History is a science that studies the characteristics of human activity in the past. It makes it possible to determine the causes of events that took place long before us and in our days. Associated with big amount social disciplines.
History as a science has existed for at least 2500 years. Its founder is considered to be the Greek scientist and chronicler Herodotus. In ancient times, this science was valued and considered a “teacher of life.” In ancient Greece, she was patronized by the goddess Clio herself, who was engaged in glorifying people and gods.
History is not just a statement of what happened hundreds and thousands of years ago. This is not even just the study of processes and events that took place in the past. In fact, its purpose is greater and deeper. It does not allow conscious people to forget the past, but all this knowledge is applicable in the present and future. This is a storehouse of ancient wisdom, as well as knowledge of sociology, military affairs, and much more. Forgetting the past means forgetting your culture and heritage. Also, mistakes that have ever been made should not be forgotten, so as not to repeat them in the present and future.
The word "history" is translated as "investigation". This is a very appropriate definition
borrowed from Greek. History as a science investigates the causes of events that took place, as well as their consequences. But this definition still does not reflect the whole essence. The second meaning of this term can be taken as "a story about what happened in the past."
History as a science experienced a new rise during the Renaissance. In particular, the philosopher Krug finally determined its place in the system of teachings. A little later it was corrected by the French thinker Naville. He divided all sciences into three groups, one of which he called “History”; it was supposed to include botany, zoology, astronomy, as well as history itself as the science of the past and heritage of mankind. Over time, this classification has undergone some changes.
History as a science is concrete; it requires the presence of facts, dates attached to them, and a chronology of events. At the same time, it is closely related to a large number of other disciplines. Naturally, psychology was among the latter. In the last century and the century before last, theories were developed about the development of countries and peoples, taking into account “ public consciousness"and other similar phenomena. The famous Sigmund Freud also contributed to such doctrines. As a result of these studies, a new term appeared - psychohistory. The science expressed by this concept was supposed to study the motivation for the actions of individuals in the past.
History is connected with politics. That is why it can be interpreted biasedly, embellishing and painting some events and carefully hushing up others. Unfortunately, in this case, all its value is neutralized.
History as a science has four main functions: cognitive, ideological, educational and practical. The first gives the sum of information about events and eras. The worldview function involves understanding the events of the past. The practical essence is in understanding some objective historical processes, “learning from the mistakes of others” and refraining from subjective decisions. The educational function involves the formation of patriotism, morality, as well as a sense of consciousness and duty to society.
Title page
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….....3
1.What is history?................................................ .........................................5
2. The subject of history as a science: purpose, objectives of study, socially significant functions……………………………………………………..……...8
3. Periodization of world history…………………………………….13
Conclusion……………………………………………………………...14
List of references……………………………………………………….16
Introduction
Interest in the past has existed since the human race appeared. This interest is difficult to explain by human curiosity alone. The fact is that man himself is a historical being. It grows, changes, develops over time, is a product of this development.
The original meaning of the word “history” goes back to the ancient Greek term meaning “investigation”, “recognition”, “establishment”. History was identified with establishing the authenticity and truth of events and facts. In Roman historiography (Historiography is a branch historical science, studying its history), this word has come to mean not a method of recognition, but a story about the events of the past. Soon, “history” began to be called any story about any incident, real or fictitious. Currently, we use the word “history” in two senses: firstly, to mean a story about the past, and secondly, when talking about the science that studies the past.
The subject of history is defined ambiguously. The subject of history can be social, political, economic, demographic history, the history of the city, village, family, privacy. The definition of the subject of history is subjective, connected with the ideology of the state and the worldview of the historian. Historians who take a materialist position believe that history as a science studies the patterns of social development, which ultimately depend on the method of production of material goods. This approach prioritizes economics, society—rather than people—in explaining causation. Historians who adhere to liberal positions are convinced that the subject of the study of history is man (personality) in the self-realization of natural rights granted by nature. The famous French historian Marc Bloch defined history “as the science of people in time.”
1. What is history?
History is one of the oldest sciences, about 2500 years old. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BC) is considered its founder. The ancients valued history very much and called it “magistra vitae” (teacher of life).
History is usually defined as a science about the past - past reality, about what once happened to a person, people, society as a whole. Thus, history is reduced to a simple analysis of events, processes, states that have somehow sunk into oblivion. This understanding of history is neither accurate nor complete, moreover, it is internally contradictory. In fact, history does not allow people to forget “their former life.” History, as it were, resurrects the past, the past, rediscovering and reconstructing it for the present. Thanks to history, historical knowledge, the past does not die, but continues to live in the present, serving the present.
It is noteworthy that in Ancient Greece The patroness of history was Clio - the goddess who glorifies. The scroll and slate stick in her hands are a symbol and guarantee that nothing should disappear without a trace.
History is the collective memory of the people, the memory of the past. But the memory of the past is no longer the past in the proper sense of the word. This is the past, restored and restored according to the standards of modernity, with an orientation towards the values and ideals of people's lives in the present, for the past exists for us through the present and thanks to it. K. Jaspers expressed this thought in his own way: “History directly concerns us... And everything that concerns us thereby constitutes the problem of the present for man.”
Initial meaning of the word "story" goes back to the Greek "ioropia", which means "investigation", "recognition", "establishment". Thus, initially "story" identified with a way of recognizing, establishing true events and facts. However, in Roman historiography it has already acquired second meaning (story about past events), that is, the center of gravity was transferred from the study of the past to the narration of it. During the Renaissance, there is third the meaning of the concept "history". History began to be understood type of literature, special function which was establishing and recording the truth.
However, history has not yet been considered as an independent field of knowledge, especially scientific for a long time. It did not have its own subject during the period of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and even during the Enlightenment. How is this fact consistent with the fairly high prestige and widespread prevalence of historical knowledge? How to reconcile it with the huge number of works containing historical information, from Herodotus and Thucydides, through countless medieval chronicles, chronicles and “lives”, to historical research the beginning of the New Age? This is explained by the fact that history has been integrated into common system knowledge. In the eras of Antiquity and the Middle Ages, it existed and developed in combination with mythology, religion, theology, literature and, to some extent, geography. During the Renaissance it was given a powerful impetus geographical discoveries, flowering of art, political theories. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. history was connected with political theory, geography, literature, philosophy, and culture.
The need to isolate scientific knowledge itself began to be felt since the time of the natural science revolution (XVII century). However, in early XIX century, the “indivisibility” of the “philosophical” and scientific knowledge, on the one hand, and science itself across disciplines, on the other.
One of the first attempts to determine the place of history as a scientific discipline with its own subject was made by the German philosopher W. Krug in his work “The Experience of a Systematic Encyclopedia of Knowledge.” The circle divided sciences into philological and real, real into positive (legal and theological) and natural, natural into historical and rational, etc. In turn, the “historical” sciences were divided into geographical (place) and historical (time) disciplines.
At the end of the 19th century. French philosopher A. Naville divided all sciences into three groups:
1. “Theorematics” - “sciences about the limits of possibilities or laws” (mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology).
2. "History" - "sciences about realized opportunities or facts" (astronomy, geology, botany, zoology, mineralogy, human history).
3. “Canon” - “the science of possibilities, the implementation of which would be good, or about ideal rules behavior" (morality, art theory, law, medicine, pedagogy).
2. The subject of history as a science: purpose, objectives of study, socially significant functions.
The study of any science begins with defining the concepts with which it operates in the process of cognition of both nature and society. From this point of view, the question arises: what is history as a science? What is the subject of its study? Answering this question, first of all, it is necessary to distinguish between history as any process of development of nature and society, closely related to each other, and history as
What is history?
The subject of the science of history and its place in the system of historical sciences
The study of humanitarian disciplines is an important part of general education and worldview training modern specialists and promotes the intellectual development of the individual and the development of creative thinking. To the most important social sciences history relates.
History is the science of the past human society and its present, about the patterns of development public life in specific forms, in space-time dimensions. The content of history in general is the historical process, which is revealed in phenomena human life, information about which is preserved in historical monuments and sources. These phenomena are extremely diverse and relate to the development of the economy, the external and internal social life of the country, international relations, and the activities of historical figures.
Accordingly, history is a multidisciplinary science; it is composed of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: the history of economic, political, social, civil, military, state and law, religion, etc. Historical sciences also include ethnography, which studies life and culture peoples, and archeology, which studies history using material sources of antiquity - tools, household utensils, jewelry, etc., as well as entire complexes - settlements, burial grounds, treasures.
History is also divided according to the breadth of study of the object: history of the world in in general (worldwide or general history) history of the continents(for example, the history of Asia and Africa), history of individual countries And peoples or groups of peoples(for example, the history of Russia).
Exist auxiliary historical disciplines, having a relatively narrow subject of research, studying it in detail and thus contributing to a deeper understanding of the historical process as a whole. These include: chronology, studying time systems; paleography - handwritten monuments and ancient letters; diplomacy - historical acts; numismatics - coins, medals, orders, monetary systems, history of trade; metrology - system of measures; flag studies - flags; heraldry - coats of arms of countries, cities, individual families; sphragistics - printing; epigraphy - inscriptions on stone, clay, metal; genealogy - origin of cities and surnames; toponymy - origin of geographical names; local history - history of the area, region, region.
The most significant auxiliary historical disciplines include source study, researching historical sources, and historiography, whose task is to describe and analyze the views, ideas and concepts of historians and study patterns in the development of historical science.
History is not only one of the two thousand existing sciences that serve modern humanity, but also one of the most ancient. History is closely connected with other sciences, in particular with psychology, sociology, philosophy, legal sciences, economic theory, mathematics, mathematical statistics, linguistics, literary criticism, etc. In contrast, it considers the process of development of society as a whole, analyzes the entire set of phenomena of social life, all its aspects (economics, politics, culture, everyday life, etc.) and their interconnections and interdependence. At the same time, each of the existing sciences (social, economic, technical) has gone through its own history during the development of human society. And on modern stage all sciences and arts necessarily include a historical section, for example, the history of physics, the history of music, the history of cinema, etc. At the intersection of historical and other sciences, interdisciplinary sciences are created - such as historical geography, historical geology, etc.
B) functions of historical knowledge
History performs several socially significant functions.
*First - educational, intellectually developing, consisting in the study itself historical path countries, peoples and in an objectively true, from the position of historicism, reflection of all phenomena and processes that make up the history of mankind.
In scientific language, the word “history” is often used as a process, movement in time and as a process of knowledge in time. The content of history, as a special branch of scientific knowledge, is the historical process.
It should be noted that human society is as much a part of world existence as the life of the nature around us, and its scientific knowledge- the same necessary need of the human mind as the study of natural life.
The historical process manifests itself in human life, information about which is preserved in historical monuments and sources. These phenomena are extremely diverse and relate to the external and internal life of the country, international relations, and the activities of historical figures.
Thus, the cognitive function consists in the very study of the historical path of our country, the historical path of the people and in the objectively true, from the standpoint of historicism, reflection of all the phenomena and processes that make up history Russian state. Striving for an objective knowledge of the history of the country, one must constantly test oneself by studying the chain historical events in their integrity, causality and results. Analyzing the mistakes of yesterday will make it possible to avoid mistakes today and tomorrow.
At the same time, a comprehensive analysis of errors and the thoroughness of their study should not negate the enormous positive work that our ancestors did.
*Second function - practical-political. Its essence is that history as a science, revealing on the basis of theoretical understanding historical facts patterns of social development, helps to develop a scientifically based political course, and avoid subjective decisions. The unity of the past, present and future is the root of people's interest in their history. Russian historian V.0. Klyuchevsky(1841-1911), defining practical significance knowledge of history, historical consciousness, noted: “History assigns to each people two-way cultural work - on the nature of the country in which it is destined to live, and on its own nature, on its spiritual forces and social relations” (7. P. 61).
To determine where and how society should go in its development, you need to know where it came from, what state it came from and how it passed its historical path.
Today life itself poses many questions to modern history. In determining the tasks and directions of our activities, each of us must be to a certain extent a historian in order to become a conscious and conscientious citizen.
*Third function - ideological. The study of history directly influences the formation of a scientific worldview.
A worldview - a view of the world, society, the laws of its development - can be scientific if it is based on objective reality. IN social development objective reality- these are historical facts. History, its factual side, is the foundation on which the science of society is based. All sorts of supporters of dogmas and pseudoscience about society speculate on historical illiteracy, since, without knowing historical facts, people are forced to accept different ideological sentiments and hypotheses on faith.
In order for conclusions from history to be truly scientific, it is necessary to study all the facts related to a given process or phenomenon, without exception, in their totality; only then can one obtain an objective picture adequate to reality, and therefore ensure the scientific nature of knowledge.
*History has a huge educational influence. This is the fourth story feature. Knowledge of the history of your people and world history forms civic qualities - patriotism and internationalism; shows the role of the people and individuals in the development of society; allows you to know the moral and moral values of humanity in their development, understand categories such as honor, duty to society, see the vices of society and people, their influence on human destinies.
The study of history teaches one to think in historical categories, to see society in development, to evaluate the phenomena of social life in relation to their past and relate it to the subsequent course of events.
This approach creates the need to comprehend reality not in static terms, but in the historical process, in chronological connection, in the dialectics of development.
Concept of history; auxiliary historical disciplines; history functions; methodology of history; principles of studying history; periodization of history; historical sources.
What is historical science?
Story one of the most ancient, but at the same time quite controversial sciences, it studies the past of human society, the patterns of development of man and society.
The study of history is incredibly important for the educational, cultural and ideological preparation of any person, regardless of profession and type of activity, which is why history is included in the course of any comprehensive educational programs. Public policy such is that history is the basis of a person’s ideas about his state, its place in the historical process. Anyone cultured person knowledge of the history of your country is necessary.
Contents of historical science constitutes the historical process in all its manifestations; as a rule, its study is based on historical sources. History is a complex science, and includes the study of historical processes from the point of view of politics, military affairs, religion and ethnography, and economics. In addition, there are auxiliary historical disciplines: archaeology, chronology, numismatics, toponymy, heraldry and many others.
Auxiliary historical sciences:
Genealogy- a science that studies family ties in all their manifestations.
Heraldry- a science that studies coats of arms and symbols.
Diplomatics- a science that studies the history of legal documents.
Metrology– a science that studies all kinds of metrics (measures of volume, length, etc.)
Onomastics- the science that studies names.
Toponymy- the science that studies geographical names.
Anthroponymy- a science that studies personal names of people.
Ethnonymy- a science that studies the names of ethnic groups.
Theonymics- a science that studies names within the framework of religious cults and religions.
Numismatics- the science that studies the history of coins and means of exchange.
Paleography– a science that studies written sources (their external signs).
Sphragistics- the science that studies seals.
Chronology- a science that studies the time frame of history.
Etymology- a science that studies the history of language.
Historical science is closely related to other sciences, including jurisprudence, sociology, linguistics - it uses the achievements and methodology of these sciences, and in some cases they have a similar object of study.
Functions of historical science
Historical science performs a number of important functions:
1. Cognitive function stories consists of studying the historical experience of various peoples.
2. Ideological function of history consists in the formation of state ideology and political course based on the achievements of historical science.
3. The cultural function of history consists in the continuation of the social memory of peoples, the preservation of cultural traditions.
4. The educational function of history consists in the formation of positive historical images as an example for future generations.
Methodology of historical science
What is the method of historical science?
Method of historical science is a special way of studying the subject of history (the historical process in all its manifestations), based on a set of techniques and principles of research.
Basic methods of historical science:
1. Chronological method of researching history represents the periodization of historical processes, the compilation of their chronology.
2. Historical modeling method, which involves the construction of possible connections and patterns within the historical process.
3. Statistical method involves the use of achievements of statistical science (figures, facts) as part of the study of the historical process.
4. Comparative historical method involves comparing and searching for general patterns and differences in the historical experiences of different peoples.
Principles of historical science
What are the principles of historical science?
Principles of historical science represent the basic settings on the basis of which the process of historical knowledge should be built.
Basic principles of historical science:
Principle of research (historicism) involves a careful and thorough study of all processes within the framework of the specific development of the history of certain social processes.
Principle of objectivity involves the study of historical processes based only on historical facts in their most correct interpretation, without bias and politicization. A historian must be objective; he must take into account both the positive and negative aspects of historical facts.
Connectivity principle involves the study of the historical process based on the postulate that every event, fact and process has its own prerequisites and cause-and-effect relationship.
Periodization of historical science
What is the periodization of historical science?
Periodization represents the establishment of chronological stages in the development of historical processes. The basis for the periodization of history are factors and characteristics common to generalizing the historical process.
Options for periodization of history:
The ancient Greek poet and historian Hesiod identified five periods of social development: divine, gold, silver, copper and iron. At the same time, he argued that with each new historical period, humanity lived worse and worse.
The ancient Greek mathematician and historian Pythagoras argued that history can be characterized by a circular movement, from birth to death.
Russian researcher L.I. Mechnikov revealed periodic pattern based on irrigation characteristics. He distinguished riverine, Mediterranean and oceanic periods in the history of the development of civilizations.
Karl Marx developed one of the most popular and widespread periodizations of historical science. He formulated a category - a socio-economic formation that characterized the stages of human development that were common in their characteristics. Thus, he distinguished four stages: primitive communal, feudal, capitalist and communist.
Adolph Joseph Toynbee viewed history as a cycle and cyclicity within the framework of the development of local civilizations. This approach was based on identifying common features civilizations in the sphere of culture (political, spiritual and material).
In Russian historical science, a typical periodization of history has developed, within which it is customary to distinguish the Primitive era, Ancient world, Middle Ages, Modern and Contemporary times.
Historical sources
The very concept of “history” (from the Greek historia - a story about the past) arose in the era of antiquity, around the 1st millennium BC. The ancient Greek writer, the historian Herodotus, is traditionally considered to be the father of historical knowledge. Initially, they were the basis of the worldview, reflecting the laws of the surrounding world and the place of man in it. Gradually, views were formed on the history of peoples and states as a constant cyclical alternation of interrelated events.
The word "history" is used in several meanings.
Firstly, history as the past, a series of past events.
Secondly, history as a science.
History is a scientific discipline that deals with the study of the past. The object of historical knowledge is historical reality. It consists of events, incidents, is irreversible and unique. Thus, historical knowledge can be defined as knowledge about the past. The subject of historical knowledge is what exactly we put into the concept of the past, what interests us in it, what we want to take out of it - the patterns and results of the historical process.
The content of history as a branch of scientific knowledge is the historical process, i.e. the life of humanity in its development and its results. History as a field of knowledge is the people's memory of past life and constitutes a major part of national identity. Knowledge of history contributes to the continuity of generations, without which people and society lose progressive development.
Since people began to think about the past, a distinction has emerged between sacred (sacred) and ordinary (profane) history. An example of sacred history is Christian worship, which annually repeats the events of Christ’s earthly life for twelve months. Historical representations modern type begin to take shape when it becomes possible to record information about events in order to preserve it for posterity, for history.
Historical memory is impossible without knowledge of the past, which must reach descendants. Only with the advent of writing does the possibility of clear historical knowledge arise. An attribute of historical consciousness is chronology as a way of ordering the past. Chronology, by establishing precise dating of the past, is concerned with determining the relative and absolute place of events in history.
Historical events become historical facts. But not every event is a historical fact, but only one that is given special significance, for example, a war that led to the disappearance of a state or an entire culture, or maybe it was some kind of discovery that turned the life of mankind upside down. A historical fact is considered to be reliable knowledge about the past. Then this knowledge must be built into the existing belief system, that is, take its place in history.
History is the knowledge of changes that have occurred from the past to the present and to the future. History is the life of our ancestors in all its diversity. These are the fates of people, their sorrows and joys. History doesn’t just tell us about the past, it allows us to see ourselves against the background of previous generations; it is history that gives meaning to our lives. The study of history helps to think in historical categories, see society in development, in change, evaluate the phenomena of social life in relation to the past and relate it to future developments.
To understand history, it is necessary to operate not with individual facts, but with their sequences, that is, processes. The historical process is a sequence of historical facts reflecting the development of human culture.
The following main methods of studying history are distinguished (method - from the Greek. Method - the path to something, a way of constructing and justifying any system of knowledge):
1. The theological method considers history as a manifestation of the divine will, when all historical processes are carried out according to God's design. This religious-fatalistic approach was characteristic of historians of the past, when in most countries religion occupied a dominant position. And in modern conditions If there is a significant number of believers, the theological method has a right to exist.
2. The subjective-idealistic method of studying history is based on the absolutization of the active role of the subject-person in various fields of activity. According to the ideas of subjective idealists, the historical process takes place according to the will outstanding personalities, monarchs, generals, thinkers who give life-giving ideas. Undoubtedly, the role of the individual in the historical process is great, but its significance is determined in one way or another by the interaction between the individual and society.
3. Dialectical-materialistic method. The cornerstone of dialectical materialism is the doctrine of the material nature of the world, that is, the historical process is based on material factors, and human existence is based on social production. The dialectical view of the world is based on general laws, thanks to which processes of change in nature and society are carried out. The knowledge of such general laws of dialectics and their application in social practice is the use of the dialectical-materialist method in the historical process, otherwise called historical materialism. A researcher who wants to know the truth of history will take into account both material and subjective factors.
The degree of scientificity of the acquired knowledge is determined by strict adherence to the basic principles of historical science, which include:
1) the principle of objectivity;
2) the principle of historicism;
3) the principle of a social approach.
The principle of objectivity (comprehensiveness) includes:
1) use without distortion of historical facts, taking into account the degree of their reliability (evaluation of the source, its correspondence to other sources, the degree of probability of a given phenomenon in specific conditions, etc.);
2) use of the entire sum of facts related to a given phenomenon, without exception (“silence”);
3) recognition of the objective nature of the laws of social development.
The principle of historicism provides:
1) the study of social phenomena in development (what it was like, what stages of development it took place and what it was like at the time of study);
2) studying the phenomenon in connection with others, also developing over time;
3) assessment of a phenomenon, fact, personality, based on the specific historical conditions of that time (and not abstract or modern concepts) and determining the nature of their influence on the further development of society.
The principle of the social approach includes:
1) study of the social structure of society (classes, social strata);
2) analysis of the social interests of various strata and their contradictions;
3) studying the manifestation of these interests in various areas of socio-political and cultural life.
The history of mankind is the history of the countries and peoples that make up the human community. Each country has followed its own unique path historical development, including Russia, our Fatherland. In order to most fully assess and present the history of the country, it is necessary to take into account the following main factors:
1) space, territory, geographical conditions where the formation and development of a given people took place;
2) time, the specific historical period of time in which the country developed, especially in comparison with the time frame of other countries;
3) the people, their ethnic characteristics, character, strong-willed ability to transform, their outstanding people. Each of these factors has its own uniqueness and, as a whole, creates a special history of the country. At the same time, the history of mankind has common features that connect in time the progressive stages of society’s movement towards progress (from Latin - forward movement).
The practical side of history lies in its functions, that is, in the role that history as the past and as a discipline plays in the life of society. History as the past is, first of all, an invaluable storehouse of social and individual experience, therefore the first function of historical knowledge is socialization, that is, the inclusion of the individual in the cultural field of society. By learning about their past, their history, assimilating the traditions that came to us from the past, new and new generations of people reproduce their society, their people. But the story is not limited to education alone.
By providing knowledge about the past, history allows us to look into the future. History creates the conditions for self-determination, self-identification of the people, their self-construction. This is the second function. The national idea is a product of history, on the one hand, but also a project for the future, on the other. The national idea is what unites society, orients it, and gives meaning to its life.
The third function of history (prognostic) is the use of historical experience in politics. “History is power,” said the Russian historian Klyuchevsky. History as a science that, on the basis of a theoretical understanding of historical facts, reveals patterns and trends in the development of society, helps to develop a scientifically based political course and avoid erroneous decisions.
The functions of historical science can be reduced to the development of social self-awareness of various human communities; historical knowledge plays the same role in society as memory plays in the life of an individual.
The history of the Fatherland is a scientific and academic discipline, within the framework of which the multifaceted process of formation and development of our Fatherland from ancient times to the present day, the formation of its multinational people and the formation of the main state and public institutions are studied.
The study of the past of mankind can be imagined or reconstructed only with the help of various kinds of historical sources - in other words, everything that is directly related to human activity and has come down to us in the form of objects of material culture, written monuments, oral literature, elements of morals, customs, beliefs, features of the language and its structure, etc.