Michael Talbot (1953-1992), native of Australia, was the author of many books highlighting the parallels between ancient mysticism and quantum mechanics and supporting theoretical model reality suggesting that the physical universe is like a giant hologram.

In 1982 a remarkable event took place. At the University of Paris, a research team led by physicist Alain Aspe carried out what could be one of the most significant experiments of the 20th century. Aspe and his group discovered that under certain conditions, elementary particles, such as electrons, are able to instantly communicate with each other, regardless of the distance between them. It doesn't matter if it's 10 feet or 10 billion miles. Somehow each particle always knows what the other is doing.

The problem with this discovery is that it violates Einstein's postulate about the limiting speed of propagation of an interaction equal to the speed of light. Because the journey faster speed light is tantamount to overcoming a time barrier, this frightening prospect has led some physicists to try to explain Aspe's experiments in complex detours. But it has inspired others to offer even more radical explanations.

For example, University of London physicist David Bohm argued that Aspe's discovery implied that objective reality does not exist, that despite its apparent density, the universe is fundamentally a fantasy, a gigantic, luxuriously detailed hologram.

To understand why Bohm made such a startling conclusion, one has to talk about holograms.

A hologram is a three-dimensional photograph taken with a laser. To produce a hologram, the subject to be photographed must first be illuminated by laser light. Then the second laser beam, adding up with the reflected light from the object, gives an interference pattern that can be recorded on the film. The finished picture looks like a meaningless alternation of light and dark lines. But as soon as the image is illuminated with another laser beam, a three-dimensional image of the original object immediately appears.

Three-dimensionality is not the only remarkable property inherent in a hologram. If a rose hologram is cut in half and illuminated with a laser, each half will contain a whole image of the same rose in exactly the same size. If we continue to cut the hologram into smaller pieces, on each of them we will again find an image of the entire object as a whole. Unlike a conventional photograph, each area of ​​the hologram contains information about the entire subject, but with a proportionally corresponding decrease in clarity.

The principle of the hologram "everything in every part" allows us to approach the issue of organization and order in a fundamentally new way. For almost its entire history, Western science has developed with the idea that The best way to understand a physical phenomenon, whether it be a frog or an atom, is to cut it apart and study its constituent parts. The hologram has shown us that some things in the universe cannot be explored in this way. If we dissect something arranged holographically, we will not get the parts of which it consists, but we will get the same thing, but with less accuracy.

This approach inspired Bohm to reinterpret Aspe's work. Bohm was sure that elementary particles interact at any distance, not because they exchange some mysterious signals with each other, but because their separation is illusory. He explained that at some deeper level of reality, such particles are not separate entities, but are actually extensions of something more fundamental.

To better understand this, Bohm offered the following illustration.

Imagine an aquarium with fish. Imagine also that you cannot see the aquarium directly, but only two television screens that transmit images from cameras located one in front and one on the side of the aquarium. Looking at the screens, you can conclude that the fish on each of the screens are separate objects. Since the cameras transmit images from different angles, the fish look different. But as you keep watching, after a while you will find that there is a relationship between the two fish on different screens. When one fish turns, the other also changes direction, slightly different, but always in line with the first; when you see one fish in front, the other is certainly in profile. If you do not have a complete picture of the situation, you are more likely to conclude that the fish must somehow instantly communicate with each other than that this is a coincidence.

Bohm argued that this is exactly what happens to elementary particles in the Aspe experiment. According to Bohm, the apparent superluminal interaction between particles tells us that there is a deeper level of reality hidden from us, higher dimensional than ours, as in the aquarium analogy. And, he adds, we see the particles as separate because we only see a part of reality. The particles are not separate "pieces" but facets of a deeper unity that is ultimately as holographic and invisible as the rose mentioned above. And since everything in physical reality consists of these "phantoms", the universe we observe is itself a projection, a hologram.

In addition to being "phantom-like," such a universe could have other amazing properties. If the apparent separation of particles is an illusion, then at a deeper level, all objects in the world can be infinitely interconnected. The electrons in the carbon atoms in our brains are connected to the electrons in every swimming salmon, every beating heart, every twinkling star. Everything interpenetrates everything, and although it is human nature to divide everything, dismember, sort out all the phenomena of nature, all divisions are necessarily artificial, and nature ultimately appears as an unbreakable web. In the holographic world, even time and space cannot be taken as a basis. Because a characterization like position makes no sense in a universe where nothing is really separate from one another; time and three-dimensional space, like images of fish on screens, will need to be considered nothing more than projections. At this deeper level, reality is something like a super-hologram in which the past, present and future exist simultaneously. This means that with the help of appropriate tools, it may be possible to penetrate deep into this super-hologram and extract pictures of a long-forgotten past.

What else a hologram can carry is still far from known. Suppose, for example, that a hologram is a matrix that gives rise to everything in the world, at least it contains all elementary particles that have taken or will someday take on any possible form of matter and energy, from snowflakes to quasars, from blue whales to gamma rays. It's like a universal supermarket, which has everything.

While Bohm admitted that we have no way of knowing what else the hologram holds, he took the liberty of asserting that we have no reason to assume that there is nothing else in it. In other words, perhaps the holographic level of the world is just one of the stages of endless evolution.

Bohm is not alone in his quest to explore the properties of the holographic world. Regardless of him, Stanford University neuroscientist Karl Pribram, who works in the field of brain research, also leans towards the holographic picture of the world. Pribram came to this conclusion by pondering the mystery of where and how memories are stored in the brain. Numerous experiments over decades have shown that information is not stored in any particular area of ​​the brain, but is dispersed throughout the entire volume of the brain. In a series of crucial experiments in the 1920s, brain researcher Carl Lashley discovered that no matter which part of the rat's brain he removed, he could not make the conditioned reflexes developed in the rat before the operation disappear. The only problem was that no one had been able to come up with a mechanism to explain this funny "everything in every part" property of memory.

Later, in the 60s, Pribram encountered the principle of holography and realized that he had found the explanation that neuroscientists were looking for. Pribram is sure that memory is contained not in neurons and not in groups of neurons, but in a series of nerve impulses that “entangle” the brain, just as a laser beam “entangles” a piece of a hologram containing the entire image. In other words, Pribram believes that the brain is a hologram.

Pribram's theory also explains how the human brain can store so many memories in such a small space. It is assumed that the human brain is able to remember about 10 billion bits in a lifetime (which corresponds to about the amount of information contained in 5 sets of the Encyclopædia Britannica).

It was found that another striking feature was added to the properties of holograms - a huge recording density. By simply changing the angle at which the lasers illuminate the film, many different images can be recorded on the same surface. It has been shown that one cubic centimeter of film can store up to 10 billion bits of information.

Our uncanny ability to quickly retrieve the information we need from our vast memory becomes more understandable if we accept that the brain works like a hologram. If a friend asks you what comes to mind when you hear the word "zebra," you don't have to rote through your entire vocabulary to find the answer. Associations like "striped", "horse" and "lives in Africa" ​​appear in your head instantly.

Indeed, one of the most amazing properties of human thinking is that every piece of information is instantly and cross-correlated with every other, another quality inherent in a hologram. Since any section of the hologram is infinitely interconnected with any other, it is quite possible that it is the highest natural example of cross-correlated systems.

The location of memory is not the only neurophysiological puzzle that has become more solvable in light of Pribram's holographic model of the brain. Another is how the brain is able to translate such an avalanche of frequencies that it perceives with various senses (frequencies of light, sound frequencies, and so on) into our concrete idea of ​​the world. Encoding and decoding frequencies is exactly what a hologram does best. Just as a hologram serves as a kind of lens, a transmission device capable of turning a seemingly meaningless mishmash of frequencies into a coherent image, so the brain, according to Pribram, contains such a lens and uses the principles of holography to mathematically process frequencies from the senses into the inner world of our perceptions.

A lot of evidence suggests that the brain uses the principle of holography to function. Pribram's theory finds more and more supporters among neurophysiologists.

Argentinean-Italian researcher Hugo Zucarelli has recently extended the holographic model to the realm of acoustic phenomena. Perplexed by the fact that people can determine the direction of a sound source without turning their heads, even if only one ear works, Zuccarelli found that the principles of holography could explain this ability as well.

He also developed holophonic sound recording technology capable of reproducing soundscapes with near-uncanny realism.

Pribram's idea that our brains mathematically construct a "hard" reality based on input frequencies has also received brilliant experimental support. It has been found that any one of our sense organs has a much larger frequency range of receptivity than previously thought. For example, researchers have found that our organs of vision are sensitive to sound frequencies, that our sense of smell is somewhat dependent on what is now called "osmotic frequencies," and that even the cells in our body are sensitive to a wide range of frequencies. Such findings suggest that this is the work of the holographic part of our consciousness, which transforms separate chaotic frequencies into continuous perception.

But the most startling aspect of Pribram's holographic model of the brain comes to light when it is compared with Bohm's theory. Because if visible physical density of the world is only a secondary reality, and what is "out there" is really only a holographic set of frequencies, and if the brain is also a hologram and only selects some frequencies from this set and mathematically transforms them into sensory perceptions, what remains to be objective reality?

To put it simply, it ceases to exist. As Eastern religions have been saying from time immemorial, the material world is Maya, an illusion, and although we may think that we are physical and move in the physical world, this is also an illusion.

In fact, we are "receivers" floating in a kaleidoscopic sea of ​​frequencies, and everything that we extract from this sea and turn into physical reality is just one frequency channel out of many, extracted from a hologram.

This striking new picture of reality, a synthesis of the views of Bohm and Pribram, has been called the holographic paradigm, and while many scientists have been skeptical about it, others have been encouraged by it. A small but growing group of researchers believe that this is one of the most accurate models of the world yet proposed. Moreover, some hope that it will help solve some mysteries that have not been previously explained by science and even consider the paranormal as part of nature.

Numerous researchers, including Bohm and Pribram, conclude that many parapsychological phenomena are becoming more understandable in terms of the holographic paradigm.

In a universe in which the individual brain is effectively an indivisible part, a "quantum" of a large hologram, and everything is infinitely connected to everything, telepathy may simply be reaching the holographic level. It becomes much easier to understand how information can be delivered from consciousness "A" to consciousness "B" at any distance, and to explain many mysteries of psychology. In particular, the founder of transpersonal psychology, Stanislav Grof, foresees that the holographic paradigm will be able to offer a model for explaining many of the mysterious phenomena observed by people in altered states of consciousness.

In the 1950s, while researching LSD as a psychotherapeutic drug, Grof worked with a patient who suddenly became convinced that she was a female prehistoric reptile. During the hallucination, she not only gave a richly detailed description of what it is like to be a creature with such forms, but also noted the colored scales on the head of a male of the same species. Grof was amazed by the fact that in a conversation with a zoologist, the presence of colored scales on the head of reptiles, which plays an important role in mating games, was confirmed, although the woman had no idea about such subtleties before.

This woman's experience was not unique. During his research, Grof encountered patients returning up the ladder of evolution and identifying themselves with the most different types(on their basis, the scene of the transformation of a man into a monkey in the film "Altered States" is built). Moreover, he found that such descriptions often contain little-known zoological details that, when verified, turn out to be accurate.

Return to animals is not the only phenomenon described by Grof. He also had patients who seemed to be able to tap into some sort of area of ​​the collective or racial unconscious. Uneducated or poorly educated people suddenly gave detailed descriptions of funerals in Zoroastrian practice or scenes in Hindu mythology. In other experiences, people gave convincing descriptions of out-of-body travel, predictions of pictures of the future, events of past incarnations.

In later studies, Grof found that the same range of phenomena also appeared in drug-free therapy sessions. Since the common element of such experiments was the extension individual consciousness beyond the usual boundaries of the ego and the boundaries of space and time, Grof called such manifestations "transpersonal experience", and in the late 60s, thanks to him, a new branch of psychology called "transpersonal" psychology appeared, entirely devoted to this area.

Although the Association for Transpersonal Psychology, founded by Grof, was a rapidly growing group of like-minded professionals and became a respected branch of psychology, neither Grof himself nor his colleagues for many years could offer a mechanism to explain the strange psychological phenomena they observed. But this ambiguous position has changed with the advent of the holographic paradigm.

As Grof recently noted, if consciousness is in fact part of a continuum, a labyrinth connected not only to every other consciousness that exists or has existed, but to every atom, organism, and vast region of space and time, its ability to randomly form tunnels in the labyrinth and experience the transpersonal the experience no longer seems so strange.

The holographic paradigm also leaves its mark on the so-called exact sciences, such as biology. Keith Floyd, a psychologist at Virginia Intermont College, has shown that if reality is just a holographic illusion, then one can no longer argue that consciousness is a function of the brain. Rather, on the contrary, consciousness creates the presence of a brain - just as we interpret the body and our entire environment as physical.

This reversal of our views of biological structures has allowed researchers to point out that medicine and our understanding of the healing process may also change under the influence of the holographic paradigm. If the apparent physical structure of the body is nothing more than a holographic projection of our consciousness, it becomes clear that each of us is much more responsible for our health than modern medicine believes. What we are now seeing as a mysterious cure could in fact be due to a change in consciousness, which made appropriate adjustments to the hologram of the body.

Likewise, new alternative therapies such as imaging may work so well precisely because in holographic reality, thought is ultimately as real as "reality."

Even revelations and experiences of the “other world” become explicable from the point of view of new paradigm. Biologist Lyell Watson, in his book Gifts of the Unknown, describes an encounter with an Indonesian female shaman who, performing a ritual dance, was able to make an entire grove of trees instantly disappear into the subtle world. Watson writes that while he and another surprised bystander continued to watch her, she caused the trees to disappear and reappear several times in succession.

Although modern science is unable to explain such phenomena, but they become quite logical, if we assume that our "dense" reality is nothing more than a holographic projection. Perhaps we can formulate the concepts of “here” and “there” more precisely if we define them at the level of the human unconscious, in which all consciousnesses are infinitely closely interconnected.

If this is true, then this is the most significant implication of the holographic paradigm overall, since it means that the phenomena Watson observed are not public only because our minds are not programmed to trust them, which would make them so. In the holographic universe, there are no limits to the possibilities for changing the fabric of reality.

What we perceive as reality is just a canvas waiting for us to put on it any picture we want. Everything is possible, from the bending of spoons at will to the phantasmagoric experiences of Castaneda in his studies with don Juan, because magic is given to us by birthright, no more and no less wonderful than our ability to create new worlds in our dreams and fantasies.

Of course, even our most "fundamental" knowledge is suspect, because in a holographic reality, as Pribram showed, even random events must be considered using holographic principles and resolved in this way. Synchronicities or coincidences suddenly make sense, and anything can be seen as a metaphor, since even a chain random events can express some kind of deep symmetry.

Whether Bohm and Pribram's holographic paradigm gains mainstream scientific acceptance or fades into obscurity, it is safe to say that it has already influenced the way of thinking of many scientists. And even if it is found that the holographic model does not adequately describe the instantaneous interaction elementary particles At least, as Birbeck College London physicist Basil Healey points out, Aspe's discovery "showed that we must be prepared to consider radical new approaches to understanding reality."

For the past few thousand years, man has constantly tried to comprehend the surrounding Cosmos. Created different models Universe and ideas about the place of man in it. Gradually, these ideas were formed into the so-called scientific theory of the Universe.

This theory was finally formed in the middle of the twentieth century. Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity became the basis of the current Big Bang theory. All other theories of reality, in principle, are only special cases of this theory, and therefore, how the theory of the Universe reflects the true state of things depends not only on the correctness of human ideas about the Universe, but also on the future of civilization itself. Based on man-made ideas about nature technologies, devices and machines are created. And it also depends on how they are created, whether the earthly civilization will exist or not.

If these ideas are not correct or accurate, this can turn into a catastrophe and the death of not only civilization, but also life itself on a beautiful planet, which we, human beings, call the Earth. And thus, from purely theoretical concepts, ideas about the nature of the Universe pass into the category of concepts on which the future of civilization and the future of life on our planet depend. Therefore, what these ideas will be should excite not only philosophers and scientists of natural sciences, but also every living person. Thus, ideas about the nature of the Universe, if they are correct, can become the key to the unprecedented progress of civilization and, if they are not correct, lead to the death of both civilization and life on Earth. Correct ideas about the nature of the Universe will be creative, and erroneous - destructive.

In other words, ideas about the nature of the universe can become a weapon of mass destruction, in comparison with which a nuclear bomb is a child's toy. And this is not a metaphor, but the very truth. And this truth does not depend on whether someone accepts it or not, but, like any true position, it does not depend on the subjectivity of the perceiver, just as, for example, solar activity does not depend on whether a person understands its nature correctly or not. For the Sun, it does not matter at all what ideas a person has about nature. solar activity. How close these ideas are to true phenomena matters only for the person himself. And it seems to me that most people who call themselves scientists have forgotten this simple truth and have become addicted to creating theories that serve their personal ambitions more than they serve to know the truth that anyone who has devoted himself to science should strive for. All of the above is not fiction or verbiage, but, unfortunately, a fact. And this fact is not hidden in abstruse formulas and definitions that are incomprehensible to the majority, but only to a narrow circle of "specialists". This fact is accessible to the understanding of every living person, regardless of whether this person has an education or not, can read or not. Moreover, it is not only accessible to understanding, but, to a greater or lesser extent, already has a direct impact on every living person.

False, erroneous ideas about the nature of the Universe have become the cause of the ecological catastrophe towards which the earthly civilization is so confidently moving. There are so many confirmations of this that anyone who wants to see it cannot even have doubts about what is happening. Everything suggests that the technocratic path of development that modern civilization has taken leads to the self-destruction of earthly civilization.

Modern science has accumulated a huge number of observations of what is happening in the world around us, in the so-called middle world in which man lives. The middle world is located between the macrocosm and the microcosm, at the level of which the laws of Nature exist. In our middle world, man can only observe manifestations of the true laws of nature.

What a person is able to perceive through his five senses is just the tip of the iceberg that rises above the water. And everything else is that thing in itself, unknowable, about which Immanuel Kant wrote in his writings. And such an understanding will be inevitable due to the fact that, using the five senses, it is impossible to create a correct picture of the universe. And for one simple reason - the human senses were formed as a result of adaptation to the conditions of existence in the ecological niche that a person occupies as one of the types of wildlife. These sense organs of a person allow him to perfectly get used to this ecological niche, but nothing more. The sense organs are meant for the middle world, and not for anything else.

Man has created many different devices that seem to have allowed him to penetrate into the microcosm and macrocosm. It would seem that the problem is solved: through the created devices, a person was able to penetrate into the micro- and macrocosm. But there are a few small "buts". And the main one is that with the help of these devices, a person only expanded the possibilities of his sense organs into these worlds, but did nothing with the sense organs themselves. In other words, the limitedness of the sense organs was already transferred to the level of the micro- and macroworld. Just as it is impossible to see the beauty of a flower with the ears, so it is impossible to penetrate the micro- and macrocosm through the five senses. What a person got with similar devices, does not allow to penetrate into the “thing in itself”, but, with everything, at the same time, allows you to see the fallacy of ideas created by man through the five senses, ideas about the nature of the Universe. It is precisely because of the limited tools for human cognition that a distorted false picture of the universe arose and began to form. Observing only partial manifestations of the laws of nature, man was forced to follow the wrong path of understanding the nature of the Universe.

At the beginning of the creation of the modern concept of nature, man was forced to introduce postulates - assumptions accepted without any explanation. In principle, each postulate is God, since the Lord God was also accepted by man without any proof. And if at the initial stage the acceptance of the postulates was justified, then at the final stage of creating a picture of the universe it is simply not acceptable. At proper development human ideas about the nature of the Universe, the number of accepted postulates should gradually decrease until one, maximum two postulates remain, which do not require explanation, due to their obviousness. What, for example, is the postulate of the objective reality of matter, which is given to us in our sensations.

Of course, through his senses, a person is not able to perceive all forms and types of matter. A whole series of radiations that have a very real effect on physically dense matter, a person is not able to perceive through his senses, however, this does not mean that these forms of matter are not real. For example, most people are unable to perceive through their senses 99% spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations, which are quite well known, thanks to the created devices. And what can we say about the fact that existing devices are not able to catch ?! One way or another, a person seeks to know the world around him, and this knowledge, unfortunately, cannot happen instantly. Cognition proceeds through trial and error, when erroneous ideas became the property of history, and they were replaced by new ideas, which over time can also add to the list of unsuccessful attempts. But every theory rejected by practice is inherently positive, since it tells every seeker of truth where it is not worth going in search of it.

sign right direction a very simple factor serves in the cognition of truth - as the grains of knowledge are collected, the number of postulates in theories should decrease. If this happens, everything is in order. But, if this does not happen, and the number of postulates does not decrease, but increases, this is the surest sign of moving away from understanding the true picture of the universe. And this is dangerous for the future of civilization, because it inevitably leads to its self-destruction. In modern science about the nature of the Universe there are many times more postulates than it was, for example, in the 19th century. And the number of postulates continues to grow like a snowball. Everyone is so used to them that they do not pay attention to the presence of postulates in almost every so-called scientific statement.

The simplest questions baffle famous scientists. To the question of what is electricity, an academician-physicist gives a definition known to every schoolchild: “ electric current is the directed movement of electrons from plus to minus". Everyone is so accustomed to such "inference" that no one even thinks about the spoken words - not even academics, who, by definition, should be the most knowledgeable in their disciplines. From the above definition, only the concept of directed movement does not require an explanation, i.e. movement in a given direction. To the questions “what is an electron”, “what is a plus” and “what is a minus”, and “why do electrons move from plus to minus”, one answer was received: “and only God knows this”. And this is the answer of a person who has a world name in physics! In the simplest definition of a phenomenon familiar to every child today, four concepts are accepted without understanding and explanation. Four postulates in one definition, which is presented as a law of nature! And this is not the limit. Practically all the so-called unshakable laws of nature that mankind has penetrated are statements of this kind.

It turns out a funny situation - if someone managed to find a word with which to designate a natural phenomenon - it is considered that the problem has been solved, and a new one has happened scientific discovery. A form is created that does not carry content, and thus a contradiction arises between form and content. One of the most striking examples of such a contradiction between form and content is the concept of "dark matter" ( dark matter).

Astrophysicists studying the movement of celestial bodies have discovered a curious phenomenon. In order for celestial bodies - planets, stars and galaxies - to move along their active orbits, according to the laws of celestial mechanics, the mass of matter must be in ten times more. In other words, the matter known to modern science is only ten percent that mass of matter, which should be in order for celestial bodies to move along those orbits along which they move in the starry sky.

Only TEN PERCENT!

Galaxies, stars and planets - quite real, material objects of space - move along trajectories, for the movement along which the matter of the Universe must be in ten times more! But, according to the concepts modern science, what is matter is only ten percent of how much matter should actually be. It turns out not just a "discrepancy", but a real nonsense. Material objects move along trajectories that they simply cannot have. But facts are stubborn things, they can be hushed up, but they cannot be got rid of.

In order to get out of another contradiction, and a very significant one both in direct and in figuratively, a “simple” solution was found: ninety percent of the matter that no one can “touch” and perceive, both with the help of the five senses and with the help of man-made devices, “agreed” to call « dark matter» (dark matter), and everyone immediately calmed down. Ten percent of "ordinary" matter, plus ninety percent of "dark matter", together give such a coveted one hundred percent of the mass of matter that had to be in order for real galaxies, stars and planets to move along those trajectories along which they have already been moving for billions of years. Isn't it a "beautiful" solution to the contradiction that has arisen? There is only a question: who is easier and better from such a "solution"!? But even in this version, modern science recognizes its complete helplessness. Such a statement confirms that modern science is, in principle, not science, since scientists themselves admit that they know (and far from everything) only about ten percent of the matter that exists in the Universe. Incomplete knowledge of ten percent of the matter of the Universe does not give them any right to demand recognition of their hypotheses and theories as a scientific idea of ​​the nature of the Universe and to act as accusers and experts in criticizing other theories, even if these theories do not correspond to the truth.

Modern science is no different from religion. Since each postulate, accepted without any proof, is still the same Lord God, who is also accepted without any proof. From the point of view of logic, religion has a clear advantage over modern science, since only the Lord God is accepted without proof, as a matter of course, and everything else is created by the Lord God. A logically impeccable system, with one unknown - the Lord God, only this impeccable logical system has one "small" flaw. Without the postulation of the Lord God, this system turns into nonsense. Starting with the postulation of the Lord God, the logical construction ends with the Lord God. The logical chain of religion returns to its beginning. There is a vicious circle, the snake of religion "bites" its own "tail". Religion built on the postulate of the Lord God is evolutionarily dead from the very beginning.

Modern science is logically far from ideal, although, unlike religion, it seems to be based on real natural manifestations. But, due to the fact that modern science deals only with the manifestation of the laws of nature in the middle world, with the processes taking place between the macro- and microworlds, it (science) acts as an outside observer. And everything would be fine if, from observing what is happening inside and around us, scientists did not attempt to explain the observed real natural phenomena. Such attempts led to the adoption of postulates - concepts and ideas accepted without any evidence. And this would not be a problem if, as ideas about the nature of the Universe evolved, the number of postulates would gradually decrease until only one postulate remained, the obviousness of which would not cause anyone to doubt. And such an obvious postulate is the concept of matter as an objective reality given in our sensations. And the more developed our sense organs, and the more a large number sense organs are disposed by a person during his evolutionary development, the more complete and objective the picture of the universe created by a person will be.

But, unfortunately, with the development of science, the number of postulates did not decrease, but, on the contrary, increased, and at the present stage, modern science has hundreds of postulates. At the same time, to explain one postulate, others are introduced, to explain which, in turn, new ones are introduced, and so on ad infinitum. And thus, each postulate turns into the Lord God. Religion refers to the Creator — the Lord God to explain everything that exists, while the scientific explanation of everything that exists is based on postulates, which, in their essence, are mini-Gods from science. In both cases, logically flawed false systems of ideas about the nature of the Universe are obtained. In the case of religion, the Lord God is "situated" at the top of the logical system, and in the case of modern science, at the foundation of the logical system. But, from where the Lord God is located, nothing changes, only in one case, the logical system of ideas is called religion, and in the other - science. In one case - monotheism, and in the other - polytheism (postulates).

Moreover, serious problems in modern science are observed not only at the macro level, but also at the micro. During experiments on the synthesis of elementary particles, nuclear physicists encountered a phenomenon that, in principle, puts an end to all modern physics. When synthesizing a new particle, its mass must be less than or equal to the total mass of the particles that created it. So says the cornerstone law of modern physics - the law of conservation of matter. The essence of which is that matter does not disappear anywhere and does not appear from anywhere. In some experiments on the synthesis of particles, the mass of newly formed particles sometimes turned out to be several orders of magnitude greater than the total mass of the particles that form them (ten to a hundred times more). Real instruments, real particles, and the results... in short, the results are incredible. Modern theory claims that this can never happen, and practical results - that this is happening. The question arises: "What to defend - theoretical positions or practical results?"

It would seem that the answer is obvious from any sane position. But, just not with the "scientific", which continues to rely on all the same statements and postulates. For modern "science" practical results are not important if they do not fit into the "Procrustean bed" of this very "science". Instead of revising the foundation of this very "science", they are trying to "supplement" this foundation with new postulates and assumptions. And they add and correct, not understanding that only a viable theory can be “reanimated”, a “dead” theory, no matter how much you reanimate it, will remain “dead”.

By the way, about life. "Problems" with ideas are present not only among theoretical physicists, but also among biologists and physicians. Until now, scientists studying life cannot explain the nature of life, how the same atoms, connecting with each other in one spatial order, represent “dead” matter, and in another - living. Why pay attention to such "trifles", living matter exists, so why find out how it happened!? But, nevertheless, both biologists and doctors consider themselves experts in matters of life. To the question of how the human embryo develops (as well as any other living organism), brave biologists and physicians, with great faith in their knowledge, often with a condescending smile to the question of the ignorant, famously answer: “in different zygote cells (cells of the embryo ) different hormones and enzymes appear and, as a result, a brain develops from one zygote cell, a heart from another, lungs from a third, etc., and the like.

Again, the classic "explanation" from the school curriculum from the textbook of the 8th grade of high school on human anatomy and physiology. There is simply no other explanation, even among academicians and doctors of sciences, both biological and medical. One has only to dig a little "deeper" and the answer is simply ... no. Any embryo develops from one a fertilized egg that begins to divide. According to the laws of histology (the science of cells), confirmed by practical observations, when one cell divides, two absolutely identical cells appear. When they in turn divide, there are four identical cells and so on: eight, sixteen, thirty-two, sixty-four, and so on. In other words, all cells in an embryo have identical genetics and are copies of a single fertilized egg. And because of this fact, the question arises: how do different hormones and enzymes appear in absolutely identical cells?! And, oddly enough, this question baffles any biologist or physician. And the only thing that can be heard in response: “God alone knows!”. Isn't that an interesting answer for a scientist? And, curiously, in almost any position, statement or law of modern science, with careful analysis, you can “dig out” the Lord God, which only confirms the fact that the same “Lord God” is hidden in the postulates of science.

Naturally, postulation is necessary, only temporary. It is impossible to explain everything at once. But after explaining the fundamental points, it is necessary to return and explain the temporary postulates that were previously introduced without any explanation. In this variant, temporal postulation plays a positive role. But, the problem is that modern science does NOT have temporary postulates. All of its postulates are absolute in their essence, and no one has ever even tried to give them any explanation. It is in this case that the postulates turn into "gods" from science, it is in this case that science turns into religion. And the most curious thing is that the scientists themselves do not even think about it, almost everyone takes this state of affairs for granted and does not even see the problem itself. It is this kind of "blindness" that has led to the fact that modern science has turned into a religion, and scientists - into its priests. And this is confirmed by the statements of prominent scientists that in order to call oneself a scientist, a person must maintain healthy skepticism and not trust his eyes, ears, facts and evidence, but stand firmly on the positions of his science. A very colorful example of the transformation of science into religion ...

And now let's see what kind of "whales" the modern science of natural science stands on. The main "whales" can be called several postulates of modern science:

The postulate of the conservation of matter,

The postulate of homogeneity of the universe and

The postulate of the speed of light.

The postulate of the conservation of matter says that matter does not disappear anywhere and does not appear out of nowhere. Moreover, matter is understood only as a physically dense substance that has four state of aggregation— solid, liquid, gaseous and plasma. And that's it. These erroneous ideas about matter, as such, do not even closely reflect the essence of the real concept of it, and the experimental data obtained with the help of more advanced instruments for studying the micro- and macroworld completely refute modern ideas about the nature of matter. Particle physics and astrophysics have received results that have baffled scientists. The masses of new particles sometimes turned out to be orders of magnitude greater than the total masses of the particles that form them, and the presence in the Universe dark matter(dark matter), which makes up 90% of the mass of matter, which for some reason no one can either see or “feel”, they speak of a serious crisis with the postulate of the conservation of matter. It is necessary either to admit that the concept of matter in modern science is incorrect or that the postulate of the conservation of matter is not correct. But in the form in which this postulate exists now, it does not reflect reality at all. The postulate of the conservation of matter is one of those few postulates of modern science that were closest to the truth. It is enough to expand the boundaries of understanding what matter is, and this postulate becomes true.

Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about the postulate homogeneity of the universe and postulate speed of light. But these two postulates are the foundation of A. Einstein's special and general theories of relativity. I would like to make some clarifications. Regardless of whether this theory is true or not, it would be wrong to consider Albert Einstein as the author of this theory. The thing is that A. Einstein, while working in the patent office, simply “borrowed” ideas from two scientists: the mathematician and physicist Jules Henri Poincaré and the physicist G.A. Lorenz. The two scientists worked together for several years to develop this theory. It was A. Poincaré who put forward the postulate of the homogeneity of the Universe and the postulate of the speed of light. And G.A. Lorentz brought out the famous formulas. A. Einstein, working in the patent office, had access to their scientific work and decided to stake out the theory in his name. He even kept in "his" theories of relativity the name of G.A. Lorentz: the main mathematical formulas in "his" theory are called "Lorentz transformations", but, nevertheless, he does not specify what relation he himself has to these formulas (nothing) and does not mention the name of A. Poincaré at all, who put forward the postulates . But, "for some reason" gave this theory its name.

The whole world knows that A. Einstein is a Nobel laureate, and everyone has no doubt that he received this prize for the creation of the Special and General Theories of Relativity. But it is not. The scandal around this theory, although he was known in narrow scientific circles, did not allow the Nobel Committee to give him a prize for this theory. They found a very simple way out - A. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for ... the discovery of the Second Law of the Photoelectric Effect, which was a special case of the First Law of the Photoelectric Effect. But, it is curious that the Russian physicist Stoletov Alexander Grigorievich (1830-1896), who discovered the photoelectric effect itself, did not Nobel Prize, and no other, for this discovery he did not receive, while A. Einstein was given it for "studying" a particular case of this law of physics. It turns out sheer nonsense from any point of view. The only explanation for this can be that someone really wanted to make A. Einstein a Nobel laureate and was looking for any excuse to do it. The “genius” had to puff a little with the discovery of the Russian physicist A.G. Stoletov, "studying" the photoelectric effect, and now ... a new Nobel laureate was "born".

The Nobel Committee apparently considered that two were too much for one discovery and decided to give out only one ... to the brilliant scientist A. Einstein! Is it really that "important" whether the First Law of the Photoelectric Effect or the Second is given a prize? Most importantly, the prize for the discovery was awarded to the "brilliant" scientist A. Einstein. And the fact that the discovery itself was made by the Russian physicist A.G. Stoletov, these are already “little things” that you should not pay attention to. The most important thing is that the "brilliant" scientist A. Einstein became a Nobel laureate. And now almost any person began to believe that A. Einstein received this award for "his" GREAT Special and General Theories of Relativity.

A natural question arises: why did someone very influential want to make A. Einstein a Nobel laureate and glorify him throughout the world as the greatest scientist of all time?! There must be a reason for this? And the reason for this was the terms of the deal between A. Einstein and those persons who made him a Nobel laureate. It can be seen that A. Einstein really wanted to be a Nobel laureate and the greatest scientist of all times and peoples! And, apparently, it was vitally necessary for these persons to direct the development of earthly civilization along the wrong path, which, in the end, leads to an ecological catastrophe. And A. Einstein agreed to become an instrument of this plan, but also presented his own demands - to become a Nobel laureate. The deal was made and the terms of that deal were met. In addition, the creation of the image of a genius of all times and peoples only increased the effect of introducing false ideas about the nature of the Universe into the masses. I think it is necessary to take a different look at the meaning of the famous photo A. Einstein, on which he shows everyone his tongue?! protruding tongue " greatest genius” takes on a slightly different meaning, in view of the foregoing. Which?! I think it's easy to guess.

Unfortunately, plagiarism is not so rare in science and not only in physics. But the point is not even the fact of plagiarism, but the fact that these ideas about the nature of the Universe are fundamentally erroneous, and science, created on the postulate of the uniformity of the Universe and the postulate of the speed of light, ultimately leads to a planetary ecological catastrophe. Can anyone assume that A. Einstein and the people behind him simply did not know that this theory does not correspond to reality?! Maybe A. Einstein and Co. were sincerely mistaken, as many scientists were mistaken, creating their hypotheses and theories, which later did not receive practical confirmation?! Someone can even say that at that time there were no high-precision instruments that would allow one to penetrate into the depths of the micro- and macrocosm?! Someone can also bring experimental facts confirming (at that time) the correctness of A. Einstein's theories of relativity!

From school textbooks, everyone knows about the confirmation of A. Einstein's theory by Michelson-Morley experiments. But almost no one knows that in the interferometer used in the Michelson-Morley experiments, light traveled a total of 22 meters. In addition, the experiments were carried out in the basement of a stone building, almost at sea level. Further, the experiments were carried out for four days (July 8, 9, 11 and 12) in 1887. These days, the data from the interferometer were taken for as long as 6 hours, and there were 36 rotations of the device. And on this experimental basis, as on three whales, the confirmation of “correctness”, both special and general theory relativity A. Einstein.

Facts are serious business. So let's get down to the facts. American physicist Dayton Miller(1866-1941) in 1933 published in the journal Review of Modern Physics ( Reviews of Modern Physics) the results of his experiments on the so-called ethereal wind for a period of more than twenty years old research, and in all these experiments he received positive results confirming the existence of the ethereal wind. He began his experiments in 1902 and completed them in 1926. For these experiments, he created an interferometer with a total beam path of 64 meters. It was the most advanced interferometer of that time, at least three times more sensitive than the interferometer used in their experiments by A. Michelson and E. Morley. Interferometer measurements were taken at different times of the day, different times of the year. Readings from the instrument were taken more than 200,000 times, and more than 12,000 rotations of the interferometer were made. He periodically raised his interferometer to the top of Mount Wilson (6,000 feet above sea level - more than 2,000 meters), where, as he expected, the speed of the ether wind was greater.

And now, let's see what the facts tell us. On the one hand, there are the Michelson-Morley experiments, which lasted for a total of 6 hours, within four days, 36 turns of the interferometer. On the other hand, the experimental data were taken from the interferometer during 24 years old and the instrument turned whiter 12 000 once! And besides, the D. Miller interferometer was in 3 times more sensitive! Here's what the facts say.

But maybe A. Einstein and Co. did not know about these results, did not read scientific journals and therefore remained in their delusion?! They knew very well. Dayton Miller wrote letters to A. Einstein. In one of his letters, he reported on the results of his twenty-four years of work, confirming the presence of the ethereal wind. A. Einstein answered this letter very skeptically and demanded proofs, which were provided to him. After that... no answer. There was no response to the facts provided, for obvious reasons. But, the most curious thing is that in the Michelson-Morley experiments, nevertheless, positive values ethereal wind, but their "simply" ignored. After the death of D. Miller in 1941, the results of his work were "simply" forgotten, nowhere else and never published in scientific journals, etc., as if this scientist had never existed. But he was one of the greatest American physicists...

From all that has been said above, it becomes clear that false ideas about the nature of the Universe were deliberately imposed to prevent the development of civilization along the right path, and there can be only one reason for this - the fear behind A. Einstein that as a result of this they will lose their power and position. Fear of true knowledge, which would inevitably take off their masks and everyone, without exception, would be able to see their true face and what they are doing. If something is so carefully hidden by someone through the imposition of deliberately false ideas about the nature of the Universe on a planetary scale, this indicates that something very important is being hidden, and not only for physicists and philosophers, but for every inhabitant of the planet Earth...

Moreover, this concealment of the truth continued for quite a long time and successfully, but even the development of science along the wrong path ultimately led to the emergence of new experimental data, which, at a different qualitative level, do not leave stone unturned, both from special and general A. Einstein's theory of relativity.

The data obtained with the help of the Hubble radio telescope, launched by the Americans into near-Earth orbit, after processing, gave very unexpected results for researchers. After analyzing radio waves from 160 distant galaxies, physicists at the University of Rochester and Kansas USA made the startling discovery that the radiations rotate as they travel through space in a subtle, corkscrew pattern unlike anything else. previously observed. A complete rotation of the "corkscrew" is observed every billion miles that radio waves travel. These effects are in addition to what is known as the Faraday effect, the polarization of light caused by intergalactic magnetic fields. The periodicity of these newly observed rotations depends on the angle at which the radio waves travel relative to the orientation axis passing through space. The more parallel the direction of motion of the wave and the axis, the greater the radius of rotation. This axis of orientation is not a physical quantity, but rather determines the direction in which light travels in the universe. According to observation from the Earth, according to the researchers, the axis runs in one direction, towards the constellation Sextants, and in the other direction - towards the constellation Aquila. Which direction is "up" or "down" is likely to be an arbitrary choice, they say. This discovery was made by astrophysicists, Dr. George Nodland and Dr. John Ralston, which they published in the Physical Review ( Reviews of Modern Physics) in 1997.

This discovery means that The universe is not homogeneous.

The most accurate instruments of our time register the change in the speed of radio waves, depending on the direction of their propagation. And, what is most curious, these directions clearly reflect the layered structure of the Universe, since “up” and “down”, “east” and “west” are determined. Experimental registration of the ethereal wind of light waves in the experiments of the American physicist Dayton Miller in the 30s, and the discovery of a change in the speed of propagation of radio waves in the Universe, made already in 1997 by American astrophysicists George Nodland and John Ralston, irrefutably prove the inhomogeneity of the Universe.

For the sake of clarity, I would like to give some explanations. The ethereal wind, registered in the impeccable experiments of D. Miller, and the change in the propagation of radio waves, depending on the direction, are one and the same. Different terminology, but identical meaning. Thus, these experiments irrefutably prove the inhomogeneity of the Universe and, thus, the falsity of the first postulate used by A. Einstein in "his" special and general theories of relativity. But, perhaps, at least the second, last postulate of these theories is still a true statement?! Let's find out...

Let me remind you that the essence of this postulate is that the speed of light is constant, in other words, it is a constant and the maximum speed of matter in the Universe and is equal to 300,000 km/sec (186,000 miles/sec). Without this, the Lorentz transformation conditions turn into nonsense, since, with the speed of matter (and even light) moving at a speed greater than 300,000 km / s, according to these equations, even the mass of a photon becomes infinite. Let's now figure out how things stand with this postulate of A. Einstein's theory?

In experiments conducted by Ph.D. Lujin Wang ( Dr. Lijun Wang) at the NEC Research Institute at Princeton ( NEC research institute in Princeton), surprising results were obtained. The experiment consisted in the fact that light pulses were passed through a container filled with specially treated cesium gas. The results of the experiments turned out to be phenomenal - the speed of light pulses turned out to be 300 (three hundred) times more than the allowable speed from the Lorentz transformations (2000)! In Italy, another group of physicists from the Italian National Research Council ( Italian National Research Council), in her experiments with microwaves (2000) obtained the speed of their propagation on 25% more than the allowable speed according to A. Einstein ...

It follows from the Lorentz transformations that if the speed of light (or another material object) exceeds the speed of 300,000 km/s even by one millimeter per second, the mass will become infinite. In other words, in the above experiments, the mass of photons and microwaves should be greater than the mass of any "black hole" and, according to these formulas, as a result of these experiments, our planet itself should have turned into a super "black hole". This is what follows from the formulas of A. Einstein's theory. But ... nothing of the kind happened, the waves, both light and radio waves, remained the same, their mass did not rush to infinity, etc. Thus, the second postulate of the special and general theory of relativity by A. Einstein turned out to be false, and without them, these theories lose all meaning and, at best, should go to the section of the history of science, as another hypothesis not confirmed by experimental data.

But, oddly enough, not only after the publication of the results of D. Miller's research (1933), but also after recent discoveries (1997-2000), theories of A. Einstein as theories reflecting reality. Without these two postulates, the theories of A. Einstein are nothing more, nothing less, like another unsuccessful attempt create a picture of the universe, in the process of searching for an understanding of nature, if not for a small "but". Both the "creator" of the special and general theory of relativity, and those behind him, knew from the very beginning that these theories do not even partially reflect reality. And yet, they were imposed on all mankind. As a result, the earthly civilization went down the wrong path, ultimately leading to self-destruction.

And this can only mean one thing: the correct path of civilization development is dangerous for those who stood behind A. Einstein's back and continues to stand behind the "back" of his theories at the present time. Those standing in the shadows are afraid of one thing: to lose their power and influence on the masses, because with enlightenment with knowledge, each person individually and all of humanity as a whole will be able to see and understand what is happening on Earth, and this group of people will lose their power, influence and, Ultimately, your money. But why are these people so afraid of the penetration of true knowledge?! For one simple reason - they received everything listed above undeservedly, by deceit, but oh, how they do not want to lose it all.

I would like to draw attention to one of the tools for imposing false ideas about nature - on mathematics. What does mathematics have to do with it, one might ask?! And here's what. The fact is that the only purpose of mathematics is practical calculations. And then, it must be remembered that, adding one apple to another, we are talking about two apples, thereby absolutely identifying one apple with another, not paying attention to their differences: differences in weight, shape, size, color, degree of maturity, taste and so on. We just say two apples and that's enough to divide those apples relatively equally between two people. Everyone will get an apple, although in principle there are no two identical people, even identical twins have differences. If one apple is 10-50 grams larger than the other, if it turns out to be sourer or sweeter, nothing in the world will change, and no one will suffer much.

But, it is quite another matter when mathematics is used as the foundation of theoretical justifications, when real natural processes are denoted by one or another letter or symbol and ... in the form of symbols and letters are inserted into equations and formulas. And after that they begin to manipulate these symbols and letters according to the laws adopted in mathematics, forgetting that natural phenomena and processes proceed regardless of what ideas a person has. Forgetting what is behind these symbols and letters, mathematicians take the derivative, the integral, strive to the limit, impose restrictions and discard the "extra" terms, i.e. do everything to obtain an elegant formula of the "law of nature." good example this is the same theory of relativity by A. Einstein. The only reason why the postulate of the homogeneity of the Universe and the postulate of the speed of light were introduced is that without them, the Lorentz transformations lose all meaning, and hence the whole general and special theory of A. Einstein. From the Lorentz transformations follows the requirement for the speed of propagation of material objects in space. The speed of movement of any material object (including light) cannot be greater than the speed of light in a vacuum.

According to the postulate, the speed of light in vacuum is a constant and the maximum speed for material objects is 300,000 km (186,000 miles) per second. There cannot be more for one simple reason - if the speed of a material object is greater than this constant, then, according to the Lorentz transformations, the mass of this material object must become infinite, including the conditional mass of a photon. This is what should happen, according to the formulas. But in reality, a real laser pulse, passing through a real cesium gas, moved at a speed of 300 times(90,000,000 km / s) faster than the formula "allows" him. Wow, what an unconscious laser pulse that does not want to move as required by mathematics, its laws. And what is most curious is that the mass of each photon in this light pulse does not become infinite, they all behave exactly the same as before entering a special gaseous medium.

Mathematicians should be reminded that nature does not live and is not subject to the laws of mathematics, which are only mind game, in more or less reflecting apparent reality. Nature will not adapt to the laws invented by mathematicians, to theories based on mathematical formulas. For some reason, mathematicians completely forget about this, being carried away by their abstract game of the mind. And a little more about the problems of mathematics. Within mathematics itself there are many contradictions. There is no need to list all of them, I would like to pay attention to only one of them, which almost everyone encountered, but did not pay attention to. One of the basic laws of algebra says that the square root can only be of a positive number, since the square root is the inverse of squaring. Any number, positive or negative, when squared, becomes positive [for example: 2 x 2 = 4 or (-2) x (-2) = 4], since minus (-) times minus (-) gives plus ( +). This rule is known to everyone from elementary school.

So, in higher mathematics, with some mathematical transformations, when calculating real physical processes, the square root turned out to be a negative number(-one). Complete absurdity, from the point of view of the axioms of mathematics, this cannot be, in principle, but, nevertheless, this absurdity appeared in mathematical calculations of real physical processes. There was a conclusion from the created situation, moreover, an obvious conclusion. The appearance of absurdity indicates the falsity of the approach to solving the problem, the contradiction between the applied mathematical apparatus and the real physical problem solved by this apparatus, which describes a real natural phenomenon. But, no one even thought in this direction! It is much easier to get out of the impasse by means of “sleight of hand”, or rather, “sleight of inference”. Why change everything when you can "trick" the equations?!

The solution was found to be simple. If mathematics says that there is no square root of a negative number, then the negative number must disappear. No sooner said than done. Designated ( -1 ), how i 2 and the problem no longer exists! Since the square root of a squared number is a positive number ( √ i 2 = i), where i- the so-called imaginary unit, but what it is and where this imaginary unit exists in reality, no one began to explain. If there is an imaginary unit ( i), there must then be an imaginary reality. But, is it really worth paying attention to such "little things" ?! Of course not, because if you still pay attention, you get a complete misunderstanding. If you can replace minus one (-1) under the square root, then why can't you replace minus one in any other mathematical equation?! If this is done, then there is complete chaos. That is why they don't do it. Because by adding two apples with two apples (2 + 2), in similar variant, you can get both a cucumber and a pear, and not necessarily four, but maybe zero or minus four imaginary tomatoes.

So, mathematicians did not do this, but began to use the imaginary unit when it is beneficial and convenient for them, calling for this a whole section of mathematics the section "functions of a complex variable." And only in this “territory” does the imaginary unit exist officially recognized, and throughout the rest of the territory of the country of mathematics, minus one (-1) still remains minus one (-1), and there are no imaginary numbers. Isn't it funny?!

You can fool someone else, but you can't fool yourself. One can only pretend to be deceived, but then the question arises - why is this deception needed and to whom ?! Someone is ready to introduce any absurdity into modern science, just to prevent a revision of the foundations and principles of modern science itself. And this cannot be an accident or a misunderstanding. Someone is behind all this, someone really needs the development of mankind to go along a false evolutionary path. And the imposition of false or incomplete ideas about the nature of the Universe serves these forces as a means of keeping the civilization of the Earth as a whole and its individual ideas in ignorance, thanks to which they (these forces) can freely manage civilization itself, maintain their financial and political power. And if someone breaks through this imposed illusion of reality, then these people and what they have created are destroyed.

How it was destroyed, for example, Nikola Tesla- an American of Czech origin, who created devices and devices based on completely different principles, many of which could make humanity free from energy crises and at the same time preserve the ecology of the planet. He developed electrical generators, in which there was not a single moving part and which did not require any fuel. Electricity was obtained directly from space. He found a simple and cheap way to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. Nikola Tesla created a number of amazing devices and devices. Shortly after demonstrating his instruments and devices, he “suddenly” fell ill and died. After his death, all instruments and devices from his laboratory were taken by representatives of the US government, and the laboratory itself was razed to the ground, literally and figuratively, by means of bulldozers. The mechanic who realized the devices and devices of Nikola Tesla in metal disappeared without a trace, so much so that until now no one knows anything about his fate.

Thus, the US state illegally seized everything created by him, but so far neither in the USA, nor in any other country in the world, N. Tesla's electric generators and his other inventions have appeared. But even only his electric generators could bring prosperity, warmth and economic independence to every house, to every family. But that did not happen. The energy crisis has not disappeared, but only worsened. Electricity is obtained using primitive electric generators with rotating rotors, burning a huge amount of natural fuel, building hydro and nuclear power plants. And all these methods of generating electricity destroy the ecology of the planet, deplete it Natural resources poison the atmosphere. And nuclear power plants are also extremely dangerous. And knowing all this, the source of practically free electricity is destroyed (or at least hidden from humanity by the state (you)), which (s) in theory should serve that very humanity. They serve, the only question is - to whom ?! Probably the same group of people behind the false ideas of modern science, behind such "scientists" as A. Einstein and Co.

Thus, the theory of the Universe has the most direct impact on the objective reality in which we live. And not only who is right or wrong, but the very future of civilization, whether or not the civilization of Midgard-Earth will exist tomorrow depends on what these ideas are.

An alternative theory of the Universe is presented in the concept.
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Introduction.

The theme of my term paper is - reality, in all its manifestations: objective, subjective, virtual reality. The goal is to consider the types of realities, and to focus on the analysis of virtual reality. Why virtual? Because, this is one of the newest aspects in the topic of reality, and therefore, the least explored. And in connection with the revolution in the field of communications and communications, in my opinion, this makes the topic of virtual reality even more relevant. In the first chapter, I considered three types of realities and highlighted their features. In the second chapter, I tried to reveal the concept of virtual reality, conduct a typology, and also other concepts related to virtual reality.

Objective and subjective reality.

Since ancient times, the problem of reality has been in philosophy. The man understood that that world is presented to him in opinions. And that there are, as it were, two worlds, two realities - objective and subjective.

Objective reality is reality; basically everything that exists. The world around us, the world itself.

Materialists usually conceive of objective reality as a kind of mechanism that works according to its own design and on which people can exert only a limited influence. The view of some religions on objective reality differs little from the materialistic one - the whole difference boils down to the fact that here this "mechanism" was created by God (deism); in addition, God sometimes intervenes in the work of this "mechanism" (theism). Agnostics, on the other hand, believe that “objective reality,” that is, the world itself, is not accessible to human understanding.

From the point of view of modern natural sciences, "objective reality" is fundamentally unknowable (in in full, before the smallest details), since quantum theory proves that the presence of an observer changes the observed (the paradox of the observer).

According to some scientists, the very term "objective reality", introduced in the Russian philosophical tradition, is an example of a logical error (pleonasm), since the concept of "reality" already means a given, free from subjective influences. In a similar sense, even illusions are "reality" for a particular psyche if we consider them as a natural continuation of the mental states of the individual and the sum of external influences (such illusions can even be reflected in the history of mental illness, or be the object of scientific experiments).

Subjective reality is how the world around us is presented to us, through the senses and perceptions, our idea of ​​the world. And in this sense, each person develops his own idea of ​​the world, of reality. This happens for some reason, for example, the sensitivity of organs in people can be different, and the world of a blind person is strikingly different from the world of a sighted person.

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

SIBERIAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF NATURAL AND HUMANITIES SCIENCES

HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL FACULTY

PHILOSOPHICAL FACULTY

COURSE WORK

"REALITY PROBLEM:

OBJECTIVE REALITY, SUBJECTIVE REALITY, VIRTUAL REALITY"

Completed by: 2nd year student

Tokhtobin E. A.

Scientific adviser:

Professor, Doctor of Philosophy

A. Ya. Raibekas

KRASNOYARSK 2008

Introduction. 3

Objective and subjective reality. four

Virtual Reality: The History of the Concept. 6

Virtual reality: An attempt at typology. eleven

Virtualistics. twenty

Conclusion. 24

Bibliography. 25

Introduction.

The theme of my course work is reality, in all its manifestations: objective, subjective, virtual reality. The goal is to consider the types of realities, and to focus on the analysis of virtual reality. Why virtual? Because, this is one of the newest aspects in the topic of reality, and therefore, the least explored. And in connection with the revolution in the field of communications and communications, in my opinion, this makes the topic of virtual reality even more relevant. In the first chapter, I considered three types of realities and highlighted their features. In the second chapter, I tried to reveal the concept of virtual reality, conduct a typology, and also other concepts related to virtual reality.

Chapter 1. Objective and subjective reality.

Since ancient times, the problem of reality has been in philosophy. The man understood that that world is presented to him in opinions. And that there are, as it were, two worlds, two realities - objective and subjective.

Objective reality is reality; basically everything that exists. The world around us, the world itself.

Materialists usually conceive of objective reality as a kind of mechanism that works according to its own design and on which people can exert only a limited influence. The view of some religions on objective reality differs little from the materialistic one - the whole difference boils down to the fact that here this “mechanism” was created by God (deism); in addition, God sometimes intervenes in the work of this "mechanism" (theism). Agnostics, on the other hand, believe that “objective reality,” that is, the world itself, is not accessible to human understanding.

From the point of view of modern natural sciences, “objective reality” is fundamentally unknowable (in full, to the smallest detail), since quantum theory proves that the presence of an observer changes the observed (the paradox of the observer).

According to some scientists, the very term "objective reality", introduced in the Russian philosophical tradition, is an example of a logical error (pleonasm), since the concept of "reality" already means a given, free from subjective influences. In a similar sense, even illusions are "reality" for a particular psyche if we consider them as a natural continuation of the mental states of the individual and the sum of external influences (such illusions can even be reflected in the history of mental illness, or be the object of scientific experiments).

Subjective reality is how the world around us is presented to us, through the senses and perceptions, our idea of ​​the world. And in this sense, each person develops his own idea of ​​the world, of reality. This happens for some reason, for example, the sensitivity of organs in people can be different, and the world of a blind person is strikingly different from the world of a sighted person.

Thus, each individual person lives in his own world, created on the basis of his personal experience.

Chapter 2 Virtual Reality: The History of the Concept.

Nowadays, the expression "virtual reality" has firmly entered the everyday life of a modern person. By "virtual reality" most people understand - the world created by technical means and transmissible to man through habitual perception real world sensations: sight, hearing, smell, and others. But if you look at the origins of this term, you can see that its roots go far into the history of philosophy. The category of virtual reality was actively developed in scholasticism, it was necessary to solve key problems, including: the possibility of coexistence of realities of different levels, the formation of complex things from simple ones, the energy supply of the act of action, the relationship between the potential and the actual.

So, in the work of Nicholas of Cusa "On the Vision of God", he solved the problems of the relevance of existence and energy in the following way. "..., I look at a large and tall walnut tree standing in front of me and try to see its beginning. I lower with my bodily eyes how huge, sprawling, green it is, burdened with branches, foliage and nuts. Then with a smart eye I see that the same tree remained in its seed not as I now look at it, but virtually: I pay attention to the wondrous power of that seed, in which this tree, and all its nuts, and all the power of the nut seed, and in the power of seeds, everything walnut trees... This absolute and all-superior power gives any seminal force the ability to virtually enfold the tree in itself, together with everything that is required for the existence of a sensible tree and that follows from the existence of a tree: that is, in it is the beginning and the cause, bearing in itself a folded and absolutely as a cause everything that it gives to its effect."

Thomas Aquinas, solving the problem of the ontological coexistence of realities of different hierarchical levels and the problem of the formation of a complex from simple elements, in particular, the coexistence of the thinking soul, the animal soul and the plant soul, used the category of virtual reality: "In view of this, it should be recognized that there is no other substantial forms, besides the substantial soul alone, and that the latter, as long as it virtually contains the sensual soul and the vegetative soul, equally contains forms of a lower order and performs independently and alone all those functions that in other things are performed less

perfect forms. “In the same way, it must be said about the sensual soul of animals, about the vegetative soul in plants, and in general about all more perfect beings in their relation to less perfect forms.”

As can be seen from the examples above, the category of virtual reality was one of the key categories in scholasticism. But in scholastic philosophy, many categories, such as “thing”, “property”, “energy”, existence and others, began to be understood differently than in ancient philosophy. The scholastic paradigm has some peculiarities. So, only the divine reality acts as the second reality, this leads to the fact that God's intention is revealed in every event. In this connection, the very idea of ​​the hierarchy of realities disappears, since there are only two realities: substantial and divine; and both these realities are ultimate, and confront each other in relation to contradiction.

The development of the philosophy of the Middle Ages and then the New Age was largely determined by the attitude to the intermediate reality: whether it exists or not (nominalism - realism, preformism - epigenesis, realism - idealism, etc.). The scientific picture of the world that arose in modern times proclaimed monoonticity, excluding divine reality, and renaming divine laws into natural laws. Everything belongs to one reality - natural, but at the same time, the idea of ​​force remained, which was given a cosmic scale, the same as that given to the divine. This gave rise to a contradiction in the new European monoontic paradigm, the fact is that universal cosmic laws could explain only simple events, such as the attraction of two objects, but more complex events, such as the relationship of two people, could not. It was necessary to recognize some intermediate levels of reality, which would explain why in one case the relations correspond to one type of laws, and in the other - to another.

And such paradigms exist, for example, Buddhism is based on the recognition of polyonticism. Buddhism recognizes the existence of several levels of human consciousness that are not reducible to each other, i.e. the laws of one reality are not reducible to the laws of another. This makes it possible to deal with types of mental events that are fundamentally not grasped by Western psychology. What is fundamentally important, for a Buddhist who is at a certain level of reality, all others are in a collapsed form, they are not given to him in any way in sensations, experiences, understanding, and representation. They do not enter into his life, and he knows about them only from the stories of other people. When he passes to the next level, then the reality of this level becomes perceptible, visible, undoubted in its existence; what he only heard about becomes given both in sensations and in representation.

This explains the non-acceptance by the New European philosophy of Plato's statement that ideas are visible, since for the New European philosophy ideas are mental concepts. And Plato spoke not about the ultimate reality, but about the reality of the next level, the objects of which, for people who are not in it, are only conceivable, but for people who are in it, they are real things.

So, if we recognize the existence of several levels of realities, then we must also recognize the non-reducibility of realities to each other, otherwise everything would be reduced to one or two ultimate realities.

In philosophy, reality is understood as everything that exists in reality. Distinguish between objective and subjective reality. Objective reality is what exists outside of human consciousness: space, time, movement; subjective reality can be defined as a phenomenon of consciousness, sensation, perception by a person of something and everything that is connected with it.

To determine the objective reality that a person can feel, copy, photograph, display (but which exists outside of his consciousness and sensations) in philosophy there is the concept of matter. Conventionally, matter can be divided into two groups: what is known by man and what is beyond his knowledge, but this division is very conditional, meanwhile, its necessity is obvious: speaking of matter, we can analyze only what is known by man.

To describe matter, three objective forms of its existence are distinguished: motion, space, time.

Here, movement is understood not only as the mechanical movement of bodies, but also any interaction, any change in the states of objects - the forms of movement are diverse and can move from one to another. Very often we talk about movement, opposing it to peace, considering them equal in rights. Meanwhile, this is a profound delusion: rest is relative, while movement is absolute.

Space and time are forms of being of matter. The term space in philosophy denotes the structure of objects, their property to be extended, to take place among others. When characterizing space, the term infinity is used. The term time denotes the duration of the existence of objects, the direction of their change. The last two categories, space and time, are both relative and absolute. They are relative, since their properties are constantly changing, and they are absolute, since no object can exist outside of space and time.

Reality is key concept in philosophy, the main question of philosophy is connected with it: what is primary matter or consciousness (objective or subjective reality); whether a person is able to cognize the reality surrounding him.

Being. Matter and its attributes.

The concept of "being" is the starting point in the philosophical understanding of the world. This concept is connected with the conviction of a person that the world exists and that there are people, things, states, processes in it. Being is objective and subjective reality taken together. Being is all that exists.

Objective reality is the world of physical states, the material socio-natural world.

Subjective reality is the world of psychological states, the world of consciousness, the spiritual world of a person.

The main forms of being: material, ideal, human being, social being.

The category "matter" was introduced into philosophy to designate objective reality. There are several definitions of this philosophical category, but the following can be recommended as a basic one: matter is an objective reality that exists independently of human consciousness and is displayed by it.

At different stages of scientific knowledge, there were different models for understanding matter:

atomistic model (Democritus);

ethereal model (Descartes);

real (Holbach).

The concept of "matter", reflecting the ultimate general properties of the objective world, is a substance. Matter does not exist in general, just as a person, object, color does not exist in general. Matter is eternal and infinite, uncreated and indestructible, it is the cause of itself. All these properties are inseparable from matter and are therefore called attributes. The attributes of matter are: movement, space, time. Indeed, matter is unthinkable without motion, just as motion is unthinkable without matter. If there is movement, then it is the movement of "something" concrete, and not movement in general or "in itself", the movement of "nothing".

But movement is any change, and rest is a relative concept, a special case of movement, its moment. Movement is therefore absolute.

Movement exists in various forms: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, social.

Development is a special form of movement and change. Development is such a quantitative and qualitative change in an object or its state, which is characterized by direction, certain patterns and irreversibility.

Space is a universal, objective form of the existence of matter, which expresses the order of location of simultaneously existing objects. The specific properties of space can be called the characteristics of various material systems: symmetry and asymmetry, their shape and size, the distance between the elements of the world, the boundaries between them.

Time is a universal, objective form of the existence of matter, expressing the duration of the processes of being and the sequence of successive states of objects of material systems and processes. Time is characterized by the fact that it is simultaneously, asymmetrical and irreversible. True, modern physics has proved that time is closely related to the spatial characteristics of a material system, that it depends, for example, on the speed of movement, on the nature in the structure of this system, on the power of gravitational fields, etc.

The manifestation of time and space is different in different forms of movement. Therefore, in recent years, different types of time have been distinguished: biological, psychological, social.

Marxist philosophy.

The founders of the philosophy of dialectical materialism are K. Marx and F. Engels. Therefore, the theory of dialectical materialism is often called Marxist philosophy. This philosophy originated in the middle of the 19th century in Germany. Its premises and reasons were:

The industrial revolution in a number of European countries of the XYIII - XIX centuries, which meant the transition from manual to machine labor, the social consequences of which were various kinds of movements, uprisings, strikes;

The emergence of a new force in the historical arena - the proletariat with its own political demands;

Ideas of German classical philosophy (especially the philosophy of Hegel and Feuerbach);

Discoveries in the field of natural sciences: the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, the doctrine of the cellular structure of the body, the law of conservation and transformation of energy.

Features of Marxist philosophy:

The dialectical method is considered inseparable from the materialistic principle;

The historical process is interpreted from materialistic positions as natural and regular;

Not only an attempt was made to explain the world, but also general methodological foundations for its transformation were developed. And as a result, the center of philosophical research is transferred from the field of abstract reasoning to the field of material and practical activities of people;

Dialectical-materialist views are linked together with the interests of the proletariat, of all working people, which coincide with the needs of social development.

An important contribution of K. Marx to the philosophy and society of knowledge can be considered the theory of surplus value created by him, as well as the discovery and clear formulation of the theory of the materialistic understanding of history. According to Marx, society develops naturally, from one social and economic formation to another. The characteristic features of each of these formations are determined by the mode of production, which is based on certain production relations. A society dominated by commodity production breeds exploitation and violence. The destruction of exploitation is possible, but only with the help of the proletarian revolution and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat for the period of transition from the capitalist formation to the communist one. Communism, according to Marx, is a social system based on public ownership of the tools and means of production, where the measure of a person's freedom will be his free time.

It should be noted that the Marxist theory is not free from shortcomings, like any other. These include: extreme exaggeration of the role of the dictatorship of the proletariat in all spheres of society; militant atheism; absolutization of the laws of social development.

Dialectics and its alternatives.

Dialectics is one of the oldest sciences about the most general, universal laws of the development of all reality. Dialectics is the methodological basis of all types of activity without exception, it is the result of the generalization of scientific knowledge and social practice in the entire history of the existence of human society.

A distinction is usually made between objective and subjective dialectics. Objective dialectics is the dialectics of the external world - animate and inanimate nature, society, and subjective dialectics is the dialectics of intellectual activity, the intangible sphere of reality. Objective and subjective dialectics generally coincide with each other, since thinking is a more or less adequate reflection of the external world.

Speaking of dialectics, one can note the fact that dialectics coincides with logic and the theory of knowledge. In this case, logic is understood not as formal, but as dialectical logic, which is also considered as Logic, i.e. the theory of dialectics (the result of the phylogenesis of social consciousness, the result of the development of philosophy and science), and as the knowledge of this theory by a specific person (the result of the development of individual consciousness, the result of the training and education of a particular subject, the formation of corresponding concepts of other structures in him), and as a dialectical method of thinking ( a consequence of the use by a person of the knowledge of Logic in each specific act of thinking).

Thus, dialectics acts both as a theory, and as a general methodology, and as a method of thinking in which this methodology is realized.

The dialectical method of thinking and cognition is opposed to the metaphysical one, which, due to its one-sidedness, presupposes the consideration of objects outside their true connection and development. A manifestation of the metaphysical method of thinking is dogmatism, eclecticism and sophistry. Dogmatism presupposes the absolutization of knowledge, its immutability under any circumstances. Eclecticism means an arbitrary, random combination of heterogeneous, and sometimes logically incompatible positions.

Sophistry. Here, behind the plausible form of reasoning, violations of the requirements of logic, including formal ones, are hidden, obscured. Even the ancient Greeks knew a sophism called "horned": "You have something that you did not lose. You did not lose horns, which means you have them." Behind the external plausibility of the reasoning, a logical inaccuracy is hidden here, a violation of dialectical logic is allowed, because to say that a person has what he did not lose, means to admit an obvious fraud: a person did not lose much, but this does not mean that he had it.

It follows from the characteristics of dialectical logic that any phenomenon of reality should be considered taking into account not only all-round connections in a particular situation, but also the history of its development. A concrete-historical approach to the analysis of phenomena must be observed. This requirement is of great methodological significance, especially in connection with the widespread use of the system-structural method in modern science.

Like any other science, dialectics has its own structural organization: laws, categories, principles. In this connection, we should note the enormous contribution to the development of dialectics by the German idealist philosopher Hegel, as well as Marx and Engels.

MATTER AND ITS ATTRIBUTES: SPACE, TIME, MOVEMENT. SYNERGETICS AND THE PRINCIPLE OF SELF-PROMOTION

1. The philosophical concept of matter……………………………………….………….3

2. Space and time…………………………………………………..………...3

3. Movement………………………………………………….……………………….6

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….……….10

Literature……………………………………………………………………………..11

1.Philosophical concept of matter

The world is material. It consists of various objects and processes that turn into each other, appear and disappear, are reflected in consciousness, existing independently of it. None of these objects, taken by itself, can be identified with matter, but all their diversity, including their connections, constitutes material reality.

From the philosophical concept of matter, it is necessary to distinguish natural-science and social ideas about its types, structure and properties. Philosophical understanding of matter reflects the objective reality of the world, while natural-science and social representations express its physical, chemical, biological, and social properties. Matter is the objective world as a whole, and not what it consists of.

The universal attributes and basic modes of existence of matter are movement, space and time.

2. Space and time

What is space and time? Space and time are universal forms of existence of matter. There is no and cannot be matter outside of space and time. Like matter, space and time are objective, independent of consciousness. The structure and properties of moving matter determine the structure and properties of space and time. Space and time depend not only on matter, but also on each other. This shows up even with simple mechanical movement: the position of the sun in the sky can be used to determine the time, and to determine the coordinates of the spacecraft, you need to set the time. The theory of relativity revealed the connection between space and time more deeply. She introduced a unified concept of four-dimensional space and time (Minkowski space). Thus, the data of modern natural science confirm the unity of matter, motion, space and time.

Space is a form of existence of matter, characterizing its extension, coexistence and interaction of material bodies in all systems.

Time is a form of existence of matter, expressing the duration of its existence, the sequence of changes in the states of all material systems.

Time and space have common properties. These include:

– objectivity and independence from human consciousness;

– their absoluteness as attributes of matter;

– inseparable connection with each other and movement;

- the unity of discontinuous and continuous in their structure;

– dependence on development processes and structural changes in material systems;

- quantitative and qualitative infinity.

There are monological (direction, continuity, irreversibility) and metric (related to measurements) properties of space and time.

Along with general characteristics space and time, they are characterized by some features that characterize them as different attributes of matter, although they are closely related to each other.

So, the universal properties of space include:

length, i.e. the mutual arrangement and existence of various bodies, the possibility of adding or reducing any element;

connectivity and continuity, which is manifested by physical action through fields of different nature of the movement of bodies;

relative discontinuity, i.e. separate existence of material bodies, each of which has its own boundaries and dimensions.

The general property of space is three-dimensionality, i.e. all material processes take place in the space of 3 dimensions. Except everything common properties space also has local properties. For example, symmetry and asymmetry, location, distance between bodies, specific shapes and sizes. All these properties depend on the structure and external communication bodies, the speed of their movement, interaction with external fields.

The space of one material system continuously passes into the space of another system, therefore it is practically imperceptible, hence its inexhaustibility both in quantitative and qualitative terms.

The general properties of time include:

- objectivity;

– inextricable connection with the attributes of matter (space, movement, etc.);

- duration (expressing the sequence of existence and change of states of bodies) is formed from the moments of time arising one after another, which make up the entire period of the existence of the body from its appearance to the transition to other forms.

The existence of each body has a beginning and an end, so the time of existence of this body is finite and discontinuous. But at the same time, matter does not arise from nothing and is not destroyed, but only changes the forms of its being. The absence of gaps between moments and time intervals characterizes the continuity of time. Time is one-dimensional, asymmetrical, irreversible and always directed from the past to the future.

Specific properties of time:

- specific periods of the existence of bodies (they arise before the transition to other forms);

– simultaneity of events (they are always relative);

- the rhythm of processes, the rate of change of states, the rate of development of processes, etc.

But despite the individual properties that distinguish space and time from each other, there is no matter in the world that would not have space-time properties, just as time and space do not exist on their own, outside of matter or independently of it. The entire experience of mankind, including the data of scientific research, suggests that there are no eternal objects, processes and phenomena. Even celestial bodies that have existed for billions of years have a beginning and an end, arise and perish. After all, when dying or being destroyed, objects do not disappear without a trace, but turn into other objects and phenomena. A quote from Berdyaev's ideas confirms this: “... But for philosophy, the time that existed, first of all, and then space, is the product of events, acts in the depths of being, to the point of any objectivity. The primary act presupposes neither time nor space, it generates time and space. Matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible. It existed always and everywhere, always and everywhere will exist.

3. Movement

The existence of any material object arises only due to the interaction of its constituent elements. Interaction leads to a change in its properties, relations, states. All these changes, considered in the most general terms, are an integral characteristic of the existence of the material world. The change in form is indicated by the concept of movement.

Philosophers have always been concerned about the infinite variety of material forms. Where and how did it happen? It has been suggested that this diversity is the result of the activity of matter. Most idealistic thinkers explained activity by the intervention of God, they animated matter.

Materialistic philosophy does not recognize the presence of the soul in matter and explains its activity by the interaction of matter and fields. But, the term “movement” is understood by ordinary consciousness as the spatial movement of bodies. In philosophy, such a movement is called mechanical. There are more complex forms of movement: physical, chemical, biological, social and others. So, for example, the processes of the microcosm are characterized by interactions of elementary particles and subelementary interactions. Galactic interactions and the expansion of the Metagalaxy are new forms of the physical motion of matter, previously unknown.

All forms of motion of matter are interconnected. So, for example, mechanical motion (the simplest one) is due to the processes of mutual transformation of elementary particles, the mutual influence of gravitational and electromagnetic fields, strong and weak interactions in the microcosm.

What is movement in general? The philosophical concept of motion denotes any interaction, as well as a change in the states of objects caused by this interaction.

Movement is change in general.

It is characterized by the fact that

- is inseparable from matter, since it is an attribute (an integral essential property of an object, without which an object cannot exist) of matter. It is impossible to think matter without movement, just as movement without matter;

- movement is objective, changes in matter can only be made by practice;

– movement is a contradictory unity of stability and variability, discontinuity and continuity,

- movement is never replaced by absolute rest. Rest is also movement, but one in which the qualitative specificity of the object (a special state of movement) is not violated;

The types of movement observed in the objective world can be conditionally divided into quantitative and qualitative changes.

Quantitative changes are associated with the transfer of matter and energy in space.

Qualitative changes are always associated with a qualitative restructuring of the internal structure of objects and their transformation into new objects with new properties. Basically, it's about development. Development is a movement associated with the transformation of the quality of objects, processes or levels and forms of matter. Development is divided into dynamic and population. Dynamic - is carried out as a complication of objects, through the disclosure of the potentialities hidden in the previous qualitative states, and the transformations do not go beyond the existing type of matter (development of stars). With population development, a transition is made from qualitative states characteristic of one level of matter to a qualitative state of the next (transition from inanimate to living nature). The source of the population movement is the self-movement of matter, according to the principle of its self-organization. The problem of self-organization is solved by a scientific discipline - synergetics (G. Haken, I. Prigozhin, I. Stengers).

The enumerated forms of the motion of matter and their connection with the types of matter and their development are grasped in the following principles:

Each level of matter organization corresponds to a specific form of motion;

There is a genetic connection between the forms of movement, i.e. higher forms movements arise on the basis of the lower ones;

The higher forms of movement are qualitatively specific and irreducible to the lower ones.

The variety of types of movement receives unity through such universal forms as space and time.

There are qualitatively various forms of motion of matter. The idea of ​​the forms of motion of matter and their interconnections was put forward by Engels. He based the classification of forms of movement on the following principles:

forms of movement are correlated with a certain material level of organization of matter, i.e. each level of such an organization must have its own form of movement;

there is a genetic connection between the forms of movement, i.e. the form of movement arises on the basis of lower forms;

the higher forms of movement are qualitatively specific and irreducible to the lower forms.

Based on these principles and relying on the achievements of the science of his time, Engels singled out 5 forms of the movement of matter and proposed the following classification: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological and social movement of matter. Modern science has discovered new levels of organization of matter and discovered new forms of motion.

This classification is now obsolete. In particular, it is now unlawful to reduce physical motion only to thermal motion. Therefore, the modern classification of the forms of motion of matter includes:

spatial movement;

– electromagnetic motion, defined as the interaction of charged particles;

– gravitational form of motion;

– strong (nuclear) interaction;

– weak interaction (neutron absorption and emission);

- the chemical form of movement (the process and result of the interaction of molecules and atoms);

- the geological form of the movement of matter (associated with changes in geosystems - continents, layers of the earth's crust, etc.):

- the biological form of movement (metabolism, processes occurring at the cellular level, heredity, etc.;

- social form of movement (processes occurring in society).

Obviously, the development of science will continue to constantly make adjustments to this classification of the forms of motion of matter. However, it seems that in the foreseeable future it will be carried out on the basis of the principles formulated by F. Engels.

The problem of determining the essence of matter is very complex. The complexity lies in the high degree of abstractness of the very concept of matter, as well as in the variety of different material objects, forms of matter, its properties and interdependencies. Turning our attention to the world around us, we see a set of various objects, things. These items have a variety of properties. Some of them have big sizes, others are smaller, some are simple, others are more complex, some are comprehended quite fully in a directly sensual way, to penetrate into the essence of others, the abstract activity of our mind is necessary. These objects also differ in the strength of their impact on our senses.

Matter has the attribute of movement, space, time, structured.

The concept of being and substance

Being is a central concept in philosophy. Just as fundamental in philosophy is the section that studies being or beings - ontology. What does it mean to "be" and what "exists" (God, an idea?)? What is "non-existence" or "nothing"? Where did life come from and where does it go? The question of being is the starting point, the basis of all questions that a person encounters when trying to comprehend the world. Philosophical teachings answered these questions in different ways. But in one they were united: “being” and “existence” are identical concepts.

Being is the general, universal and unique ability to exist, which any reality possesses. That which is manifested, exists, is given at the moment, that “exists”. Non-existence is a denial of being, something that cannot even be conceived, let alone imagined - then it will already exist! What exists? Being is comprehensive, diverse and infinite, as a rule, the following forms of existence of being are distinguished: a person (the starting point, it is difficult to doubt the existence of oneself), living and inanimate nature. They form, as it were, a pyramid, at the base of which is inanimate nature, living nature is built on top of it, and even higher is man, as a unity of living and inanimate nature.

Each of the forms has its own specifics, unique essence.

The existence of things and processes of inanimate nature is the whole natural and artificial world, as well as all states and phenomena of nature (stars, planets, earth, water, air, buildings, cars, echo, rainbow, etc.). This is all the first (natural) and second (artificial - man-made) nature, devoid of life.

Being of living nature includes two levels. The first of them is represented by living inanimate bodies, i.e. all those that have the ability to reproduce and exchange matter and energy with the environment, but do not possess consciousness (the entire biosphere in all its diversity, represented by the fauna and flora of the planet).

The second is the being of a person and his consciousness, where, in turn, one can single out: a) the being of specific people; b) social being; c) being ideal (spiritual).

The concept of substance. In the history of philosophy, to designate the fundamental principle, which does not need anything other than itself for its existence, the extremely broad category of “substance” is used (from lahєiblєІаnіа that which lies at the basis). Representatives of the first philosophical schools understood the substance of which all things are composed as the fundamental principle. As a rule, the matter was reduced to the then generally accepted primary elements: earth, water, air, fire or mental structures, “primary bricks” - apeiron, atoms. Later, the concept of substance expanded to some kind of ultimate foundation - permanent, relatively stable and existing independently of anything else, to which all the diversity and variability of the perceived world would be reduced. For the most part, such foundations in philosophy were: matter, God, consciousness, idea, phlogiston, ether, etc.

Different philosophical teachings use the idea of ​​substance in different ways, depending on how they answer the question of the unity of the world and its origin. Those of them that proceed from the priority of one substance and, relying on it, build the rest of the picture of the world in all its diversity of things and phenomena, are called monism (from the Greek monos - one, only). If two substances are taken as the fundamental principle, then such a philosophical position is called dualism (from Latin dualis - dual). And, finally, if there are more than two - pluralism (from lat. pluralis - plural).

Monism also has subspecies: materialistic and idealistic. The materialist believes that the world is one and indivisible; it is primordially material, and it is materiality that underlies its unity. Spirit, consciousness, ideal in these concepts does not have a substantial nature and are derived from the material as its property or manifestation. We find such approaches in the most developed form among the representatives of the Milesian school, Heraclitus, Spinoza, Marx and his followers. Idealistic monism, on the contrary, recognizes matter as a derivative of something ideal, which has eternal existence, indestructibility and the fundamental principle of any being. At the same time, it is possible to single out both objective-idealistic monism (for example, in Platn it is eternal ideas, in medieval philosophy it is God, in Hegel it is a self-developing "absolute idea"), and subjective-idealistic (consciousness - according to Berkeley).

For the first time the concept of matter (hyle) occurs in Plato. Matter in his understanding is a certain substratum (material) devoid of qualities, from which bodies of various sizes and shapes are formed; it is formless, indefinite, passive. In the future, matter, as a rule, was identified with a specific substance or atoms. As science and philosophy develop, the concept of matter gradually loses its sensory-concrete features and becomes more and more abstract. It is intended to embrace the infinite variety of everything that really exists and is irreducible to consciousness.

In dialectical-materialist philosophy, matter is defined as an objective reality given to us in sensations, existing independently of human consciousness and reflected by it. This definition is the most accepted in contemporary Russian philosophical literature. Matter is the only substance that exists. It is eternal and infinite, uncreative and indestructible, inexhaustible and in constant motion, capable of self-organization and reflection. It exists - causa sui, the cause of itself (B. Spinoza). All these properties (substantiality, inexhaustibility, indestructibility, movement, eternity) are inseparable from matter and therefore are called its attributes. Inseparable from matter are also its forms - space and time.

Matter is a complex system organization. According to modern scientific data, two major main levels can be distinguished in the structure of matter (the principle of division is the presence of life): inorganic matter (inanimate nature) and organic matter (animal nature).

The inorganic nature includes the following structural levels:

1. Elementary particles - the smallest particles of physical matter (photons, protons, neutrinos, etc.), each of which has its own antiparticle. Currently, more than 300 elementary particles (including antiparticles) are known, including the so-called "virtual particles" that exist in intermediate states for a very short time. A characteristic feature of elementary particles

Ability to reciprocate.

2. Atom - the smallest particle of a chemical element that retains its properties. It consists of a nucleus and an electron shell. The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons.

3. Chemical element - a set of atoms with the same nuclear charge. 107 chemical elements are known (19 are obtained artificially), of which all substances of inanimate and living nature are composed.

4. Molecule - the smallest particle of a substance that has all its chemical properties. Consists of atoms connected by chemical bonds.

5. Planets - the most massive bodies of the solar system, moving in elliptical orbits around the sun.

6. Planetary systems.

7. Stars are luminous gaseous (plasma) balls similar to the Sun: they contain most of the matter of the Universe. They are formed from a gas-dust environment (mainly from hydrogen and helium).

8. Galaxies - giant up to hundreds of billions of stars) star systems, in particular, our Galaxy ( Milky Way), which contains over 100 billion stars.

9. System of galaxies.

Organic nature (biosphere, life) has the following levels (types of self-organization):

1. Precellular level - desonucleic acids, ribonucleic acids, proteins. The latter - high-molecular organic substances, built from 20 amino acids, form (along with nucleic acids) the basis of the vital activity of all organisms.

2. Cell - an elementary living system, the basis of the structure and life of all plants and animals.

3. Multicellular organisms of flora and fauna

Individuals or a combination of them.

4. Population - a collection of individuals of the same species, occupying a certain space for a long time and reproducing itself over a large number of generations.

5. Biocenosis - a set of plants, animals and microorganisms inhabiting a given area of ​​land or water.

6. Biogeocenosis (ecosystem) - a homogeneous area of ​​the earth's surface, a single natural complex formed by living organisms and their habitat.

Matter is divided into three levels:

1. Macrocosm - a set of objects, the dimension of which is correlated with the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters, kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years.

2. Microcosm - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial dimension of which is calculated up to 10 (-8) - up to 16 (-16) cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10 (-24) sec.

3. Megaworld - a world of huge cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years (and the speed of light is 3,000,000 km / s), and the lifetime of space objects is millions and billions of years.

This is the point of view of materialism. Unlike materialists, idealists deny matter as an objective reality. For subjective idealists (Berkeley, Mach) matter is a "complex of sensations", for objective idealists (Plato, Hegel) it is a product of the spirit, "otherness" of the idea.

3. Movement and its main forms. Space and time.

In the broadest sense, motion as applied to matter is "change in general", it includes all the changes taking place in the world. Ideas about movement as change originated already in ancient philosophy and developed along two main lines - materialistic and idealistic.

Idealists understand movement not as changes in objective reality, but as changes in sensory representations, ideas, and thoughts. Thus, an attempt is made to think of motion without matter. Materialism emphasizes the attributive nature of movement in relation to matter (its inseparability from it) and the primacy of the movement of matter in relation to changes in the spirit. Thus, F. Bacon defended the idea that matter is full of activity and is closely connected with motion as its innate property.

Movement is an attribute, an integral property of matter, they are closely related and do not exist without each other. However, in the history of knowledge there have been attempts to tear this attribute away from matter. Thus, supporters of "energyism" - a trend in philosophy and natural science that arose at the end of the 19th century. - the beginning of the twentieth century. they tried to reduce all natural phenomena to modifications of energy, devoid of a material basis, i.e. to tear off motion (and energy is a general quantitative measure of various forms of motion of matter) from matter. At the same time, energy was interpreted as a purely spiritual phenomenon, and this “spiritual substance” was proclaimed the basis of everything that exists.

This concept is incompatible with the law of conservation of energy transformation, according to which energy in nature does not arise from nothing and does not disappear; it can only change from one form to another. Therefore, motion is indestructible and inseparable from matter.

Matter is closely connected with motion, and it exists in the form of its concrete forms. The main ones are: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological and social. This classification was first proposed by F. Engels, but at present it has undergone a certain concretization and refinement. So, today there are opinions that independent forms of movement are geological, ecological, planetary, computer, etc.

In modern science, ideas are being developed that mechanical motion is not associated with any single structural level of matter organization. Rather, it is an aspect, some cut that characterizes the interaction of several such levels. It has also become necessary to distinguish between quantum mechanical motion, which characterizes the interaction of elementary particles and atoms, and the macromechanical motion of macrobodies.

Ideas about the biological form of the motion of matter have been significantly enriched. Ideas about its primary material carriers were refined. In addition to protein molecules, DNA and RNA acids have been isolated as the molecular carrier of life.

When characterizing the forms of motion of matter and their interrelation, it is necessary to bear in mind the following:

1. Each form is qualitatively specific, but all of them are inextricably linked and, under appropriate conditions, can suddenly turn into a circle.

2. Simple (lower) forms are the basis of higher and more complex forms.

3. The higher forms of movement include the lower forms in a transformed form. The latter are secondary to the higher form, which has its own laws.

4. It is unacceptable to reduce the higher forms to the lower ones. Thus, the supporters of mechanism (XVII-XIX centuries) tried to explain all the phenomena of nature and society only with the help of the laws of classical mechanics. Mechanism is a form of reductionism, according to which higher forms of organization (for example, biological and social) can be reduced to lower ones (for example, physical or chemical) and fully explained only by the laws of the latter (for example, social Darwinism).

Movement as "change in general" is subdivided not only according to its main forms, but also according to types. Quantity is the external certainty of an object (its size, volume, size, pace, etc.);

this is a change that occurs with an object, without its radical transformation (for example, a walking person). Quality is a radical transformation of the internal structure of an object, its essence (for example, a butterfly chrysalis, dough-bread). A special type of movement is development. Development is understood as an irreversible, progressive, quantitative and qualitative change in an object or phenomenon (for example, human life, the movement of history, the development of science). There may be a complication of the structure, an increase in the level of organization of an object or phenomenon, which is usually characterized as progress. If the movement occurs in the opposite direction - from more perfect forms to less perfect ones, then this is a regression. The science of development in its full form is dialectics.

Space and time. Space is a form of existence of matter, which expresses the extent, structure, order of coexistence and juxtaposition of material objects.

Time is a form of existence of matter, which expresses the duration of the existence of material objects and the sequence of changes that occur with objects.

Time and space are closely intertwined. What happens in space happens simultaneously in time, and what happens in time is in space.

In the history of philosophy and science, two basic concepts of space and time have developed:

1. The substantial concept considers space and time as special independent entities that exist along with and independently of material objects. Space was reduced to an infinite void (“a box without walls”) containing all bodies, while time was reduced to “pure” duration. This idea, formulated in a general way by Democritus, received its logical conclusion in Newton's concept of absolute space and time, who believed that their properties do not depend on the nature of the material processes occurring in the world.

2. The relational concept considers space and time not as special entities independent of matter, but as forms of the existence of things and without these things they do not exist by themselves (Aristotle, Leibniz, Hegel).

The substantial and relational concepts are not unambiguously connected with the materialistic or idealistic interpretation of the world, both developed on one and the other basis. The dialectical materialist concept of space and time was

formulated within the relational approach.

Space and time as forms of the existence of matter have both properties common to them and characteristic of each of these forms. Their universal properties include: objectivity and independence from human consciousness, their inseparable connection with each other and with moving matter, quantitative and qualitative infinity, eternity. Space characterizes the extent of matter, its structure, the interaction of elements in material systems. It is an indispensable condition for the existence of any material object. The space of real being is three-dimensional, homogeneous and isotropic. The homogeneity of space is associated with the absence in it of points "allocated" in any way. The isotropy of space means the equality of any of the possible directions in it.

Time characterizes material being as eternal and indestructible in its entirety. Time is one-dimensional (from the present to the future), asymmetrical and irreversible.

The manifestation of time and space is different in various forms of movement, therefore, biological, psychological, social and other spaces and time have recently been distinguished.

So, for example, psychological time is associated with its mental states, attitudes, etc. Time in a given situation can “slow down” or, conversely, “accelerate”, it “flies” or “stretches”. This is a subjective sense of time.

Biological time is associated with the biorhythms of living organisms, with the change of day and night, with the seasons and cycles of solar activity. It is also believed that there are many biological spaces (for example, the distribution areas of certain organisms or their populations).

Social time, connected with the development of mankind, with history, can also speed up and slow down its run. This acceleration is especially characteristic of the twentieth century in connection with scientific and technological progress. The scientific and technological revolution literally compressed the social space and incredibly accelerated the passage of time, giving an explosive character to the development of socio-economic processes. The planet has become small and cramped for humanity as a whole, and the time of moving from one end to the other is now measured in hours, which was simply unthinkable even in the last century.

In the twentieth century, based on the discovery in natural and exact sciences dispute between the two concepts has been resolved. Relational wins. So, N. Lobachevsky came to the conclusion in his non-Euclidean geometry that the properties of space are not always and everywhere the same and unchanged, but they change depending on the most general properties of matter. According to the theory of relativity

A. Einstein, the spatio-temporal properties of bodies depend on the speed of their movement (that is, on the indicators of matter). The spatial dimensions are reduced in the direction of motion as the body speed approaches the speed of light in vacuum (300,000 km/s), and time processes in fast moving systems slow down. He also proved that time slows down near massive bodies, as it does in the center of planets. This effect is the more noticeable, the greater the mass of celestial bodies.

Thus, A. Einstein's theory of relativity showed an inextricable link between matter, space and time.

4. Dialectics as a doctrine of development. Basic laws of dialectics.

Dialectics (Greek: dialextice - to have a conversation, dispute) - the doctrine of the most general laws of the development of nature, society and knowledge and the universal method of thinking and action based on this doctrine.

Distinguish between objective dialectics, which studies the development of the real world (nature and society) and subjective dialectics - the patterns of dialectical thinking (dialectics of concepts).

Three main forms of dialectics have developed in the history of philosophy:

a) ancient, which was naive and spontaneous, because it relied on everyday experience and individual observations (Heraclitus, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno of Elea);

b) the German classical, which was developed by Kant, Fichte, Schelling and especially profoundly by Hegel, on an idealistic basis;

c) materialistic, the foundations of which were laid by K. Marx and F. Engels.

Basic principles of dialectics:

The universal interconnection of all phenomena;

Universality of movement and development;

The source of development is the formation and resolution of contradictions;

Development as negation;

The contradictory unity of the general and the singular. Essence and phenomena, form and content, necessity and chance, possibility and reality, etc.

The basic laws that describe the development of the world and the process of cognition are the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the law of unity and struggle of opposites, the law of negation of negation.

The law of the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones reveals the general mechanism of development: how it occurs. The main categories of laws are quality, quantity, measure, leap.

The essence of the law is as follows. The gradual accumulation of quantitative changes (the degree and rate of development of objects, the number of its elements, spatial dimensions, temperature, etc.) at a certain point in time leads to the achievement of a measure (the boundaries within which this quality remains itself, for example, for water - 0- 100), a qualitative leap occurs (transition from one qualitative state to another, for example, water, reaching a temperature of 0 degrees, turns into ice), as a result, a new quality arises.

The law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals the source of development (contradiction). Everything that exists consists of opposites (good and evil, light and darkness, heredity and variability in living nature, order and chaos, etc.) Opposites are such sides, moments, objects that at the same time

a) are inextricably linked (there is no good without evil, no light without darkness);

b) are mutually exclusive;

c) their struggle - contradictory interaction gives impetus to development (order is born from chaos, good grows stronger in overcoming evil, etc.).

The essence of the law under consideration can be expressed by the formula: the division of the one into opposites, their struggle, the transformation of the struggle into an insoluble (antagonistic) conflict - a contradiction, the victory of one of their opposites (which in turn also represents a new unity of opposites). Development appears as a process of emergence, growth, aggravation and resolution of diverse contradictions, among which the internal contradictions of a given subject or process play a decisive role. It is they who act as a decisive source, the driving force of their development.

The law of negation of negation expresses the direction of development and its form. Its essence is that the new always denies the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns into the old and is denied by more and more new ones, and so on. For example, a change in socio-economic formations (with a formational approach to the historical process), the evolution of the genus (children "deny" their parents, but they themselves become parents and they are already "denied" by their own children, who in turn become parents, etc. ). Therefore double negation is negation of negation.

The most important category of the law is "denial" - the refusal by the developing system of the old quality. However, denial is not just its destruction, the system must preserve its own unity and continuity. Therefore, in dialectics, negation is understood as the rejection of the previous stage of development (of the old quality) with the preservation of the most essential and best moments at the new stage. This is the only way to ensure the continuity of the system. No matter how fundamentally the historical types of economics, politics and morality change over time, their main achievements do not become a thing of the past, but are preserved in the further development of the system, albeit in a significantly changed form.

The law of negation of negation expresses the progressive, successive nature of development and has the form of a spiral, the repetition at the highest stage of some properties of the lower one, "a return supposedly to the old", but already at a higher stage of development.

Key words and concepts: being, matter, substance, space, time, substantive theory, relational, dialectics, subjective dialectics, objective dialectics, the law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the law of unity and struggle of opposites, the law of negation of negation, quantity, quality, measure , contradiction, progress, regression, reductionism, monism, dualism, pluralism, energyism.