To bring brightness to speech, to strengthen its emotional sounding, to give it expressive coloring, as well as draw the attention of readers and listeners to the words used special means expressiveness of the language. Such speech figures are very diverse.
Speech expressive means are divided into several categories: they are phonetic, lexical, and also related to syntax (syntactic), phraseological units (phraseological), tropes (speech figures with the opposite meaning). The expressive means of language are used everywhere, in various areas of human communication: from fiction to scientific journalism and simple everyday communication. Less often, such expressive turns of speech are used in the business sphere due to their inappropriateness. As you might guess, the means of expression and artistic language go hand in hand: they serve as the best auxiliary means for creating vivid literary images and conveying characters, helping the writer to better characterize the world of his work and most fully embody the intended plot.
Modern philologists do not offer us any clear classification of the expressive means of the language into certain groups, but they can be conditionally divided into two types:
- trails;
- stylistic figures .
Tropes are turns of speech or individual words used in a non-literal sense, using a hidden meaning. Such expressive means of language are an important part of the transmission of the author's artistic intention. The tropes are represented by such separate phrases as metaphor, hyperbole, synecdoche, metonymy, litotes, etc.
Stylistic figures are expressive means used by the author of a work of art in order to convey to readers the greatest degree of feelings and characters of characters and situations. Correct use stylistic figures allows you to better express the meaning of the text and give it the necessary coloring. Antithesis and anaphora, inversion and gradation, as well as epiphora, parallelism - these are all stylistic figures of speech.
The most commonly used expressive means of the Russian language
Earlier we talked about a wide variety of expressive lexical means of speech that help convey the desired emotional coloring. Let's see which of the means of expression are used most often as in fiction as well as in everyday speech.
Hyperbole is a speech turnover, which is based on the technique of exaggerating something. If the author wants to enhance the expressiveness of the transmitted figure or impress the reader (listener), he uses hyperbole in his speech.
Example: fast as lightning; I told you a hundred times!
Metaphor is one of the main figures of language expressiveness, without which a full-fledged transfer of properties from one object or living thing to others is unthinkable. Such a trope as a metaphor is somewhat reminiscent of a comparison, but the auxiliary words “as if”, “as if” and the like are not used, while the reader and listener feel their hidden presence.
Example: seething emotions; sunny smile; ice hands.
An epithet is a means of expressiveness that paints even the simplest things and situations in expressive, bright colors.
Example: ruddy dawn; playful waves; languid look.
Please note: the first adjective that comes across cannot be used as an epithet. In the event that the existing adjective defines the clear properties of an object or phenomenon, it should not be taken as an epithet ( wet asphalt, cold air, etc.)
Antithesis is a technique of expressiveness of speech, which is often used by the author to increase the degree of expression and drama of a situation or phenomenon. Also used to show a high degree of difference. Antithesis is often used by poets.
Example: « You are a prose writer - I am a poet, you are rich - I am very poor ”(A.S. Pushkin).
Comparison is one of the stylistic figures, in the name of which lies its functionality. We all know that when comparing objects or phenomena, they are directly opposed. In artistic and everyday speech, several techniques are used that help the comparison to be successfully conveyed:
- comparison with the addition of a noun ("storm haze the sky covers ... ");
- turnover with the addition of unions of comparative color (The skin of her hands was rough, like the sole of a boot);
- with inclusion subordinate clause(Night fell on the city and in a matter of seconds everything was quiet, as if there was not that liveliness in the squares and streets just an hour ago).
Phraseologism is a figure of speech, one of the most popular means of expression in the Russian language. Compared to other tropes and stylistic figures, phraseological units are not compiled by the author personally, but are used in a ready-made, accepted form.
Example: like an elephant in a china shop; brew porridge; fool around.
Personification is a type of path that is used when you want to endow inanimate objects and everyday phenomena with human qualities.
Example: it's raining; nature rejoices; the fog is leaving.
In addition to those expressive means that were listed above, there are still a large number of not so often used expressive turns, but just as important for achieving the richness of speech. Among them are the following means of expression:
- irony;
- litotes;
- sarcasm;
- inversion;
- oxymoron;
- allegory;
- lexical repetition;
- metonymy;
- inversion;
- gradation;
- polyunion;
- anaphora and many other tropes and stylistic figures.
How a person has mastered the techniques of expressiveness of speech depends on his success in society, and in the case of the author of fiction, his popularity as a writer. Lack of expressive turns in household or artistic speech predetermines its wretchedness and the manifestation of a weak interest in it by readers or listeners.
Metaphor(Greek metaphor - transference) - a type of trail formed by similarity principle; one of the means of enhancing the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech. The first attempts at a scientific interpretation of M. date back to antiquity (the doctrine of the so-called dhvani in Indian poetics, the judgments of Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, and others). In the future, a revival of interest in M. arises already in the 19th century. in connection with development compare. linguistics and poetics. Some authors are mainly interested in the genesis and evolution of M. (the works of A. A. Potebnya, A. Bizet, K. Werner, and others), while others are interested in the “statics” of this phenomenon, its internal. structure and functions.M. is based on the ability of the word to a kind of doubling (multiplication) in speech, denoting functions. So, in the phrase: “The crew ... was ... similar to ... plump bulging watermelon put on wheels ... The watermelon was filled with chintz pillows ... stuffed with bags of bread, rolls ... "(N.V. Gogol, Dead Souls") - the word "watermelon" (in the second case) means at the same time two items: "crew" (only in this context) and "watermelon". The role of the first and second subject can be any figuratively assimilated facts of reality - phenomena of inanimate nature, plants, animals, people, their ext. world. Matched in "subject pairs", they form combinations characterized by great diversity.
Main types M.: 1) inanimate - inanimate (about the month: "behind the woman's hut hangs loaf of bread ...", mystery); 2) living - living (about a girl: "nimble and thin snake", M. Gorky); 3) living - inanimate (about muscles: "cast iron"); 4) inanimate - living ("ridges of waves"). M. based on synesthesia are more complex, i.e., bringing together phenomena perceived different bodies feelings (“to r and to colors on the canvas”, etc.). The objective similarity between objects, which makes it possible to create M., most often consists in such properties as: 1) color - “trees in winter silver” (A. S. Pushkin); 2) shape - “blade of the month” (M. A. Sholokhov), “ringlet” (about a snake); 3) size (often in combination with other properties) - “baby”, “bug” (about a child), tobacco “stuffed his nose from both entrances” (Gogol; about large nostrils); 4) density - "gas" (about light tissue), "milk" (about thick fog), cf. also “bronze of muscles” (V. V. Mayakovsky); 5) dynamism - “a heap of a fat body crushed by sleep” (Gorky), “an idol” (about a motionless person), cf. "lightning", "give lightning" (about the telegram). A common property in the first subject (image object) can be. both fixed and variable; in the second (means of assimilation) - only constant. Often, objects in M. are compared simultaneously across several. signs: “thick pasta glitters on an epaulette - generals” (Gogol; color and shape).
Metonymy(Greek metonymia - renaming) - a type of trail, which is based on adjacency principle. Like a metaphor, a metaphor is a word denoting, in order to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech, at the same time two (or more) phenomena that are really connected with each other. So, in the phrase "All flags
will visit us ”(A.S. Pushkin,“ The Bronze Horseman ”), the word“ flags ”means: ships with the flags of various states, merchants and sailors sailing on them, as well as these flags themselves, thus preserving o. and its usual meaning.
It is possible to single out several metonymic types. subject pairs. one) The whole is a part, i.e. synecdoche; the subject as a whole is denoted by k.-l. conspicuous detail (to-heaven becomes a representative of this subject). Wed about a man: “a human foot has not set foot here”; "Hey beard! but how to get from here to Plyushkin? ... ”(N.V. Gogol); about the royal gendarmes - “And you, blue uniforms ...” (M. Yu. Lermontov); "a detachment of two hundred sabers" (cavalrymen). 2) A thing is a material. About dishes: “Not on silver, but on gold” (A. S. Griboyedov); about the pipe: “Amber smoked in his mouth” (Pushkin). 3) Content - containing. “I ate three plates” (I. A. Krylov); about firewood in the stove: “The flooded stove is cracking” (Pushkin); “No, my Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head” (Pushkin). 4) The carrier of the property is the property. Instead of a thing, k.-l. internal its property, which is, as it were, abstracted from its carrier and objectified. About brave people: “Courage takes the city” (last); in appeals: “my joy” (about a person who brings joy). 5) The product of the action is the producer of the action. “A man ... Belinsky and Gogol will be carried from the market” (N. A. Nekrasov). 6) The product of action is the place of production. Wed Gogol's - Captain Kopeikin in the St. Petersburg reception room "clung ... to his corner so as not to push with his elbow ... some America or India - gilded, you know, a kind of porcelain vase" (M. with its immediate "decoding"). 7) Action is the instrument of action. “Their villages and fields for a violent raid, he doomed them to swords and fires” (that is, to destruction and burning; Pushkin).
polyunion(from the Greek polysyndeton - multi-union), - special the use of unions in stylistics. purposes; such a construction of a phrase, in which all homogeneous members of the sentence are connected by unions, while usually only the last two homogeneous members are connected by a union. P. is often associated with anaphora and usually emphasizes ext. enumerable link:
And
more insidious than the northern night,
And
drunker than golden ai,
And
gypsy love in short
There were your terrible caresses ... (A. Blok).
P. also enhances the perception of the unity of the events described: “And, finally, they yelled at him, and laid him down, and finished the whole thing” (Yu. Tynyanov).
Expressive means are special artistic and rhetorical devices, lexical and grammatical means language that draws attention to the utterance. They are used to make speech expressive, emotional, visual, make it more interesting and convincing. The means of expression have long been regarded as an important component rhetorical canon(see ch. 4).
The means of expression are trails and figures.
trails are turns of speech based on the use of a word or expression in figurative meaning(epithet, comparison, metaphor, etc.). figures of speech, or rhetorical figures are special forms of syntactic constructions that enhance the expressiveness of speech, the degree of its impact on the addressee (repetition, antithesis, rhetorical question, etc.). Tropes are based on verbal figurativeness, figures are based on syntactic figurativeness.
There are several main types of trails.
I. Comparison- a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three components: firstly, what is being compared, secondly, what is being compared with, thirdly, what is being compared with another. As an example, one can cite the statement of the famous physiologist I.P. Pavlov: “As perfect as the wing of a bird, it could never lift it up without relying on air. Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to take off. Without your "theories" are empty attempts."
II. Epithet - artistic definition, which makes it possible to more clearly characterize the qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enriches the content of the statement. For example, the geologist A. E. Fersman uses epithets to describe precious stones: a brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut through with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, beautiful sparkling demantoid stone; a whole gamut of tones connects slightly greenish or bluish beryls with dense green dark aquamarines.
III. Metaphor - this is the use of a word in a figurative sense based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena (in form, color, function, etc.): " gold autumn", "dead silence", "iron will", "sea of flowers". A metaphor is also called a figurative designation in artistic, poetic speech or in journalism of an object or phenomenon based on its similarity with another object or phenomenon: sharks of capitalism, political games, scoring, nationalist card, paralysis of power, dollar injection Metaphor should be distinguished from comparison, which is usually formalized with the conjunctions "as", "as if", "as if" or can be expressed in the instrumental form of a noun. A successful metaphor activates perception, well remembered:
Two steps away rises the dome of the museum, below boils[Zanlavskaya Square - I made a rather big circle (L. Kabakov. Everything is fixable).
“And in general,” Perkhushkov said, choking on longing, “how scary and difficult it is to live in the world, friends! speaking of longjenfyn, they happen at every step in our spiritual life!" (T. Tolstaya. Limpopo).
The Shcherbinsky case has become the "uranium rod" that, being lowered into our Russian political reactor, will start the process of fission of the civilian nucleus ("Results". 2006. M 13).
In fiction and journalistic texts, a detailed metaphor can be used, which is based on several similarity associations:
Your health ship has run aground. It must be taken in tow, refloated, and then, when it has free water under the keel, it will float itself. Medicines are the tugboat, free water is time, and the ability to swim on your own is restored adaptive capacity (advertising).
Metaphors play a significant role in shaping the picture of the world. A well-known researcher of political rhetoric A.P. Chudinov proceeds from the fact that the system of metaphors is a kind of key to understanding the spirit of the times. He studied the following basic metaphors of modern Russian reality: criminal ("political showdowns"), militaristic ("opposition camp", "show a united front"), medical ("paralysis of power", "separatism syndrome"), gaming ("nationalist card" , "score points"), sports ("come to the finish line", "gain speed").
The notion that the type of politician can be determined by the nature of his speech behavior, in particular by the metaphorical models that he chooses, has firmly established itself in the public mind. For example, the persistence of the militaristic model "Russia is a military camp" is explained by the fact that numerous wars have influenced all generations of Russians. This model provokes the speech deployment of the "War and all its varieties" scenario: informational, psychological warfare, election campaign, ideological, pre-election front, go on the offensive, all-round defense, smoke screen, take revenge, state of siege, economic blockade, ordinary soldiers of the party. The militaristic metaphor is dangerous because it simplifies reality by imposing alternatives: either enemy or friend, or black or white.
IV. Metonymy based on contiguity. If, when creating a metaphor, two objects, phenomena, actions must be somewhat similar to each other, then with metonymy, two objects or phenomena that have received the same name must be adjacent, closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the names of capitals in the meaning of "government of the country", the words "audience", "class", "school", "apartment", "house", "factory", "collective farm" to refer to people, naming a product made of material like this the same as the material itself (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay), for example: Moscow is preparing a return visit; London has not yet made a final decision; Negotiations between Moscow and Washington; Five houses in our area have changed management companies; Gold and silver went to our athletes, bronze went to the French.
v. Paraphrase - replacing a word with a descriptive expression that allows you to characterize any signs of what is being said. Often, paraphrases are based on metaphorical transfer. Paraphrases are often found in the means mass media. Successful, fresh paraphrases help to enliven speech, help to avoid repetitions, enhance emotional assessment: earthquake - "underground storm", forest - "green wealth", forest (forests) - "lungs of the planet", journalists - "fourth estate", AIDS - " plague of the 20th century", chess - "mind gymnastics", Sweden - "land of the Vikings", St. Petersburg - "Northern Venice", Japan - "land of the rising sun".
VI. Hyperbole - this is a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, phenomenon, object or its properties; it is used to enhance the artistic impression, emotional impact ("He raced faster than lightning"; "The berries this year grew like a fist"; "He is so thin, just a skeleton"). The subject of speech due to hyperbole appears exceptional, often unbelievable: "From the Urals to the Danube, To the big river, Swaying and sparkling, The regiments are moving" (M. Lermontov). Hyperbole is actively used both in commercial advertising to exaggerate the functional qualities and aesthetic properties of goods and services ("Bounty - heavenly delight"), and in propaganda ("fateful decisions", "the only guarantor of the Constitution", "evil empire").
VII. Litota - a trope that is the opposite of hyperbole and consists in deliberately weakening, downplaying the property or sign that is being spoken about (“a man with a fingernail”, “two steps away”, “wait a second”).
VIII. irony - the use of a name or even a whole statement in the opposite literal sense, the deliberate statement of the opposite of what the speaker actually thinks. Highest Degree manifestations of irony sarcasm. Irony is usually revealed not formally, but on the basis of background knowledge or context ("Listen to this intellectual: now he will dot all the i" - about a poorly educated, narrow-minded person; "Well, how could this man of honor break the law" - about a swindler).
IX. Among the rhetorical figures stands out repeat, intended primarily for demonstration strong feeling. Often this is just a repetition of a certain word. Here is an example of using the repetition technique in a speech by D. S. Likhachev:
Russian culture, by the mere fact that it includes the cultures of a dozen other nations and has long been associated with the neighboring cultures of Scandinavia, Byzantium, the southern and western Slavs, Germany, Italy, the peoples of the East and the Caucasus, is a universal culture and tolerant of the cultures of others peoples. This last feature was clearly characterized by Dostoevsky in his famous speech at the Pushkin celebrations. But Russian culture is also European because it has always been devoted to the idea of individual freedom in its deepest foundations ... ("On
There are several types of repetition.
1. Anaphora - repetition of words at the beginning of adjacent segments of speech. For example: "give yourself the unique elegance of French makeup, give yourself a particle french charm". The famous speech of Martin Luther King, a fighter for the rights of the black population in the United States, is built on the anaphora "I have a dream." Another example of an anaphora is a fragment of an article famous poet V. I. Ivanova "Thoughts about symbolism":
So, I am not a symbolist, if I do not wake up with an elusive hint or influence in the heart of the listener of sensations inexpressible, sometimes similar to the original memory ... sometimes to a distant, vague premonition, sometimes to the thrill of someone familiar and desired approach ...
I am not a symbolist... if my words do not convince him directly of the existence of a hidden life where his mind did not suspect life; if my words do not move in him the energy of love for that which until then he did not know how to love, because his love did not know how many abodes it had.
I am not a symbolist, if my words are equal to themselves ...
2. Epiphora - is the repetition of words at the ends of adjacent segments of speech. An example is a fragment of the speech of the American President F. D. Roosevelt "On the Four Freedoms":
In the future... a world will open before us, built on the basis of the four inalienable freedoms of man. The first of these is freedom of speech anywhere in the world. The second is the freedom of religious cultures everywhere and everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want, which ... means mutual understanding in the field economic relations providing for each state a peaceful and prosperous life for its citizens everywhere in the world. The fourth freedom is freedom from fear, which ... means the worldwide reduction of armaments to such an extent that no state will be able to commit an act of aggression against any of its neighbors anywhere in the world.
- 3. Joint - this is the repetition of words at the boundaries of adjacent segments within a sentence or at the boundary of sentences. For example: "Only with us, with us and nowhere else"; "It's impossible not to call it a crime. Other actions of the authorities should also be called a crime."
- 4. Syntax parallelism - this is a repetition of the same type of syntactic units in the same type of syntactic positions. Let us give an example of the use of this figure by Academician D.S. Likhachev:
May we have heroes of the spirit, ascetics who give themselves to the service of the sick, children, the poor, other peoples, saints, finally. Let our country again be the birthplace of Oriental studies, the country of "small peoples", their preservation in the "red book of mankind". May the unaccountable desire to give all of oneself to some holy cause, which has so distinguished Russians at all times, again take its rightful place ("Oh the national character of Russians").
Syntactic parallelism is also used in advertising: Children build for fun, you build for them.
Syntactic parallelism can be accompanied by an antithesis: "A strong governor - great rights, a weak governor - no rights; a public politician - the republic is known in the country, a non-public politician - no one knows about it."
x. Antithesis - a figure built on the opposition of compared concepts, for example, in proverbs and sayings: "The smart one will teach, the fool will get bored"; "Easy to make friends, hard to leave." The antithesis was used by Cicero in his famous speech against Senator Catiline:
On our side fighting a sense of honor, on the other - impudence; here - modesty, there - debauchery; here - fidelity, there - deceit; here - valor, there - crime; here - steadfastness, there - fury; here - an honest name, there - shame; here - restraint, there - licentiousness; in a word, all virtues struggle with injustice, depravity, laziness, recklessness, all sorts of vices; finally, abundance fights poverty, decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, finally, good hopes - with complete hopelessness.
XI. Inversion - rearranging parts of a sentence, breaking the usual word order to highlight certain words. Often this is due to cases when the predicate comes before the subject in order to highlight new information in the sentence. For example: "Good spring evenings"; "History is made by people, not some objective laws of history"; "The hero of the day was honored by the whole team"; "As difficult as it is, we must do it." Inversion can also be used for stylization: "We sit at tables long, oak, uncovered. Servants serve rusk kvass, daily cabbage soup, rye bread, boiled beef with onions and buckwheat porridge" (V. Sorokin. Oprichnik's Day).
XII. Parceling - this is the division of the original statement into two or more independent, intonationally isolated segments, for example: "They know. They remember. They believe"; "A person has always been handsome if his name sounded proud. When he was a fighter. When he was a discoverer. When he dared. When he did not succumb to difficulties and did not fall on his knees before trouble"; "He also went. To the store. Buy apples."
Parceling usually serves to convey in a written text the features of a living oral speech and is actively used in fiction and journalism: “But she didn’t get sick. She lied. But there is a lie, and there is a lie. And it’s worth lying only to a strong opponent, and then a lie is an event. nothing changes in you. It doesn’t decrease, but it increases ... " (A. Gosteva. The daughter of a samurai).
Parceling is impossible in official business and scientific speech.
XIII. Rhetorical question- an exclamation question that does not require an answer, but conveys a message about something: "Do you think that I do not know this?"; "Is there another city like ours!"; "What does this mean?... The well-known reformer, the 'architect of reforms', could not do anything against the adoption of the law. How can one trust such a country now?"
D. S. Likhachev uses a whole range of rhetorical exclamations and rhetorical questions in his speech "On the National Character of the Russians":
There was legislation, Russkaya Pravda. "Code of Laws", "Ulozhenie", which defended the morals and dignity of the individual. Is this not enough? Is it not enough for us to have a people's movement to the East in search of freedom from the state and a happy Belovodsk kingdom? ... Do not the constant revolts and such leaders of these revolts as Razin, Bulavin, Pugachev and many others testify to the ineradicable desire for individual freedom? And the northern burns, in which hundreds and thousands of people burned themselves in the name of loyalty to their beliefs! What other uprising can we oppose to the Decembrist uprising, in which the leaders of the uprising acted against their property, estate and class interests, but on the other hand in the name of social and political justice? And the village gatherings, with which the authorities were constantly forced to reckon! And all Russian literature, which has been striving for social justice for a thousand years!
Traditional, centuries-old means of expressiveness are still the most important means of creating an effective, influencing speech, but only their skillful, proportionate and appropriate use will avoid artificiality and false pathos.
Comparison is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another on some basis, based on their similarity. The comparison can be expressed:
By using conjunctions (as, as if, exactly, as if, as if, like, than):
I am tenderly, silently, tenderly Admiring you like a child! (A.C.
Pushkin);
Instrumental form: And the network, lying on the sand with a thin through shadow, moves, continuously grows with new rings (A.S. Serafimovich);
With the help of words like similar, similar: The rich are not like you and me (E. Hemingway);
With negation:
I'm not such a bitter drunkard, To die without seeing you. (S.A. Yesenin);
The comparative degree of an adjective or adverb:
Neater than fashionable parquet The river shines, dressed in ice. .(A.S. Pushkin)
Metaphor is the transfer of the name (properties) of one object to another according to the principle of their similarity in some respect or in contrast. This is the so-called hidden (or abbreviated) comparison, in which unions are as if, as if, as if ... absent. For example: the lush gold of the autumn forest (K.G. Paustovsky).
Types of metaphor are personification and reification.
Personification is an image of inanimate objects, in which they are endowed with properties, features of living beings. For example: And the fire, trembling and wavering in the light, uneasily glanced with red eyes at the cliff protruding for a second from the darkness (A.S. Serafimovich).
Reification is the likening of living beings to inanimate objects. For example: The front rows were delayed, the back rows became thicker, and the flowing human river stopped, as noisy waters blocked in their channel stop in silence (A.S. Serafimovich).
Metonymy is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on the associative contiguity of these objects. For example: The whole gymnasium beats in hysterically convulsive sobs (A.S. Serafimovich).
Synecdoche (a kind of metonymy) is the ability of a word to name both the whole through its part, and a part of something through the whole. For example: Black visors flashed, boots with a bottle, jackets, black coats (A.S. Serafimovich).
An epithet is an artistic definition that emphasizes some feature (property) of an object or phenomenon, which is a definition or circumstance in a sentence. The epithet can be expressed:
Adjectives:
cabbage blue freshness. And red maples in the distance. The last meek tenderness of the hushed autumn land.
(A. Zhigulin);
Noun: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers (M.Yu. Lermontov);
Adverb: And the midday waves sweetly rustle (A.S. Pushkin).
Hyperbole is a means of artistic representation based on an excessive exaggeration of the properties of an object or phenomenon. For example: Sidewalk whirlwinds rushed the pursuers themselves so strongly that they sometimes overtook their hats and came to their senses only when they bumped into the legs of the bronze figure of Catherine's nobleman, who was standing in the middle of the square (IL. Ilf, E.P. Petrov).
Litota is an artistic technique based on the underestimation of any properties of an object or phenomenon. For example: Tiny toy people sit for a long time under the white mountains near the water, and my grandfather's eyebrows and rough mustache move angrily (A.S. Serafimovich).
An allegory is an allegorical expression of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a specific image. For example:
You will say: windy Hebe, Feeding Zeves' eagle, Loudly boiling goblet from the sky, Laughing, spilled on the ground.
(F. I. Tyutchev)
Irony is an allegory that expresses mockery, when a word or statement in the context of speech acquires a meaning that is directly opposite to the literal one or calls it into question. For example:
"Did you all sing? this business:
So come on, dance!” (I.A. Krylov)
An oxymoron is a paradoxical phrase in which contradictory (mutually exclusive) properties are attributed to an object or phenomenon. For example: Diderot was right when he said that art consists in finding the extraordinary in the ordinary and the ordinary in the extraordinary (K. G. Paustovsky).
Paraphrase is the replacement of a word with an allusive descriptive expression. For example: Direct debt obligated us to enter this awesome crucible of Asia (as the author called the smoking Gulf of Kara-Bugaz) (K.G.
Paustovsky).
Antithesis - opposition of images, concepts, t properties of objects or phenomena, which is based on the use of antonyms. For example:
I had everything, suddenly lost everything; The dream had just begun... the dream disappeared! (E. Baratynsky)
Repetition is the repeated use of the same f and the same words and expressions. For example: My friend, \ my tender friend... love... yours... yours!.. (A.C. Push-Ekin).
The types of repetition are anaphora and epiphora.
Anaphora (unity) is the repetition of the initial words in adjacent lines, stanzas, phrases. For example-1 measures:
You are full of an immense dream, You are full of a mysterious longing. (E. Baratynsky)
Epiphora is the repetition of final words in adjacent lines, stanzas, phrases. For example:
We do not appreciate earthly happiness, We are accustomed to appreciate people; We both will not change ourselves, But they cannot change us.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
Gradation is a special grouping of homogeneous [ members of a sentence with a gradual increase (or | decrease) in semantic and emotional significance. I For example:
And for him resurrected again And the deity, and inspiration, And life, and tears, and love. (A.S. Pushkin)
Parallelism is a repetition of the type of adjacent sentences or phrases, in which the order of the words coincides, at least partially. For example:
I'm bored without you - I yawn; With you I feel sad - I endure ... (A.S. Pushkin)
Inversion is a violation of the generally accepted word order in a sentence, a rearrangement of parts of a phrase. For example:
There once in the mountains, full of heart thoughts, Over the sea, I dragged thoughtful laziness... (A.S. Pushkin)
Ellipsis is the omission of individual words (usually easily recovered in context) to give the phrase additional dynamism. For example: Less and less often Afinogenych transported pilgrims. For whole weeks - no one (A.S. Serafimovich).
Parceling is an artistic technique in which a sentence is divided into separate segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. For example: They did not even look at the one brought here, one of the thousands who lived here. Searched. Made measurements. Signs were recorded (A.S. Serafimovich).
A rhetorical question (appeal, exclamation) is a question (appeal, exclamation) that does not require an answer. Its function is to attract attention, enhance the impression. For example: What is in my name to you? (A.S. Pushkin)
Non-union - the intentional omission of unions to give speech dynamism. For example:
To lure with exquisite ^ dressing, Game of eyes, brilliant conversation ... (E. Baratynsky)
Polyunion is a conscious repetition of unions in order to slow down speech with forced pauses. At the same time, the semantic significance of each word highlighted by the union is emphasized. For example:
And every language that is in it will call me,
And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now wild
Tungus, and a Kalmyk friend of the steppes. (A. S. Pushkin)
Phraseologisms, synonyms and antonyms are also used as means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech.
Phraseological unit, or phraseological unit -
this is a stable combination of words that functions: in speech as an expression indivisible in terms of meaning and composition: lie on the stove, beat like a fish on ice, [ neither day nor night.
Synonyms are words of the same part of speech, ; close in meaning. Synonym types:
General language: bold - brave;
Contextual:
You will hear the court of a fool and the laughter of the cold crowd: But you remain firm, calm and gloomy. (A.S. Pushkin)
Antonyms are words of the same part of speech that have the opposite meaning. Types of antonyms:
General language: good - evil;
Contextual:
I give way to you: It's time for me to smolder, for you to bloom. (A.S. Pushkin)
As you know, the meaning of a word is most accurately determined in the context of speech. This allows, in particular, to determine the meaning of polysemantic words, as well as to distinguish between homonyms (words of the same part of speech, i matching in sound or spelling, but having \ different lexical meanings: a tasty fruit is a reliable raft, marriage at work is a happy marriage).
Perhaps the most confusing and most difficult topic for those who are not friends with literature and verbal figures. If you've never been impressed classic literature, and especially poetry, then, perhaps, acquaintance with this topic will allow you to look at many works through the eyes of the author, generate interest in the artistic word.
Trails - verbal turns
The paths make speech brighter and more expressive, more interesting and richer. These are words and their combinations used in a figurative sense, which is why the very expressiveness of the text appears. Paths help convey various shades of emotions, recreate true images and pictures in the mind of the reader, with the help of the master, words evoke certain associations in the mind of the reader.
Along with the syntactic means of the language, tropes (relating to lexical means) are quite powerful weapons in the literary sphere. It is worth paying attention to the fact that many trails have moved from literary language into colloquial speech. We have become so accustomed to them that we have ceased to notice the indirect meaning of such words, which is why they have lost their expressiveness. It is not uncommon: the tropes are so "beaten" with colloquial speech that they become clichés and clichés. The once expressive phrases "black gold", "brilliant mind", "golden hands" have become habitual and hackneyed.
Trail classification
In order to understand and clearly find out which words and expressions, in what context, are referred to as figurative and expressive means of the language, we turn to the following table.
| trails | Definition | Examples |
| Epithet | Called to define something artistically (object, action), most often expressed by an adjective or adverb | Turquoise eyes, monstrous character, indifferent sky |
| Metaphor | In fact, this is a comparison, but hidden by transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another. | The soul sings, consciousness floats away, the head buzzes, an icy look, a sharp word |
| Metonymy | Rename. This is the transfer of the properties of one object, phenomenon to another on the basis of adjacency. | Brew chamomile (and not chamomile tea), the school went on a subbotnik (replacing the word "students" with the name of the institution), read Mayakovsky (replacing the work with the name of the author) |
| Synecdoche (is a type of metonymy) | Transferring the name of an object from part to whole and vice versa | Save a penny (instead of money), the berry has ripened this year (instead of the berry), the buyer is now demanding (instead of buyers) |
| Hyperbola | Trope based on excessive exaggeration (properties, sizes, events, meanings, etc.) | I told you a hundred times, stood in line all day, scared me to death |
| paraphrase | Semantically indivisible expression, which in figurative form describes a phenomenon, an object, indicating its feature (with a negative or positive meaning) | Not a camel, but a ship of the desert, not Paris, but the capital of fashion, not an official, but a clerical rat, not a dog, but a friend of man |
| Allegory | Allegory, expression of an abstract concept using a concrete image | Fox - cunning, ant - diligence, elephant - clumsiness, dragonfly - carelessness |
| Litotes | Same as hyperbole, only in reverse. Understatement of something in order to give expressiveness | How the cat cried, I earn my penny, thin as a reed |
| Oxymoron | Combination of incompatible, contrasting, contradictory | Loud silence, back to the future, hot cold, beloved enemy |
| Irony | Using a word in a sense completely opposite to its meaning for the purpose of ridicule | Come into my mansions (about a small apartment), it will cost you a pretty penny (big money) |
| personification | Transferring the properties and qualities of living beings to inanimate objects and concepts that do not belong to them | The rain is crying, the foliage is whispering, the blizzard is howling, sadness has attacked |
| Antithesis | A trope based on a sharp opposition of any images or concepts |
|
| Euphemism | An emotionally and semantic neutral word or combination of words used instead of unpleasant, rude, indecent expressions | Places are not so remote (instead of prison), it has a peculiar character (instead of bad, hard) |
From the examples it becomes clear that the figurative and expressive means of the language, namely the tropes, are used not only in works of art, but also in live colloquial speech. It is not necessary to be a poet in order to have a competent, juicy, expressive speech. It is enough to have a good vocabulary and the ability to express thoughts outside the box. Saturate your lexical pantries with reading quality literature, this is extremely useful.
Figurative means of phonetics
Paths are only part of the arsenal of artistic means of expression. That which is intended to act specifically on our hearing is called phonetic figurative and expressive means of language. Once having delved into the essence of the phonetic component of the artistry of the language, you begin to look at many things with different eyes. There comes an understanding of the play on words in the verses of the school curriculum, once studied "through force", the poetics and beauty of the syllable are revealed.
It is best to consider examples of the use of phonetic means of expression, relying on classical Russian literature, this is the richest source of alliteration and assonance, as well as other types of sound writing. But it would be wrong to think that examples of figurative and expressive means of language are not found in contemporary art. Advertising, journalism, songs and poems by modern performers, proverbs, sayings, tongue twisters - all this is an excellent base for finding figures of speech and tropes, you just need to learn to hear and see them.
Alliteration, assonance and others
Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonants or their combinations in a poem, which gives the verse sound expressiveness, brightness, originality. For example, the sound [h] of Vladimir Mayakovsky in "A Cloud in Pants":
You entered
sharp, like "here!",
mucha suede gloves,
"You know -
I'm getting married".
or right there:
I'll get stronger.
See -
how calm!
Like the pulse of the dead.
Remember?...
And here is a modern example. From the singer Yuta ("Fall"):
I will smoke and eat bread,
Staring in the hallway at the dusty ceiling ...
Assonance - a specially organized repetition of consonant sounds (more often in a poetic text), which gives the verse musicality, harmony, song. Masterfully crafted phonetic technique can convey the atmosphere, setting, state of mind and even ambient sounds. Vladimir Mayakovsky's carefully crafted assonance bears a tinge of fluid hopelessness:
Your son is very sick!
He has a heart of fire.
Tell the sisters
Luda and Ole,—
he has nowhere to go.
In Vladimir Vladimirovich, in any poem, figurative and expressive means of a phonetic nature are combined with tropes and syntactic figures. This is the author's uniqueness.
Punning rhymes are combinations of words and sounds built on the similarity of sound.
The area of rhymes is my element,
And I write poetry easily,
Without hesitation, without delay
I run to line from line
Even to the Finnish brown rocks
I'm dealing with a pun.
D. D. Minaev
Syntactic means of expression in the language
Epiphora and anaphora, inversion, parcellation and a number of others syntactic means help the master of verbal art to saturate his works with expressiveness, creating individual style, character, rhythm.
Some syntactic techniques enhance the expressiveness of speech, logically highlight what the author wants to emphasize. Others give the narrative dynamism, tension, or, conversely, make you stop and think, re-read and feel. Many writers and poets have their own individual style based precisely on syntax. Suffice it to recall A. Blok:
"Night, street, lamp, pharmacy"
or A. Akhmatov:
"Twenty-one. Night. Monday"
The individual author's style, of course, consists not only of syntax, there is a whole set of all components: semantic, linguistic, as well as rhythm and vision of reality. And yet an important role is played by what figurative and expressive means of language the artist of the word prefers.
Syntax to help artistic expression
Inversion (permutation, reversal) is a reverse or non-standard word order in a sentence. In prose, it is used to semantic highlight any part of a sentence. In poetic form, it can be necessary to create a rhyme, focusing on the most important points. In Marina Tsvetaeva's poem "An Attempted Jealousy", the inversion conveys an emotional strain:
How do you live - hello -
Maybe? Singing - how?
With a plague of immortal conscience
How are you, poor man?
A. S. Pushkin considered inversion to be perhaps the most important means of poetic expression, his poems are mostly inversion, which is why they are so musical, expressive, and simple.
A rhetorical question in a literary text is one that does not require an answer.
The day was innocent and the wind was fresh.
The dark stars went out.
- Grandmother! — This cruel rebellion
In my heart - is it not from you? ..
A. Akhmatova
In the lyrics of Marina Tsvetaeva, the favorite devices were a rhetorical question and a rhetorical exclamation:
I'll ask for a chair, I'll ask for a bed:
“For what, for what do I endure and suffer?”
I taught to live in the fire itself,
I threw it myself - into the icy steppe!
That's what you, dear, did to me!
My dear, what have I done to you?
Epiphora, Anaphora, Ellipse
Anaphora - the repetition of similar or identical sounds, words, phrases at the beginning of each line, stanza, sentence. A classic example is Yesenin's poems:
I did not know that love is an infection,
I didn't know love was a plague....
Ah, wait. I don't scold her.
Ah, wait. I don't curse her...
Epiphora - the repetition of the same elements at the end of phrases, stanzas, lines.
Foolish heart, don't beat!
We are all deceived by happiness
The beggar only asks for participation ...
Foolish heart, don't beat.
Both stylistic figures are more characteristic of poetry than prose. Such techniques are found in all types and genres of literature, including oral folk art, which is very natural, given its specificity.
An ellipse is an omission in a literary text of any language unit (it is easy to restore), while the meaning of the phrase does not suffer.
The fact that yesterday is waist-deep,
Suddenly - to the stars.
(Exaggerated, that is:
In all - growth.)
M. Tsvetaeva
This gives dynamism, conciseness, highlights in the proposal desired element intonation.
In order to clearly navigate in all the variety of linguistic figures and professionally understand the name of a visual and expressive means, experience, knowledge of theory and language disciplines are needed.
The main thing is not to overdo it
If we perceive the surrounding information through the prism of linguistic means of expression, we can come to the conclusion that even Speaking refers to them often enough. It is not necessary to know the name of the figurative-expressive means of the language in order to use it in speech. Rather, it happens unintentionally, imperceptibly. Another thing is when various figures of speech flow in the media, to the point and not quite. The abuse of tropes, stylistic devices, and other means of expression makes speech hard to perceive, oversaturated. Publicism and advertising are especially guilty of this, apparently because they deliberately use the power of language to influence the audience. The poet, in the impulse of the creative process, does not think about what figurative and expressive means to use, this is a spontaneous, "emotional" process.
Language is the strongest tool in the hands of the classics
Each era leaves its mark on the language and its visual means. Pushkin's language is far from the creative style of Mayakovsky. The poetics of Tsvetaeva's heritage differs sharply from the unique texts of Vladimir Vysotsky. The poetic language of A. S. Pushkin is permeated with epithets, metaphors, personifications, I. A. Krylov is a fan of allegory, hyperbole, irony. Each writer has his own style, created by him in the creative process, in which his favorite pictorial images play an important role.