward in the field of education was the establishment of the continuity of various stages of lower, secondary and higher education, the expansion of curricula, the approval of a more humane and progressive teaching methodology and, most importantly, free education.

All this created the appearance of a bourgeois school reform, the availability of education for all classes of the Russian Empire. However, this appearance was deceiving, and the bourgeois nature of the measures carried out was significantly limited by the preserved feudal features.

Under Nicholas I the official policy in the field of education was aimed at raising the educated people necessary for the country, while avoiding the spread of the "revolutionary contagion". S. S. Uvarov, who became Minister of Public Education in 1833, proposed introducing a "truly Russian" education, which would be based on three indissoluble principles: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality... Having arisen as a principle of national enlightenment, the theory of "official nationality" by SS Uvarov became the cornerstone of the state ideology of the Nikolaev era.

Nicholas I founded the Teachers' Institute and the Main Pedagogical Institute. Its purpose was mainly protecting Russian youth from the influence of foreign teachers. It was forbidden to send young people to study abroad, except in exceptional cases in which special permission was requested. The educational institutions established by the government gave priority to the Russian language, literature, statistics and national history. They especially cared about military educational institutions, buildings, military academies.

Under the influence of the social movement of the 60s of the XIX century, school reforms centralizing school management; the transformation of the estate school into a bourgeois school began.

According to the Charter of 1864, it was approved two types of high school: a classical gymnasium with a 7-year period of study, which prepared for admission to universities, and real gymnasiums with a 6-year period of study, which gave the right to enter higher technical educational institutions.

A well-known development has received female education(women's gymnasiums, women's schools).

The women's gymnasiums were founded in 1858 under the patronage of the reigning empress. There were 26 of them. The Ministry of Public Education, in turn, opened in 1871, following the same model, 56 gymnasiums and 130 gymnasiums with 23404 pupils. "Nowhere in Europe has the education of girls been so widely developed, nowhere do they have such easy access to free careers and positions as determined by the government, for example, at the telegraph office, post offices, etc." Georgieva T. S. Russian culture: history and modernity. - M., 1999 .-- S. 307

Higher courses for women with a university program were organized in Moscow (prof. V. I. Ger'e), in St. Petersburg (prof. K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin - went down in history as the Bestuzhevskys), Kazan, Kiev.

In the 60s and 70s, the first zemstvo and government teachers' seminaries. Established in 1872 real and Sunday schools; are spreading parish schools.

As a result of reforms, if at the beginning of the XIX century. in Russia there were only thirty-two gymnasiums, then by the middle of the century there were about a hundred, by the end of the century - one and a half hundred (more precisely, 165), and in 1915 there were about two thousand secondary educational institutions in Russia (more precisely, 1798) 4.

And yet, despite such a seemingly rapid growth in the number of educational institutions, four out of five residents of the country remained illiterate. In terms of initial training, Russia was inferior to any of the European powers.

Education in the 19th century had a graduated form. First, the student had to graduate from an elementary general education institution, then a secondary general education and the last stage - admission to a university.

The primary educational institutions consisted of parish, county and city schools, Sunday schools and literacy schools. At the same time, the student should first unlearn at the parish, and then at the district school, and only then he had the right to enter the gymnasium.

Secondary educational institutions were gymnasiums and boarding schools. Distinguished between classical, real, military gymnasiums. In terms of importance, gymnasiums were a modern secondary school, which must be completed before entering a university. Training in these institutions took seven years.

Representatives of all classes had the right to enter an educational institution. However, children of the lower classes studied in schools and colleges, and children of high-ranking people studied in boarding schools and lyceums. This form of education was laid down by Alexander I, later changed by Nicholas I, and again restored by Alexander II.

Study subjects

The curriculum has changed frequently throughout the century. This applied to both the gymnasium and the schools.

Parish and district schools officially had a curriculum as extensive as in gymnasiums. But in reality it did not work out to fulfill the established plan. Primary educational institutions were placed under the care of local officials, who, in turn, did not seek to take care of the children. There were not enough classrooms and teachers.

In parish schools, they taught reading, writing, simple rules of arithmetic and the basics of the law of God. A wider course was studied in the county institutions: Russian, arithmetic, geometry, history, geometry, calligraphy and the law of God.

The gymnasiums taught such subjects as mathematics, geometry, physics, statistics, geography, botany, zoology, history, philosophy, literature, aesthetics, music, dance. Apart from the Russian language, the students studied German, French, Latin, Greek. Some of the subjects were optional.

At the end of the 19th century, the bias in education began to focus on applied disciplines. Technical education has become in demand.

Learning process

In the 19th century, in gymnasiums and schools, the study time was divided into lessons and breaks. Pupils came to class by 9 o'clock or earlier. Lessons ended at 16 o'clock, on some days at 12 o'clock. Usually, the earliest completion of studies was on Saturday, but in some gymnasiums such days were Wednesday. After lessons, unsuccessful students stayed for extra classes to improve their grades. There was also the option to stay for optional courses.

It was more difficult for those students who lived in boarding houses. Their day was scheduled literally by the minute. The daily routine varied slightly in different guesthouses. It looked something like this: getting up at 6 in the morning, after washing and dressing, the students repeated their lessons, then went to breakfast and after that the lessons began. At 12 o'clock there was lunch, after which lessons began again. Classes ended at 18 o'clock. The students had a little rest, had a snack, and did their homework. Before going to bed, we had dinner and washed ourselves.

In addition to ordinary general education public schools, various specialized educational institutions are widespread in our state: for example, art, music schools... Church giving Special attention decent upbringing of the younger generation, organizes its own pedagogical classes.

In modern times, Sunday schools are organized in many Orthodox parishes, in which children from a young age (usually from the age of five) to high school are taught (in some parishes, such schools include only three to four years of education). This practice is a modern echo of the history of our Fatherland - the time when educational institutions (the so-called Church-parish schools) were created at the churches. The teachers in today's Sunday schools are representatives of the clergy, as well as pious lay people who have the appropriate knowledge and pedagogical skills to work with children.

In modern Sunday schools, the Law of God is studied - a presentation of the Old and New Testaments, understandable for children's perception. The meaning of the ten commandments is explained, the basic moral values ​​are instilled. Children are taught to respect their parents and elders, kindness, love for their native Fatherland.

Lives of the saints are also taught in Sunday schools. Children are told about the great devotees of piety, their exploits. At such lessons, children can learn a lot from the history of not only the Russian state, but also the great empires (Roman and Byzantine).

In Sunday school classes, children are introduced to Christian culture and art. The meaning of icons is explained to children, they are told about the most revered images. Children are introduced to singing and music, they learn poems and songs for performances at festive Easter and Christmas concerts.

Particular importance in the Sunday school is given to spirituality and a decent upbringing of the child. Children are introduced to basic Christian prayers, the meaning and significance of fasts are explained.

In addition to the educational process, Sunday schools can organize an entertainment program. Thus, in many Orthodox parishes, it is common for children, their parents and teachers to visit all kinds of museums, exhibitions, and circus performances. Sometimes scout trips are organized around the beautiful places of our Motherland, as well as pilgrimage trips.

Classes in Sunday schools are held in a separate building on the territory of the church or in the temple itself (its lower part). The name of these schools indicates that lessons are held on Sundays. They usually begin in the afternoon after the end of the liturgy.

Sunday schools educate children in a general culture of behavior, the development of fundamental moral qualities and provide knowledge of the foundations of the Orthodox faith.

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