General geographical patterns of the Earth's shell. The earth is a spherical celestial body. The diameter of the Earth is about 12,750 km. It consists of several shells: air - atmosphere, water - hydrosphere, solid - lithosphere (earth's crust). The lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere are inhabited by living organisms and form the biosphere. The shells of the globe come into contact with each other, penetrate each other, interacting with each other, for example, water from the hydrosphere penetrates into the lithosphere, dissolving and eroding minerals and rocks. Water is found in the lower atmosphere in the form of water vapor, ice crystals, hail, snow, and raindrops. Water - component all living organisms. Oxygen, calcium are absorbed by organisms, enters their skeletons. When dying, animal organisms settle to the bottom, forming sedimentary rocks. The shell within which they come into contact, penetrate into each other and interact with the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere, is called geographical envelope. Beneath the lithosphere is the mantle that envelops the Earth's core.
The heterogeneity of the earth's crust. Earth's crust heterogeneous in composition of rocks. Top part The lithosphere is composed of sedimentary rocks, under which metamorphic rocks occur. Deeper are igneous rocks. The earth's crust is represented by two types: continental (mainland), which has a three-layer structure: sedimentary, granite and basalt, and oceanic, which has a 2-layer structure, in which there is no granite layer. Light elements (compounds of silicon and aluminum) predominate in all layers of the earth's crust. The lower basalt layer of the earth's crust passes into the mantle, where magnesium and iron compounds predominate. The thickness of the earth's crust is different on the continents and under the oceans. On the continents in the lowlands, its thickness is 35 km. Under high mountains- 50-70 km, under the oceans - 6-15 km.
Formation of the earth's crust. Relief types. The formation of the earth's crust began more than 3.5 billion years ago. At the beginning of development, the earth's crust was unstable and mobile. Deep sea depressions formed in it, in which strata of sedimentary rocks accumulated. Then, in such places, as a result of mountain building, folded mountainous countries arose with alternating intermountain depressions. Platforms were formed. In the process of mountain building, rocks are not only crumpled into folds, but undergo metamorphism, crystallize. The accompanying mountain building volcanism forms igneous rocks. On the continents, vast ancient and stable sections of the earth's crust - platforms - stand out. They have an ancient folded foundation, composed of ancient crystalline rocks, leveled from the surface by external processes. Layers of younger marine and continental sediments lie horizontally or almost horizontally on this basement. The marine sedimentary rock mass was formed as a result of slow subsidence, when the surface of the platform turned out to be the bottom of the sea. This was followed by slow land uplifts. At the same time, the land surface was destroyed, and continental deposits accumulated. Thus, for a long time, the platform more than once could be either land or sea. In some parts of the platforms, the crystalline basement lies close to the surface, and sometimes ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks come to the surface, for example, in Finland, in eastern Canada, etc. The cores around which the modern continents were formed were: East European (Russian), Siberian, North American , South American, African-Arabian, Australian, Antarctic platforms. The platforms are associated with plains of different heights above sea level: lowlands, uplands, and plateaus. On platforms - stable hard blocks, slow ups and downs occur. They do not crush rocks into folds. The most mobile, unstable parts of the earth's crust, which have great flexibility, are called geosynclines. At present, geosynclines are located in the Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt, along the margins of Eastern Eurasia and in the Pacific mountain belt of North and South America. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are frequent here. The formation of geosynclines is associated with intense subsidence and subsidence of a section of the earth's crust in which marine sediments accumulate. high power(up to 15-20 km.) Then there was an uplift of this area with the formation of folding faults, faults (moving layers along the cracks in the horizontal direction). Most modern folded mountainous countries are confined to geosynclines.
Changing the outlines of the continents. The outlines of the ancient continents changed especially strongly due to the process of mountain building in different periods of life on Earth. In the history of the development of the Earth, strong mountain-building movements were replaced by periods of relative calm. There are 3 eras of mountain building: Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine.
In the Caledonian era of mountain building about 400 million years ago, the Scandinavian mountains, the mountains of the islands of Great Britain and Ireland joined the East European platform. In the Hercynian era of mountain building (about 300 million years ago), the mountains of Central Europe were formed, for example, the central massif in France, the Black Forest, the Bohemian massif. At the same time, the Russian platform connected with the Siberian and Sino-Korean platforms, and this ancient land was separated by a large ocean from the ancient mainland of the southern hemisphere of Gondwana. In the Alpine folding (about 70 million years ago), young mountains of the Earth were formed, which are part of the Alpine-Himalayan belt and the Pacific belt of Eurasia, the Pacific belt of South and North America. Mountain building processes greatly change the outlines of the continents, the nature of their surface. Vast mountainous countries arise, individual land areas sink, and straits and seas form in their place. The outlines of the continents are also changed by slow fluctuations in the earth's crust, as a result of which in some places the land surface slowly rises, and in others it sinks - the sea comes. The rhythm of geographical phenomena lies in the repetition of similar phenomena in time. Less long daily and annual rhythms. They are easily observed in nature. The longest are geological cycles (390-200 million years). The study of rhythms is important for forecasting the processes and phenomena occurring in the geographic envelope.
Goal and tasks:
- Build knowledge about internal structure Earth, about the method of its study.
- Show the differences between continental crust and oceanic crust.
- Show large lithospheric plates, folded areas; to explain the essential features of the concept of “plate”, to predict changes in land contours as a result of the movement of lithospheric plates.
Equipment:
During the classes
I. Mankind has long wanted to know what is in the depths of the Earth. But finding out is not so easy. So far, people have managed to drill a well only 15 km deep. Therefore, scientists have to explore the depths of the Earth using various instruments.
To date, it has been established that the globe consists of three parts:
Nuclei in the middle;
The mantle, which occupies 5/6 of the entire volume of the Earth;
The thin outer crust of the earth.
1. What is inside the Earth?
II. The upper solid shell of the Earth is called the lithosphere (from the Greek "lithos" - a stone, "sphere" - a ball, a shell), which includes the earth's crust and the plastic viscous upper part of the mantle.
2. What is the lithosphere?
III. The upper solid shell of the Earth is called the lithosphere, and the uppermost part of the lithosphere is the earth's crust.
3. What is the structure of the earth's crust?
4. What are lithospheric plates?
IV. The entire earth's crust is made up of lithospheric plates- individual stone blocks, tightly adjacent to each other. They were constantly splitting and connecting, like parts of a huge mosaic. Therefore, the outlines of the continents and oceans have always changed and continue to change today.
Flows of the molten substance of the mantle move the lithospheric plates,
which move at a speed of about 5 cm per year. In places where maitiotic matter rises, the plates diverge, and the rising magma solidifies and fills the space between them. In places of subsidence of the maitiatic substance, the edges of the plates are crumpled into folds, crawl and slide relative to each other, are sucked into the mantle and melted down. This is accompanied by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
V. The difference in the structure of the lithosphere is explained by the origin of our planet.
According to some ideas, the planet was formed from a single gas-dust cloud or nebula about 4.6 billion years ago.
According to another view, the Earth was formed from a gas-dust substance scattered in the near-solar space, which contained all the chemical elements known in nature.
Most scientists explain the differences in the structure of the earth's crust by the fact that at first an oceanic type of crust formed on the earth. Under the influence of the processes occurring inside the planet, folds appeared on its surface, i.e. mountainous areas, the thickness of the crust increased, the heights of the continents formed.
By the end of the 20th century, science was enriched with new data on the processes occurring in the bowels of the planets; The theory of lithospheric plates was created.
Hypothesis of the origin of lithospheric plates.
The earth's crust consists of large blocks-slabs with a thickness of 60 to 100 km. The boundaries between lithospheric plates run along mid-ocean ridges or along deep-sea trenches. In the lithosphere, scientists identify 7-9 huge plates that move at a speed of 1 to 6 cm per year.
IV. The lithosphere is made up of rocks and minerals. Minerals- substances homogeneous in their properties, which usually form crystals of a strictly defined geometric shape. Rock is a complex of various natural minerals. Rocks by origin are divided into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed by cooling fiery-liquid magma. Among them, melts and solutions of magmatic matter slowly solidified at different depths predominate.
Sedimentary rocks are formed during the destruction of previously formed rocks on the surface of the Earth under the action of the Sun, wind, water, living organisms and their accumulation (settlement).
Metamorphic rocks are formed in the thickness of the earth's crust as a result of changes in the initial conditions of their occurrence. The reasons for their transformations can be changes in pressure, temperature in the bowels of the Earth.
6. Rocks that make up the earth's crust.
VII. The earth's crust is in continuous motion, which manifests itself in different ways in its different parts. The movement of the earth's crust is a natural phenomenon that occurs in the solid shell of the Earth.
The mountainous regions experience uplifts, the speed of which is greater than that of the plains.
7. What are the types of movements?
Sedimentary rocks that form in the oceans, seas, lakes lie in horizontal layers: younger rocks are on top, older ones are on the bottom. However, as a result of the movement of the earth's crust, this regularity is very often violated. Soft sedimentary rocks are crumpled into folds, hard ones crack with the formation of faults. Along fault lines, some sections of the earth's crust rise, forming ledges - horsts, others descend, resulting in depressions - grabens.
8. What are mountain grabens?
VIII. All processes and phenomena associated with the movement of magma in the earth's crust and on its surface are called volcanism. The phenomena of volcanism are widespread in the areas of interaction of lithospheric plates - at their junctions.
In areas of distribution of active and extinct volcanoes The groundwater heated by magma and can come to the surface in the form of hot springs. Such periodically gushing springs are called geysers.
The earth under one's feet has always been a symbol of firmness and inviolability for a person. But sometimes even the earth's crust starts to move: there is earthquake. The place where the rupture and displacement of rocks occurs is called earthquake focus. The area of the earth's surface below the focus of an earthquake is called earthquake epicenter. Most earthquakes are confined to certain areas of our planet, which are called seismic belts.
9. What is the reason for the formation of volcanoes, earthquakes?
IX. The surface of the continents and the bottom of the oceans has many irregularities. They all differ in height, size, shape, origin. Every surface irregularity is landform. On land and under water, the flat relief prevails over the mountainous one.
The relief is the result of the interaction of the internal and external forces of the Earth.
10. What is relief?
X. The largest landforms of the continents include vast plains and mountain ranges.
Plains- this is a part of the earth's surface with a difference in relative heights of no more than 200 meters.
The relief of the land plain naturally passes into the relief of the acquired sea plains. Their surface is dissected by cracks, hilly, divided by underwater ridges, plateaus, hills, as well as lonely mountains. The longest and deepest scars on the face of the lithosphere are confined to this part - deep gutters. (Pacific Ocean).
The mountains- this is a convex shape of the surface with a well-defined top, sole, slopes.
The high parts of the mountains are called - peaks, and the pointed vertices peaks.
Mountainous relief is also common at the bottom of the oceans. The most important discoveries of the last decades are mid-ocean ridges.
11. How are mountains and plains divided?
XI. The main reason for the diversity of the relief is the interaction
Domestic and external processes operate simultaneously. Relief change occurs continuously and quite intensively.
The protrusions of the continents correspond to the continental crust, and in the areas of distribution of the oceanic crust there are depressions filled with ocean water. Vast plains correspond to ancient areas of lithospheric plates - platforms. Mountain folded areas, deep-sea trenches on the ocean floor are located at the boundaries of the plates of the lithosphere.
12. What are platforms, folded areas?
Filling in the table
“Relationship between internal and external processes that form the earth's crust”.
| Process type | Manifestation in relief | Process essence |
| I. Internal: 1. Tectonic 2. Earthquake 3. Volcanism |
Formation of mountains, plains, trenches, median ridges. Formation of cracks, shifts, landslides. Formation of volcanoes, lava covers. |
The combination of vertical and horizontal movements of the lithosphere, the appearance of folds and faults. Shocks and vibrations on the surface caused by ruptures and displacements in the lithosphere. The outpouring of magma on the surface of the Earth. |
| II. External: 1. weathering 2. Wind action 3. Action of water |
Formation of screes of “stone rivers”. Formation of sand ridges, dunes, dunes. Formation of ravines, gullies, deltas of rivers, seas, landslides. |
Destruction of rocks. Wind-driven loose sediments. Silt transfer, erosion of rocks with water. |
Consolidation.
Fill in the table “Relationship between internal and external processes” in the CO.
Homework.
Grade 7: page 41-52.
It was a ball consisting of some gases. Gradually, heavy metals such as iron and nickel sank to the center and condensed. Light rocks and minerals floated to the surface, cooled and hardened.
Structurally, the Earth consists of three layers: the core, the mantle and the earth's crust.
Core- the center of the Earth, its diameter is 6964 km, mass is 1.934 * 10^24 kg, volume is 1.752 * 10^20 m3 (16.2% of the volume of the Earth). The core consists of two parts: the sub-core (solid part) and the outer core (liquid part). The core is characterized by high (up to 5000 °C) temperatures. It contains about 89% iron and 6% nickel. The movement of matter in the core creates a magnetic field on Earth that protects the planet from cosmic radiation.
Mantle(from the Greek. mantion - cover) - the middle layer that connects the core and the earth's crust. The mantle has a thickness of 2865 km, a mass of 4.013 * 10^24 kg, its volume is 8.966 * 10^20 m3 (83% of the volume of the Earth).
The mantle consists of three layers: the Golitsyn layer, the Gutenberg layer and the substrate. The upper part of the mantle, called magma, contains a layer with reduced viscosity, density and hardness - the asthenosphere, on which sections of the earth's surface are balanced. The boundary between the mantle and the core is called the Gutenberg layer.
The outer solid layers of the planet. Its mass is 2.85 * 10^22 kg, volume - 1.02 * 10^19 m3 (0.8% of the volume of the Earth). Its average thickness is 25-30 km, under the oceans it is thinner (3-10 km), in mountainous areas it reaches 70 km. The earth's crust consists of three layers: basalt, granite and sedimentary. The composition of the earth's crust: oxygen (49%), silicon (26%), aluminum (7%), iron (5%), calcium (4%); the most common minerals are feldspar and quartz. The boundary between the earth's crust and mantle is called the Moho surface (named after the Yugoslav scientist A. Mohorovichich).
Rocks that make up the earth's crust
By definition, a stable composition of a set of minerals located in different states of aggregation. By origin, igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic, volcanic and metastatic rocks are distinguished.
Igneous rocks are formed during the cooling and crystallization of magma, which penetrates into the earth's crust along cracks. They make up about 60% of the earth's crust. If their formation occurred at a greater depth without reaching the surface, then such rocks are called intrusive. They cool slowly, crystallization takes a long time, and coarse-grained rocks (granite, diorite, gabbro) are obtained. If magma has erupted and solidified on the surface of the earth, then eruptive rocks are formed. Due to the relatively rapid cooling, small crystals are formed in the rock, for example: basalt, andesite, liparite. Igneous rocks are usually composed of silicates (S1O2). They are divided into ultrabasic (silica less than 40%), basic (silica from 40% to 50%), medium (silica from 50-65%) and acidic (silica more than 65%).
Sedimentary rocks arose by the deposition of matter in the aquatic environment, less often from the air and as a result of the activity of glaciers. They make up 75% of the thickness of the earth's crust and 10% of its mass, usually occur in layers. According to the conditions of formation, sedimentary rocks are divided into the following categories:
- Clastic, arose during the destruction of another type of rock - sand, sandstone, clay,
- Chemical, resulted from chemical reactions in aqueous solutions - salts, gypsum, phosphorites,
- Organic, arose as a result of the accumulation of lime or plant residues - limestone, chalk, peat, coal.
Metamorphic rocks are formed as a result of changes in sedimentary or igneous rocks with a complete or partial change in their mineral composition and structure. These include gneisses (transformed granite), quartzites (transformed sandstone), marble (altered limestone), and various ores.
Volcanic rocks are formed as a result of volcanic eruptions. There are erupted, or effusive (basalt, andesite, trachyte, liparite, diabase) and volcanic-detrital, or pyroclastic (tuffs, volcanic breccias) volcanic rocks.
Metasomatic rocks are formed as a result of metasomatism. At the same time, the following stages of their formation occur: early alkaline (magnesian and calcareous skarns), acidic (geysers and secondary quartzites), late alkaline (berezite, listvenite).
Due to the unevenness of the earth's surface, land and ocean are distinguished in its structure. Within their limits are grandiose mountain ranges and deep oceanic depressions, vast plains and underwater plateaus, lowlands, gullies, hollows, barkhans, etc.
The earth's crust has unequal thickness, composition, structure on the continents and under the oceans. Distinguish between continental, oceanic and transitional crust.
The continental crust is three-layered (a layer of sedimentary rocks, granite, basalt), its thickness on the plains is 30-50 km, in the mountains - up to 70-80 km. The oceanic crust is thinner (5-15 km) and consists of two layers - upper sedimentary and lower basalt. On the border of the continents and oceans, in the areas of the islands, the thickness of the earth's crust is 15-30 km, the granite layer is wedged out, the earth's crust is of a transitional nature.
The transitional crust is an intermediate zone between the continental and oceanic crust, its thickness varies between 30-50 km.
The earth's crust is in constant motion. The first hypothesis about the drift of the continents (i.e., the horizontal movement of the earth's crust) was put forward at the beginning of the 20th century by A. Wegener. On its basis, a theory was created. According to this theory, it is not a monolith, but consists of seven large and several smaller plates, "floating" on the asthenosphere. border areas between lithospheric plates called seismic belts - these are the most "restless" areas of the planet.
The earth's crust is divided into stable and mobile sections.
Stable areas of the earth's crust - platforms - are formed at the site of geosynclines that have lost their mobility. The platform consists of a crystalline basement and a sedimentary cover. Depending on the age of the foundation, ancient (Precambrian) and young (Paleozoic, Mesozoic) platforms are distinguished. Ancient platforms lie at the base of all continents.
Mobile, highly dissected parts of the earth's surface are called geosynclines (folded areas). Two stages are distinguished in their development: at the first stage, the earth's crust experiences subsidence, accumulation of sedimentary rocks and their metamorphosis. Then the uplift of the earth's crust begins, the rocks are crushed into folds. There were several epochs of intensive mountain building on Earth: Baikal, Caledonian, Hercynian, Mesozoic, Cenozoic. In accordance with this, different areas of folding are distinguished.
The distribution and age of platforms and geosynclines is shown on a tectonic map (a map of the structure of the earth's crust).
(from French relief, lat. televo - I raise) - a set of irregularities in the earth's surface. The relief is composed of positive (convex) and negative (concave) shapes. The largest negative landforms on Earth are the depressions of the oceans, the positive ones are the continents. This is first order. Landforms of the second order - and (both on land and at the bottom of the oceans). The surface of mountains and plains has a complex relief, consisting of smaller forms.
Morphostructures are large elements of the relief of the land, the bottom of the oceans and seas, the leading role in the formation of which belongs to endogenous processes. The largest irregularities on the Earth's surface form protrusions of the continents and depressions of the oceans. The largest land relief elements are flat-platform and mountainous areas.
Plain-platform areas include flat parts of ancient and young platforms and occupy about 64% of the land area. Among the flat-platform areas there are low, with absolute heights of 100-300 m (East European, West Siberian, Turan, North American plains), and high, raised by the latest movements of the crust to a height of 400-1000 m (, African-Arabian , Hindustan, large parts of the Australian and South American plains).
Mountainous areas occupy about 36% of the land area.
The underwater margin of the continent (about 14% of the Earth's surface) includes a shallow, flat, as a whole strip of the continental shelf (shelf), the continental slope, and the continental foot located at depths from 2500 to 6000 m. The continental slope and the continental foot separate the protrusions of the continents, formed by the combination of land and shelf, from the main part of the ocean floor, called the ocean floor.
The island arc zone is the transitional zone of the ocean floor. The actual ocean bed (about 40% of the Earth's surface) is mostly occupied by deep-water (average depth 3-4 thousand m) plains, which correspond to oceanic platforms.
Elements of the relief of the earth's surface, in the formation of which the leading role belongs to exogenous processes. The work of rivers and temporary streams plays the greatest role in the formation of morphosculptures. They create widespread fluvial (erosion and accumulative) forms (river valleys, gullies, ravines, etc.). Great distribution have glacial forms due to the activity of modern and ancient glaciers, especially the sheet type ( Northern part Eurasia and North America). They are represented by trough valleys, "ram's foreheads" and "curly" rocks, moraine ridges, eskers, etc. In the vast territories of Asia and North America, where permafrost rock strata are widespread, various forms of permafrost (cryogenic) relief are developed.
The largest landforms are the protrusions of the continents and the depressions of the oceans. Their distribution depends on the presence of a granite layer in the earth's crust.
The main landforms are mountains and plains. Approximately 60% of the land is occupied by plains - vast areas of the earth's surface with relatively small (up to 200 m) elevation fluctuations. According to the absolute height, the plains are divided into lowlands (height 0-200 m), highlands (200-500 m) and plateaus (above 500 m). By the nature of the surface - flat, hilly, stepped.
Mountains - elevations of the earth's surface (more than 200 m) with clearly defined slopes, soles, peaks. By appearance mountains are subdivided into mountain ranges, chains, ridges and mountainous countries. Separate mountains are rare, representing either volcanoes or the remains of ancient destroyed mountains. The morphological elements of mountains are: the base, or sole; slopes; peak or ridge (near ridges).
The sole of the mountain is the boundary between its slopes and the surrounding area, and it is quite clearly expressed. With a gradual transition from the plains to the mountains, a strip is distinguished, which is called the foothills.
The slopes occupy most of the surface of the mountains and are extremely varied in appearance and steepness.
Top - highest point mountains (mountain ranges), the pointed peak of a mountain - a peak.
Mountain countries ( mountain systems) - large mountain structures, which consist of mountain ranges - linearly elongated mountain rises intersecting slopes. The points of connection and intersection of mountain ranges form mountain nodes. These are usually the highest parts of mountainous countries. Decrease between two mountain ranges called the mountain valley.
Highlands - areas of mountainous countries, consisting of heavily destroyed ridges and high plains covered with destruction products.
According to the height, the mountains are divided into low (up to 1000 m), medium-low (1000-2000 m), high (more than 2000 m). According to the structure, folded, folded-block and blocky mountains are distinguished. By geomorphological age, young, rejuvenated and revived mountains are distinguished. On land, mountains of tectonic origin predominate, in the oceans - volcanic.
(from Latin vulcanus - fire, flame) - a geological formation that occurs above channels and cracks in the earth's crust, through which lava, ash, combustible gases, water vapor and rock fragments erupt onto the earth's surface. There are active, dormant and extinct volcanoes. The volcano consists of four main parts: magma chamber, vent, cone and crater. There are about 600 volcanoes all over the world. Most of them are found along plate boundaries, where red-hot magma rises from the Earth's interior and erupts to the surface.
A typical volcano is a hill with a pipe passing through its thickness, called a volcano vent, with a magma chamber (magma accumulation area), from which the vent rises. In addition to the vent, small channels with magma, called sils and dikes, can also extend from the magma chamber. When a magma chamber creates high pressure, up the vent rises and is thrown into the air a mixture of magma and hard stones - lava. This phenomenon is called a volcanic eruption. If the lava is very thick, it can solidify in the vent of the volcano, forming a plug. However, enormous pressure from below explodes the cork, spewing large blocks of rock called volcanic bombs high into the air. After each lava hardens into a solid crust. Volcanic hills with steep slopes are called conical, with gentle slopes - shield. Modern active volcanoes: Klyuchevskaya Sopka, Avachinskaya Sopka (,), Isalko (), Mauna Loa (Hawaii), etc.
Geological chronology - the doctrine of the chronological sequence of formation and age of rocks that make up the earth's crust. Geological processes occur over many millennia. Selection various stages and periods in the life of the Earth is based on the sequence of accumulation of sedimentary rocks. The time in which each of the five groups of rocks accumulated is called an era. The last three eras are divided into periods, because in the sediments of these times, the remains of animals and plants are better preserved. In the eras there were eras of activation of mountain-building processes - folding.
There are relative and e. Relative age is easily established in the case of horizontal occurrence of rock layers within one opening. It is rather difficult to determine the absolute age of the rocks. To do this, they use the method of radioactive decay of a number of elements, the principle of which does not change under the action of external conditions and goes with constant speed. This method was introduced into science at the beginning of the 20th century by Pierre Curie and Ernest Rutherford. Depending on the final products decay emit lead, helium, argon, calcium, strontium and radiocarbon methods.
Geological scale
| eras | Periods | folding | Events |
| Cenozoic. 68 million years | Quaternary, 2 million years | Alpine folding | Formation of the modern relief under the influence of massive land uplift. Glaciation, sea level change. Human Origins. |
| Neogene, 25 million years | Powerful volcanic eruptions, uplift of the mountains of the Alpine folding. Mass distribution of flowering plants. | ||
| Paleogene, 41 million years | Destruction of mountains, flooding of young platforms by the seas. Development of birds and mammals. | ||
| Mesozoic, 170 million years | Chalky. 75 million years | Mesozoic folding | Rise of the destroyed mountains formed in the Baikal folding. The disappearance of giant reptiles. Origin of angiosperms. |
| Jurassic, 60 Ma | The emergence of faults on the continents, the massive input of igneous rocks. The beginning of the outcrop of the bed of modern seas. Hot humid climate. | ||
| Triassic. 35 million years | The retreat of the seas and the increase in land area. Weathering and lowering of the Paleozoic mountains. Formation of a flat relief. | ||
| Paleozoic. 330 million years | Permian, 45 Ma | Hercynian folding | The end of the Hercynian orogeny, the intensive development of life in the mountains. The appearance on land of amphibians, simple reptiles and insects. |
| Carboniferous, 65 Ma | Dropping sushi. Glaciation on the continents of the Southern Hemisphere. Expansion of swamp areas. The emergence of a tropical climate. Intensive development of amphibians. | ||
| Devonian, 55 Ma | Caledonian folding | Retreat of the seas. Accumulation on land of thick red layers of continental sediment. The predominance of a hot dry climate. Intensive development of fish, the emergence of life from the sea to land. The emergence of amphibians, open seeds. | |
| Silurian, 35 million years | Beginning of the Caledonian folding | Rising sea levels, the appearance of fish. | |
| Ordovician, 60 Ma | Strong volcanic eruptions, decrease. An increase in the number of invertebrates, the appearance of the first invertebrates. | ||
| Cambrian. 70 million years | Baikal folding | The sinking of the land and the appearance of large marshy massifs. Invertebrates are intensively developing in the seas. | |
| Proterozoic, 2 billion years | Beginning of Baikal folding | Powerful volcanic eruptions. Formation of foundations of ancient platforms. Development of bacteria and blue-green algae. | |
| Archean. 1 billion years | The beginning of the formation of the continental crust and the intensification of magmatic processes. Powerful volcanic eruptions. The first appearance of life is the period of bacteria. | ||
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Control tasks for testing knowledge in the 7th grade.
Test on the topic "Nature of the Earth".
I option.
What parts of the earth's crust are mountains? Why? Give examples.
What is the difference between the equatorial climate zone and the subequatorial one? Compare with the following features:
a) where they are
b) air temperature
c) pressure (summer and winter)
e) weather (summer and winter)
3. Explain the dependence of the Ob River on the relief and climate.
4. From the list of rivers, select the rivers of the Northern Arctic Ocean: Amur, Lena, Volga, Pechora, Ob, Huanghe, Yangtze, Yenisei.
5. What is biomass, fertility, fauna?
II option.
What parts of the earth's crust are the plains confined to? Why? Give examples.
What is the difference between a tropical climate zone and a subtropical one? Compare with the following features:
a) where they are
b) air temperature
c) pressure (summer and winter)
d) air masses (summer and winter)
e) weather (summer and winter)
3. Explain the dependence of the Yenisei River on the relief and climate.
4. From the list of rivers, select the rivers Pacific Ocean: Amur, Lena, Volga, Pechora, Ob, Huanghe, Yangtze, Yenisei.
5. What is biomass, soil, flora?
Test on the topic: "South America ».
1 option.
1.B South America located greatest plain globe:
a) La Plata lowland b) Brazilian plateau c) Amazonian lowland
2. Which ocean basin does the Amazon River belong to:
a) Pacific b) Atlantic c) Indian
3. According to the structural features of the earth's crust, South America is most similar to:
a) Africa b) Australia c) Antarctica
4. The Andes mountains formed during folding:
5. Place of raising the foundation Yu.-A. platforms in relief corresponds to:
a) the Brazilian plateau b) the Amazonian lowland.
6. For most of Yu. A., moisture is brought from the ocean: a) Pacific b) Atlantic c) Indian
7. If 2000-3000 mm of precipitation falls on the territory, distributed evenly throughout the year, then this is: a) the Amazonian lowland b) the Orinoco lowland c) the Brazilian plateau.
8. Match:
2) Amazon b) December-January
3) Orinoco c) all year round
9. Most of the Amazonian lowland is occupied by: a) selva b) llanos c) campos
10. The rich species composition of the vegetation of equatorial forests is explained by: a) the constancy of climatic conditions b) the position of the mainland in the southern hemisphere c) a large amount of heat and moisture throughout the year
11* Why is South America the wettest continent on Earth?
Test on the topic: "South America".
Option 2.
1. Compared to Africa and Australia, the relief of South America is: a) more diverse b) less diverse c) the same
2. At about the same time as the Andes, the following formed: a) the Cape Mountains b) the Great Dividing Range c) the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula
3. Places of subsidence of the foundation of the South American platform in the relief correspond to: a) the Guiana plateau b) the Amazonian lowland
4. Moisture is brought to most of South America by: a) trade winds b) monsoons c) westerly winds temperate latitudes
5. If the average temperatures in January and July are 24-26 degrees, then these are: a) the Amazonian lowland b) La Plata lowland. c) Brazilian plateau
6. Match:
River 1) Parana High water time a) June July
2) Amazon b) December-January
3) Orinoco c) all year round
7. The Amazon is the most full-flowing river in the world, which is explained by:
a) climate features b) climate and relief features
8. Most of the Brazilian Plateau is occupied by: a) Llanos b) Campos c) Selva
9. Plants of humid equatorial forests do not have a period of friendly leaf fall. This is due to: a) warm winters b) wet summers c) no seasons of the year
11* How is the influence of natural and historical conditions to accommodate the population of South America?
Test on the topic “Australia. Antarctica".Option 1.
1. At the base of most of Australia is located: a) an area of ancient folding b) an ancient platform.
2. The Great Dividing Range in height refers to the mountains: a) high b) medium-altitude c) low.
3. In the north of Australia there is a climatic zone: a) subequatorial b) tropical c) subtropical.
4. On the windward slopes of the Great Dividing Range, precipitation falls: a) mostly in winter b) mostly in summer c) evenly throughout the year.
5. Restore the chain of cause and effect relationships:
A. Most of the mainland is desert.
B. Mountains trap moist air masses.
B. There is little rainfall.
6. Uniqueness organic world mainland due to the fact that Australia: a) the driest mainland; b) long ago separated from other continents; c) there are no glaciers and active volcanoes.
7. The population on the territory of the mainland is located: a) unevenly; b) evenly.
8. At the base of most of Antarctica is located: a) an ancient platform; b) area of ancient folding; c) area of young folding.
9. main reason cold climate in Antarctica is: a) the presence of an ice dome; b) features geographical location.
10*. What is main feature Australian climate? What are the reasons for it?
eleven*. Is the statement true: "Antarctica is the highest of the continents." Why?
Test on the topic “Australia. Antarctica"Option 2.
1. In addition to the ancient platform at the base of Australia, there is: a) an area of ancient folding
b) area of new folding.
2. The Great Dividing Range in its structure belongs to the mountains: a) folded b) folded-blocky c) volcanic.
3. Most of Australia is occupied by the climatic zone: a) subequatorial b) tropical c) subtropical.
4. Restore the chain of cause and effect relationships:
A. Mountains trap moist air masses from the ocean.
B. There are forests on the eastern slopes of the Great Dividing Range.
C. There is a lot of precipitation on the windward slopes of the mountains.
5. The uniqueness of the organic world of the mainland is explained by the fact that Australia: a) the smallest of the continents b) long ago separated from other continents and is isolated c) the driest mainland.
6. The indigenous population of Australia lives mainly: a) in the southeast of the mainland b) in the central part.
7. Antarctica is washed by the oceans: a) Pacific and Atlantic b) Pacific, Atlantic and Indian.
8. At the base of the Antarctic Peninsula there are: a) the Antarctic platform b) an area of ancient folding c) an area of young folding.
9. The main reason for the insignificant amount of precipitation in the territory of Antarctica is: a) the predominance of high atmospheric pressure b) remoteness of the central parts from the ocean.
10.* What is the main feature of the climate of Antarctica? What are the reasons for it?
eleven*. Is the statement true: "Australia is the driest continent on Earth." Why?
Option 1.
1. Choose a continent that is washed only by the Indian and Atlantic oceans?
2 . Set match:
A. Linear a) currents
B. Lines of motion b) Isotherms
B. Contours c) rivers
3. Please indicate the most common religion:
4. Choose the most Big City: a) Tokyo b) London c) Moscow
d) Kostroma
5*
6. Put the countries in order of increasing area:
A) USA b) India c) Russia d) Germany
7
8* . What parts of the earth's crust are mountains? Why?
Give examples.
9
10*
11 .
12 . Name a river that does not belong to the Arctic Ocean basin:
A) Amazon b) Ob c) Yenisei d) Pechora
13 . Camel - inhabitant natural area: a) taiga b) desert c) tundra
d) savannas
14. The deepest ocean: a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
15 The seas (Mediterranean, Black, Caribbean) belong to the ocean:
Control work for the 1st half of the year.
Option 2.
1.
a) Australia b) Eurasia c) Africa d) South America
2 . Set match:
Types of conventional signs. What is shown.
A. Linear a) rivers
B. Lines of motion b) Isotherms
B. Isolines c) currents
3. What is the most common religion in North Africa:
A) Christianity b) Islam c) Buddhism d) Judaism
4. Choose the largest city: a) New York b) London c) Moscow
d) Kostroma
5* Name at least 5 features that distinguish a rural settlement from a city.
6.
A) USA b) India c) Russia d) China
7 . The moving parts of the earth's crust are called:
A) folded areas b) platforms c) relief
8* . What parts of the earth's crust are the plains confined to? Why?
Give examples.
9
10* . Determine the climatic zone according to the following criteria: t +24 in summer; t in winter + 24; more than 1000 mm of precipitation falls, there is constantly low pressure
11 . Indicate cold currents: a) Kuroshio b) Peruvian c) Canarian
d) Gulf Stream e) Western winds
12 . Name a river that does not belong to the Atlantic Ocean basin:
A) Amazon b) Ob c) Mississippi d) Congo
13
d) savannas
14. The warmest ocean: a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
15 The seas (Barents, Kara, East Siberian) belong to the ocean:
a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
Control work for the 1st half of the year.
Option 3
1. Choose a continent that is washed only by the Pacific and Atlantic oceans?
a) Australia b) Eurasia c) Africa d) South America
2 . Set match:
Types of conventional signs. What is shown.
A. Isolines a) currents
B. Lines of motion b) Isotherms
B. Linear c) rivers
3. What is the most common religion in South-East Asia:
A) Christianity b) Islam c) Buddhism d) Judaism
4. Choose the largest city: a) Mexico City b) London c) Moscow
d) Kostroma
5* Name at least 5 features that distinguish the city from rural settlement.
6. Put the countries in order of increasing population:
A) USA b) China c) Russia d) Germany
7 . The stable areas of the earth's crust are called:
A) folded areas b) platforms c) relief
8* . What areas of the earth's crust are mountains and plains confined to?
Give examples.
9 . Wettest latitudes on Earth:
A) equatorial b) temperate c) arctic
10* . Determine the climatic zone according to the following criteria: t +32 in summer; t in winter + 16; rainfall is less than 100 mm, there is constantly high pressure
11 . Indicate the warm currents: a) Curoshio b) Peruvian c) North Atlantic d) Gulf Stream e) Western wind current
12 . Name a river that does not belong to the Pacific Ocean:
A) Cupid b) Ob c) Yangtze d) Huanghe
13 . The arctic fox is an inhabitant of the natural zone: a) taiga b) desert c) tundra
d) savannas
14. The coldest ocean: a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
15 The seas (Bering, Okhotsk, Japanese) belong to the ocean:
a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
Option 1
1. The more elevated part of Africa is:
a) north b) south and east c) north and west
a) it is the driest continent b) has long been separated from other continents and is located in isolation c) has no glaciers and active volcanoes.
a) ancient b) middle c) new
6. There is no river in South America:
9. Match:
Platform Plain
a) Africa b) Antarctica
a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
d) Gulf Stream e) Western winds
17 Giraffe is an inhabitant of the natural zone: a) taiga b) desert c) tundra
d) savannas
19. Choose a continent that is washed only by the Indian and Pacific oceans?
a) Australia b) Eurasia c) Africa d) South America
20 . The driest latitudes on Earth:
A) equatorial b) tropical c) temperate
Translational attestation work (test)
Option 2
1. The more elevated part of Australia is:
a) western b) northern c) eastern d) southern
2. The minimum amount of precipitation in Africa falls:
a) near the equator b) in the region of the northern tropic c) along the ocean coasts
3. The uniqueness of the organic world of Australia is explained by the fact that
a) it is the driest continent b) separated from other continents long ago c) has no glaciers and active volcanoes.
4. The main reason for the cold climate of Antarctica is:
a) the presence of an ice dome b) geographical features c) the proximity of cold seas
5. The Andes Mountains Formed During Folding
a) new b) ancient c) middle
6. A river flows in South America:
a) Indus b) Mississippi c) Orinoco d) Congo
7. Distribute landforms as their altitude increases in South America:
a) Andes b) Orinoco lowland c) Brazilian plateau
8. Native North Americans include:
a) Indians b) Eskimos and Indians c) Indians, Eskimos and Negroes
9. Match:
Platform Plain
1) Sibirskaya A. Central Siberian Plateau
2) Indian B. Great Chinese
3) Sino-Korean In the Deccan Plateau
10 Name the extreme east point North America and determine its coordinates
11. From this list (giraffe, llama, kangaroo, penguin, hare, rhinoceros, koala, echidna, fox, armadillo, puma, arctic fox, platypus, lion, condor, skua) select animals
a) Africa b) Antarctica
12. Why is the amount of precipitation in the interior of North America much less than on the coast of the oceans?
Why is Australia the driest continent?
14. The Atlas Mountains are located in: a) Africa; b) Australia c) South America d) Eurasia
15 Seas (Barents, Kara, East Siberian) belong to the ocean:
a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
16. Indicate cold currents: a) Kuroshio b) Peruvian c) Canary
d) Gulf Stream e) Western winds
17 Giraffe is an inhabitant of the natural zone: a) taiga b) desert c) tundra
d) savannas
18 Determine the climatic zone according to the following features: t +24 in summer; t in winter + 24; more than 1000 mm of precipitation falls, there is constantly low pressure
19. Choose a continent that is washed only by the Indian and Pacific oceans?
a) Australia b) Eurasia c) Africa d) South America
20 . The driest latitudes on Earth:
A) equatorial b) tropical c) temperate
Translational attestation work (test)
Option 3
1. The more elevated part of Asia is:
2. The maximum amount of precipitation in Australia falls:
a) near the equator b) in the region of the southern tropic c) along the coast of the Pacific Ocean d) along the coast indian ocean.
3. Which of the following countries is most likely to experience earthquakes?
a) Finland b) Japan c) Poland d) Brazil
4. The main reason for the cold climate of Antarctica is:
a) the presence of an ice dome b) geographical features c) the proximity of cold seas
a) ancient b) middle c) new
6. A river flows in Africa:
a) Parana b) Orinoco c) Niger d) Ucayali
7. Distribute landforms as their altitude decreases in North America:
8. Native North Americans include:
a) Indians b) Eskimos and Indians c) Indians, Eskimos and Negroes
9. Match:
Platform Plain
1) Sibirskaya A. Central Siberian Plateau
3) Sino-Korean In the Deccan Plateau
10 Name the extreme northern point Eurasia and determine its coordinates
a) Australia b) North America
13 Why is Africa the hottest continent on Earth?
14 The Alps are located in: a) Africa; b) Australia c) South America d) Eurasia
a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
16. Determine the climatic zone according to the following criteria: t +24 in summer; t in winter + 24; more than 1000 mm of precipitation falls, there is constantly low pressure
17. Choose a continent that is washed only by the Pacific and Atlantic oceans?
a) Australia b) Eurasia c) Africa d) South America
18. Arctic fox - an inhabitant of the natural zone: a) taiga b) desert c) tundra
d) savannas
19. Indicate warm currents: a) Kuroshio b) Peruvian c) Canary
d) Gulf Stream e) Western winds
20.
A) equatorial b) tropical c) arctic
Translational attestation work (test)
Option 4
1. The more elevated part of South America is:
a) northern b) southern c) western d) central
2. The minimum amount of precipitation in Australia falls:
a) near the equator b) in the region of the southern tropic c) along the Pacific coast
3. Africa is: a) the driest continent b) the wettest continent c) the coldest continent d) the hottest continent
4. The main reason for the cold climate of Antarctica is:
a) the presence of an ice dome b) geographical features c) the proximity of cold seas
5 The Appalachian Mountains Formed During Orogenation
a) ancient b) middle c) new
6. A river flows in Africa:
a) Parana b) Orinoco c) Niger d) Ucayali
7. Distribute landforms as their altitude increases in North America:
a) Appalachians b) Cordilleras c) Central Plains d) Great Plains
8. Native North Americans include:
a) Indians b) Eskimos and Indians c) Indians, Eskimos and Negroes
9. Match:
Platform Plain
1) Sibirskaya A. Central Siberian Plateau
2) Indian B. Great Plain of China
3) Sino-Korean In the Deccan Plateau
11. From this list (giraffe, skunk, kangaroo, penguin, musk ox, rhinoceros, koala, echidna, fox, armadillo, puma, arctic fox, platypus, lion, condor, skua) select animals
a) Antarctica b) North America
12 Explain the causes of earthquakes in Japan.
14. The Andes mountains are located in: a) Africa; b) Australia c) South America d) Eurasia
15. Seas (Okhotsk, Japanese, Bering) belong to the ocean:
a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
16. Determine the climatic zone according to the following criteria: t +32 in summer; t in winter + 16; rainfall is less than 100 mm, there is constantly high pressure
17. Choose a continent that is washed by all the oceans?
a) Australia b) Eurasia c) Africa d) South America
18 The brown bear is an inhabitant of the natural zone: a) taiga b) desert c) tundra
d) savannas
19. Indicate warm currents: a) Kuroshio b) Peruvian c) Canary
d) Gulf Stream e) Western winds
20. The driest latitudes on Earth:
A) equatorial b) tropical c) arctic
Translational attestation work (test)
Option 5
1. The more elevated part of North America is:
a) northern b) southern c) western d) central
2. The maximum amount of precipitation in Africa falls:
a) near the equator b) in the region of the southern tropic c) along the ocean coasts
3. Australia is: a) the driest continent b) the wettest continent c) the coldest continent d) the hottest continent
4. The main reason for the cold climate of Antarctica is:
a) the presence of an ice dome b) geographical features c) the proximity of cold seas
5. The Himalayas formed during folding
a) ancient b) middle c) new
6. A river flows in Eurasia:
a) Murray b) Huang He c) Niger d) Amazon
7. Distribute landforms as their height above sea level increases
a) Appalachians b) Andes c) Central Plains d) Central Siberian Plateau
8. Native North Americans include:
a) Indians b) Eskimos and Indians c) Indians, Eskimos and Negroes
9. Match:
Platform Plain
1) Sibirskaya A. Central Siberian Plateau
2) Indian B. Great Plain of China
3) Sino-Korean In the Deccan Plateau
10 Name the extreme south point Eurasia and determine its coordinates
11. From this list (giraffe, skunk, kangaroo, penguin, musk ox, rhinoceros, koala, echidna, fox, armadillo, puma, arctic fox, platypus, lion, condor, skua) select animals
a) Australia b) South America
12. Why is the amount of precipitation in the interior of Eurasia much less than on the coast of the oceans?
Why is Antarctica the coldest continent?
14. The Great Dividing Range is located in: a) Africa; b) Australia c) South America d) Eurasia
15. Seas (Okhotsk, Japanese, Bering) belong to the ocean:
a) Indian b) Atlantic c) Pacific d) Arctic Ocean
16. Determine the climatic zone according to the following features: t in summer +24; t in winter + 24; more than 1000 mm of precipitation falls, there is constantly low pressure
17. Choose a continent that is washed only by the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic Ocean?
a) Australia b) Eurasia c) Africa d) North America
18 The elephant is an inhabitant of the natural zone: a) taiga b) desert c) tundra
d) savannas
19. Specify warm current: a) Western wind current b) Peruvian c) Canarian
d) Gulf Stream
20. The coldest latitudes on Earth:
A) equatorial b) tropical c) arctic d) temperate
"Nature of the Russian Plain" - With the rich, fertile black soil. Inland waters. Nomenclature. Taiga. At the base of the Russian Plain lies an ancient Precambrian platform. Appendix. The plain that has become our favorite home. Major natural area. Here is the cradle of the Russian people, Which was woven by nature itself. Tundra.
"Plains Grade 6" - Grade 6. Lesson topic: Land plains.
"Plains of land" - Plains of land. We are working with the map. A plain is a piece of land. What rocks make up the surface of the plain? It is formed from the skeletons and shells of the dead inhabitants of the ancient seas. Plain. Mark on the scale the height corresponding to the lowland, upland, plateau. The difference between the plains in height. Smooth Hilly Below the mountains Weakly dissected.
"Territory of the Russian Plain" - Russian Plain. Journey through the territory of the Russian Plain. Kalmykia. On what tectonic structure is the plain located? What will we study today in the lesson? Volga. Compile a tourist brochure "On the Russian Plain". 8th grade Natural complexes Russia. Creative task on the topic. Why are there so many wonderful corners of nature in this area?
"Plains" - Lowlands (up to 200 m). Define geographic features: Erupted lava flows (Central Siberian Plateau). Planation. Exposure and uplift of the seabed (Caspian lowland). From river sediments and sediments (La Plata). Plains, the absolute height of which does not exceed 200 meters, are called lowlands.