Geoid- the true shape of the Earth. The annual movement of the Earth around the Sun occurs in its orbit. The earth's axis is constantly tilted to the plane of the earth's orbit at an angle of 66.5 °. As a result of this tilt, each point on the Earth meets the sun's rays at angles that change throughout the year, so the seasons change, and the length of the day and night in different parts of the planet is not the same.
Winter solstice (December 22), on this day the Sun is at its zenith over the Southern Tropic. At this time, there is a polar night to the north of the Arctic Circle, and a polar day to the south of the Arctic Circle.
Summer Solstice (June 22), on this day the Sun is at its zenith over the Northern Tropic. The southern hemisphere has the shortest day at this time, with a polar day north of the Arctic Circle and a polar night south of the Arctic Circle.
Equinox days (March 21 - spring, September 23 - autumn), these days the Sun is at its zenith above the equator, the length of the day and night are the same.
Earth Is a planet Solar system, has a natural satellite - the Moon.
Polar circles(Arctic Circle and South Arctic Circle) - parallels, respectively, north and south latitude - 66.5 °.
The daily rotation of the Earth occurs around an imaginary axis, counterclockwise. Its consequence is the compression of the Earth at the poles, as well as the deviation of the direction of movement of winds, sea currents, etc.
Tropics- (North and South) - parallels, respectively, north and south latitude 23.5 °. At all latitudes between the tropics, the Sun is at its zenith twice a year. On the tropics themselves, once - on the day of the summer (June 22) and winter (December 22) solstice, respectively. The Tropic of the North is the Tropic of Cancer. The southern tropic is the tropic of Capricorn.
General information about the Earth
Lithosphere
Basic concepts, processes, patterns and their consequences
Volcanoes- geological formations that have a cone-shaped or dome-shaped form. Volcanoes, about the eruption of which there is historical data, are called acting, those about which there is no information - extinct.
Geochronology- designation of the time and sequence of education rocks... If the bedding of rocks is not disturbed, then each layer is younger than the one on which it lies. The upper layer was formed later than all those lying below. The oldest interval of geological time, including the Archean and Proterozoic, is called Precambrian... It covers almost 90% of all geological history Earth.
In the geological history of the Earth, there are several epochs of intense mountain building (folding) - Baikal, Caledonian, Hercynian, Mesozoic, Cenozoic.
The mountains- areas of the earth's surface with large sharp fluctuations in heights. The absolute height is distinguished high mountains(above 2000 m), average(from 1000 to 2000 m), low(up to 1000 m).
Earth's crust (ZK)- the upper hard layered shell of the Earth, heterogeneous and complex, its thickness ranges from 30 km (under the plains) to 90 km (under high mountains). There are two types crust — oceanic and continental (mainland)... The continental crust has three layers: upper - sedimentary (youngest), middle - "granite" and lower - "basalt" (the oldest). Its thickness reaches 70 km under the mountain systems. The oceanic crust has a thickness of 5-10 km, consists of "basalt" and sedimentary layers, it is heavier than the continental one.
Lithosphere- the stone shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and upper part mantle and consists of large blocks - lithospheric plates... Lithospheric plates can carry continents and oceans, but their boundaries do not coincide. Lithospheric plates move slowly, along the faults, mid-ocean ridges are formed, in the axial part of which there are rifts.
Minerals- combinations of various chemical elements, which form natural bodies of homogeneous physical properties. Rocks are composed of minerals, which differ in origin.
Highlands- vast mountainous areas, characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and leveled areas, located high above sea level.
Island- a small (compared to the mainland) land area, surrounded on all sides by water. Archipelago- a group of islands. By origin, the islands are continental(offshore), volcanic and coral(atolls). The largest islands are mainland... Coral Islands are located in the tropical zone, because warm salt water is necessary for the life of corals.
Platform- a vast, inactive and most stable area of the earth's crust, in the relief they are usually expressed by plains. The mainland platforms have a two-tiered structure: a basement and a sedimentary cover. The areas where the crystalline basement emerges on the surface is called shields... Distinguish between ancient (Precambrian basement) and young (Paleozoic or Mesozoic basement) platforms.
Peninsula- a piece of land jutting into the sea.
Plain- a vast area of the earth's surface with small fluctuations in heights and slight slopes, confined to stable tectonic structures. According to the absolute height, among the plains they distinguish lowlands(up to 200 m above sea level), uplands(from 200 to 500 m), plateaus and plateau(over 500 m). By the nature of the relief, there are flat and hilly plains.
The relief of the bottom of the World Ocean- landforms of the ocean floor, developed within different types of the earth's crust. The first zone - the underwater margin of the continents (represented by the continental type of ZK) - consists of a shelf (up to 200 m), a relatively steep continental slope (up to 2500 m), turning into the continental foot. The second zone - transitional (at the junction of the continental and oceanic ZK) - consists of marginal seas, volcanic islands and deep sea trenches. The third is an ocean floor with an oceanic type ZK. The fourth zone stands out in the central parts of the ocean - these are mid-ocean ridges.
Relief- This is a set of forms of the earth's surface, different in outlines, origin, age and history of development. It is formed under the influence of internal and external factors.
Seismic belts- places of collision of lithospheric plates. In the process of their collision, the heavier ones (with the oceanic crust) sink under the less heavy ones (with the continental crust). In places where the downward bending slabs are formed deep sea trenches, and mountain building occurs on the edge (mountains appear on the continents, and islands appear in the oceans). Mountain building also occurs in places where plates collide with the same continental crust.
Exogenous processes (external)- geological processes occurring on the surface and in the upper parts of the earth's crust under the influence solar energy and gravity.
Endogenous processes (internal)- geological processes occurring in the bowels of the earth and due to its internal energy. Manifested in the form tectonic movements, seismic processes (earthquakes), volcanism.
Geochronological scale
| Eras and their indices, million years | Periods and their indices, million years | Folding | The main stages of life development |
| Cenozoic KZ, approx. 70 | Quaternary (anthropogenic) Q, approx. 2 Neogene N, 25 Paleogene R, 41 |
Cenozoic (alpine) | Dominance of angiosperms. The emergence of man. The flourishing of the mammalian fauna. The existence of natural zones close to modern ones. |
| Mesozoic MZ, 165 | Melovoy K, 70 Jurassic J, 50 Triassic T, 45 |
Mesozoic (Cimmerian) | The flourishing of gymnosperms and giant reptiles. The emergence of deciduous trees, birds and mammals. |
| Paleozoic PZ, 340 | Permsky R, 45 Coal S, 65 Devonian D, 55 Silurian S, 35 Ordovician O, 60 Cambrian C, 70 |
Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) Early Paleozoic (Caledonian) Baikal |
The flowering of spore plants. The time of fish and amphibians. The appearance of animals and plants on Earth. |
| Proterozoic PR, 2000 | There are no generally accepted subdivisions | Precambrian folding epochs | The origin of life in water. Time for bacteria and algae. |
Landforms created under the influence of exogenous processes
Hydrosphere
Basic concepts, processes, patterns and their consequences
River basin- the territory from which the river with its tributaries collects water.
Swamp- an excessively humid land area with moisture-loving vegetation and a layer of peat of at least 0.3 m. Water in swamps is in a bound state. There are two main types of swamps - upland (in which moisture comes only from atmospheric precipitation, dry up in their absence) and lowland (feed on ground or river waters, are relatively rich in salts). main reason formation of swamps - excessive moisture in combination with a high level of groundwater due to the close occurrence of water-resistant rocks and flat relief to the surface.
Watershed- the dividing line of the basins of two rivers or oceans, usually passing through elevated areas.
Sushi water- part of the hydrosphere, these include The groundwater, rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers.
Unrest- these are mainly oscillatory movements of water, which have a different nature (wind, tidal, seismic). Common to all types of waves is the oscillatory motion of water particles, in which the mass of water moves around one point.
Geysers- springs periodically emitting fountains of water and steam, which are a manifestation of the late stages of volcanism. Known in Iceland, USA, New Zealand, Kamchatka.
Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth. The total volume of water in the hydrosphere is 1.4 billion km 3, of which 96.5% falls on the World Ocean, 1.7% - on groundwater, about 1.8% - on glaciers, less than 0.01% - on surface waters land (rivers, lakes, swamps).
Delta- a low-lying plain in the lower reaches of the river, composed of sediments brought by the river and cut through by a network of channels.
The bay- a part of the ocean, sea or lake, cutting into the land and having a free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir. A small bay well sheltered from the wind is called by the bay... A bay separated from the sea by a sand spit, in which there is a narrow strait (often formed at the mouth of a river) - estuary... In the north of Russia, the bay, which juts deep into the land, into which the river flows, is called a lip. Deep, long bays with winding shores are fjords.
One or several rivers flow from the waste lakes (Baikal, Ontario, Victoria). Lakes that do not have a drain are closed (Caspian, Dead, Chad). Lakes without drainage are often saline (salt content is higher than 1 ‰). Depending on the degree of salinity, the lakes are insipid and salty.
Source- the place where the river originates (for example: a spring, lake, swamp, glacier in the mountains).
Glaciers- natural mobile ice accumulations formed from precipitation above snow line(the level above which the snow does not melt). The height of the snow line is determined by the temperature, which is associated with the latitude of the area and the degree of continentality of its climate, the amount of solid atmospheric precipitation. The glacier has an area of recharge (i.e., ice accumulation) and an area of ice melting. The ice in the glacier under the influence of gravity moves from the feeding area to the melting area at a rate of several tens of meters per year. The total area of glaciers is 11% of the land surface with a volume of 30 million km 3. If all the glaciers melted, the sea level would rise by 66 m.
Low water- a period of low water level in the river.
World Ocean- the main part of the hydrosphere, which accounts for 71% of the world's area (in the Northern Hemisphere - 61%, in the Southern - 81%). The oceans are conventionally divided into four oceans: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic. Some researchers distinguish the fifth - the Southern Ocean. It includes the waters of the Southern Hemisphere between Antarctica and the southern extremities of the continents of South America, Africa and Australia.
Permafrost- rocks in the upper part of the earth's crust that remain permanently frozen or thaw only in summer. Permafrost occurs at very low temperatures and low snow depth. The thickness of the permafrost layer can reach 600 m. The area of permafrost in the world is 35 million km 2, including 10 million km 2 in Russia.
Sea- a part of the ocean, more or less separated by islands, peninsulas or seamounts, characterized by a special hydrological regime. There are seas internal- deep inland (Mediterranean, Baltic) and outlying- adjacent to the mainland and slightly isolated from the ocean (Okhotsk, Beringovo).
Lake- a reservoir of delayed water exchange, located in a closed natural depression (basin) of the land surface. By origin, lake basins are divided into tectonic, volcanic, dam, glacial, karst, floodplain (oxbows), estuaries. According to the water regime, there are sewage and drainless.
Flood- short-term, irregular rise in water level.
The groundwater- water contained in the upper (12-16 km) thickness of the earth's crust in a liquid, solid and gaseous state. The possibility of finding water in the earth's crust is due to the porosity of rocks. Permeable rocks(gravel, pebbles, sands) are water permeable. Waterproof rocks- fine-grained, weakly or completely impermeable to water (clays, granites, basalts). According to the conditions of occurrence, groundwater is divided into soil(water bound in soil), groundwater (the first permanent aquifer from the surface, lying on the first impermeable horizon), interstratal waters(enclosed between impermeable horizons), including artesian(pressure interstratal).
Floodplain- part of the river valley, flooded during floods and floods. The slopes of the valley usually rise above the floodplain, often of a stepped shape - terraces.
High water- annually recurring period high level water in the river caused by the main source of food. Types of river feeding: rain, snow, glacial, underground.
Strait- a relatively narrow body of water that separates two land areas and connects adjacent water basins or parts of them. The deepest and widest strait is Drake, the longest is Mozambique.
River mode- regular changes in the state of the river, due to the physical and geographical properties of its basin and climatic features.
River- a constant stream of water flowing in a recess developed by him - mainstream.
River valley- a depression in the relief, at the bottom of which a river flows.
River system- a river with its tributaries. The name of the river system is given by the main river. The largest river systems in the world are the Amazon, Congo, Mississippi and Missouri, the Ob and the Irtysh.
Salinity of sea water- the amount of salts in grams, dissolved in 1 kg (l) of sea water. The average salinity of water in the ocean is 35 ‰, the maximum salinity is up to 42 ‰ in the Red Sea.
Temperature the water in the ocean depends on the amount of solar heat entering its surface. The average annual temperature of surface waters is 17.5 °, at a depth of 3000-4000 m it usually stays within the range from + 2 ° to 0 ° C.
Currents- translational movements water masses in the ocean arising from different forces... Currents can also be classified by temperature (warm, cold and neutral), by their lifetime (short-term, periodic and constant), depending on depth (surface, deep and bottom).
Estuary- the place where the river flows into the sea, lake or other river.
Estuary- funnel-shaped flooded mouth of the river, expanding towards the sea. It is formed near rivers flowing into the seas, where the impact of the movements of ocean waters (tides, waves, currents) on the river mouth is strong.
Lake types
Atmosphere
Basic concepts, processes, patterns and their consequences
Absolute humidity b - the amount of water vapor contained in 1 m 3 of air.
Anticyclone- a descending atmospheric vortex with a closed area of increased pressure, in which winds blow from the center to the periphery clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
Atmosphere- the air (gas) shell of the Earth, surrounding the globe and associated with it by gravity, taking part in the daily and annual movement of the Earth).
Precipitation- water in a liquid and solid state, falling out of clouds (rain, snow, drizzle, hail, etc.), as well as escaping from the air (dew, frost, rime, etc.) on the earth's surface and objects. The amount of precipitation in the territory depends on:
- air temperature (affects the evaporation and moisture capacity of the air);
- sea currents (above the surface warm currents the air heats up, saturated with moisture, rises up - precipitation is easily released from it. The opposite process takes place over cold currents - precipitation is not formed);
- atmospheric circulation (where air moves from sea to land, there is more precipitation);
- the heights of the location and the direction of the mountain ranges (the mountains prevent the passage of moist air masses, therefore, a large amount of precipitation falls on the windward slopes of the mountains);
- latitude of the area (for equatorial latitudes, a large amount of precipitation is characteristic, for tropical and polar ones - small);
- the degree of continentality of the territory (decreases when moving from the coast inland).
Atmospheric front t - zone of separation of air masses of different properties in the troposphere.
Wind- movement of air masses in the horizontal direction from areas of increased pressure to areas of reduced pressure. The wind is characterized by speed (km / h) and direction (its direction is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows, i.e. the north wind blows from north to south).
Air- a mixture of gases constituting earthly atmosphere... In terms of chemical composition, atmospheric air consists of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), inert gases (about 1%), carbon dioxide (0.03%). The upper atmosphere is dominated by hydrogen and helium. Percentage the amount of gases is almost constant, but the burning of oil, gas, coal, the destruction of forests leads to an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Air masses- large volumes of air in the troposphere with homogeneous properties (temperature, humidity, transparency, etc.) and moving as a whole. The properties of air masses are determined by the territory or water area over which they are formed. Due to the differences in humidity, two subtypes are distinguished - continental (mainland) and oceanic (marine). By temperature, four main (zonal) types of air masses are distinguished: equatorial, tropical, temperate, arctic (Antarctic).
Atmospheric pressure- This is the pressure exerted by air on the earth's surface and all objects on it. Normal atmospheric pressure at ocean level is 760 mm Hg. Art., with height, the value of normal pressure decreases. The pressure of warm air is less than that of cold air, since when heated, the air expands, and when cooled, it contracts. The general distribution of pressure on the Earth has a zonal character, the heating and cooling of air from the Earth's surface is accompanied by its redistribution and pressure change.
Isobars- lines on the map, connecting points with the same indicators of atmospheric pressure.
Isotherms- lines on the map connecting points with the same temperatures.
Evaporation(mm) - water vapor entering the atmosphere from the surface of water, snow, ice, vegetation, soil, etc.
Evaporation(mm) - the maximum amount of moisture that can evaporate in a given place under certain weather conditions (amount of solar heat, temperature).
Climate- long-term weather regime typical for the given area. The distribution of climate on Earth is zonal, there are several climatic zones - the largest subdivisions of the earth's surface in terms of climatic conditions, which have the character of latitudinal zones. They are distinguished according to the peculiarities of the temperature and precipitation regime. Main and transitional climatic zones are distinguished. The most important climatic factors are:
- geographical latitude of the area;
- circulation of the atmosphere;
- ocean currents;
- the absolute height of the terrain;
- remoteness from the ocean;
- the nature of the underlying surface.
Humidification factor Is the ratio of precipitation to evaporation. If the moisture coefficient is greater than 1, then the moisture is excessive, about 1 - normal, less than 1 - insufficient. Humidification, like precipitation, is distributed zonal on the earth's surface. Zones of tundra, forests of temperate and equatorial latitudes have excessive moisture, in semi-deserts and deserts - insufficient.
Relative humidity- the ratio (in percent) of the actual content of water vapor in 1 m 3 of air to the possible at a given temperature.
Greenhouse effect- the property of the atmosphere to transmit solar radiation to the earth's surface, but to retain the thermal radiation of the earth.
Direct radiation- radiation reaching the Earth's surface in the form of a beam of parallel rays emanating from the Sun. Its intensity depends on the height of the Sun and the transparency of the atmosphere.
Scattered radiation- radiation scattered in the atmosphere and going to the surface of the Earth from the entire firmament. It plays an essential role in the energy balance of the Earth, being in cloudy periods, especially in polar latitudes, the only source of energy in the earth's atmosphere.
Solar radiation- the whole set of solar radiation; measured in thermal units (the number of calories for a certain time per unit area). The amount of radiation depends on the length of the day at different times of the year and the angle of incidence of the sun's rays: the smaller the angle, the less solar radiation the surface receives, which means that the air above it heats up less. Total solar radiation is the sum of direct and scattered radiation. The amount of total solar radiation increases from the poles (60 kcal / cm 3 per year) to the equator (200 kcal / cm 3 per year), and its greatest indicators are observed in tropical deserts, since the amount of solar radiation is influenced by cloudiness and transparency of the atmosphere , the color of the underlying surface (for example, white snow reflects up to 90% of the sun's rays).
Cyclone- an ascending atmospheric vortex with a closed area of low pressure, in which winds blow from the periphery to the center counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
Circulation of the atmosphere- a system of air currents on the globe, which facilitates the transfer of heat and moisture from one region to another.
Brief description of the layers of the atmosphere
| Atmosphere layer | a brief description of |
| Troposphere |
|
| Stratosphere |
|
| Mesosphere |
|
| Thermosphere |
|
| Ionosphere |
|
Atmospheric pressure belts
Types of winds
| The winds | Distribution areas | Direction |
| Trade winds | Tropics (blowing from 30 latitudes towards the equator) | N-E (Northern Hemisphere), S-E (Southern Hemisphere) |
| Western transport winds | Moderate latitudes (30 to 60 latitudes) | Z, N-Z |
| Monsoons | East coasts Eurasia and North America | In the summer - from the ocean to the mainland, in the winter - from the mainland to the ocean |
| Stock winds | Antarctica | From the center of the mainland to the periphery |
| Breeze | Sea coasts | During the day - from sea to land, at night - from land to sea |
| Fyong | Mountain systems, especially the Alps, Pamir, Caucasus | From mountains to valleys |
Comparative characteristics of cyclone and anticyclone
| Signs | Cyclone | Anticyclone |
| Conditions of occurrence | When warm air invades cold air | When cold air invades warm |
| Central pressure | Low (reduced) | High (increased) |
| Air movement | Ascending, from the periphery to the center, counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern | Descending, from center to periphery, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern |
| The nature of the weather | Volatile, windy, precipitation | Clear, no precipitation |
| Influence on the weather | Reduces heat in summer and cold in winter, inclement and windy weather | Increases heat in summer and cold in winter, clear weather and calm |
Comparative characteristics of atmospheric fronts
Biosphere and natural complexes of the Earth
Basic concepts, processes, patterns and their consequences
Biosphere Is a collection of all living organisms on Earth. A holistic doctrine of the biosphere was developed by the Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky. The main elements of the biosphere are: vegetation (flora), fauna (fauna) and soil. Endemic- plants or animals that are found on the same continent. At present, the species composition of the biosphere is dominated by almost three times animals over plants, but the biomass of plants is 1000 times higher than the biomass of animals. In the ocean, the biomass of the fauna exceeds the volume of the biomass of the flora. The biomass of the land as a whole is 200 times that of the oceans.
Biocenosis- a community of interconnected living organisms inhabiting a section of the earth's surface with homogeneous conditions.
Altitudinal zonality- a regular change of landscapes in the mountains, due to the height above sea level. Altitude belts correspond to natural zones on the plain, with the exception of the belt of alpine and subalpine meadows, located between the belts of coniferous forests and tundra. The change of natural zones in the mountains occurs as if we were moving along the plain from the equator to the poles. The natural zone at the base of the mountain corresponds to the latitudinal natural zone in which the mountain system is located. The number of altitudinal zones in the mountains depends on the height of the mountain system and its geographical position. The closer to the equator the mountain system is located and the higher the altitude, the more altitude zones and types of landscapes will be represented.
Geographic envelope- a special shell of the Earth, within which the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the lower layers of the atmosphere and the biosphere, or living matter, touch each other, penetrate and interact. The development of the geographic envelope has its own laws:
- integrity - the unity of the shell due to the close relationship of its constituent components; manifests itself in the fact that a change in one component of nature inevitably causes a change in all the others;
- cyclicity (rhythm) - the recurrence in time of similar phenomena, there are rhythms of different duration (9-day, annual, periods of mountain building, etc.);
- circulation of matter and energy - consists in the continuous movement and transformation of all components of the shell from one state to another, which causes the continuous development of the geographic shell;
- zoning and altitudinal zonation - a natural change in natural components and natural complexes from the equator to the poles, from the foot to the tops of the mountains.
Reserve- a specially protected natural area, completely excluded from economic activity for the protection and study of typical or unique natural complexes.
Landscape- a territory with a natural combination of relief, climate, land waters, soils, biocenoses that interact and form an inextricable system.
National park- a vast territory, which combines the protection of picturesque landscapes with their intensive use for tourism purposes.
The soil- the upper thin layer of the earth's crust, inhabited by organisms, containing organic matter and possessing fertility - the ability to provide plants with the nutrients and moisture they need. The formation of a particular type of soil depends on many factors. The intake of organic matter and moisture in the soil determines the content of humus, which ensures soil fertility. The largest amount of humus is contained in chernozems. Depending on the mechanical composition (the ratio of different size mineral particles of sand and clay) soils are divided into clay, loamy, sandy loam and sandy.
Natural area- an area with close values of temperatures and humidity, regularly extending in the latitudinal direction (on the plains) along the Earth's surface. On the continents, some natural zones have special names, for example, the steppe zone in South America is called pampa, and in North America it is called prairie. The zone of humid equatorial forests in South America - selva, the savanna zone occupying the Orinoco Lowland - Llanos, the Brazilian and Guiana Highlands - Campos.
Natural complex- a plot of the earth's surface with homogeneous natural conditions, which are due to the peculiarities of origin and historical development, geographical location, and modern processes operating within it. In a natural complex, all components are interconnected. Natural complexes vary in size: geographic shell, mainland, ocean, natural area, ravine, lake ; their formation takes place over a long time.
Natural areas of the world
| Natural area | Climate type | Vegetation | Animal world | Soil |
| Arctic (Antarctic) deserts | Arctic (Antarctic) marine and continental | Mosses, lichens, algae. Most of them are covered by glaciers | Polar bear, penguin (in Antarctica), gulls, guillemots, etc. | Arctic deserts |
| Tundra | Subarctic | Shrubs, mosses, lichens | Reindeer, lemming, arctic fox, wolf, etc. | |
| Forest tundra | Subarctic | Birch, spruce, larch, shrubs, sedges | Elk, brown bear, squirrel, white hare, tundra animals, etc. | Tundra-gley, podzolized |
| Taiga | Pine, fir, spruce, larch, birch, aspen | Elk, brown bear, lynx, sable, chipmunk, squirrel, white hare, etc. | Podzolic, permafrost-taiga | |
| Mixed forests | Moderate continental, continental | Spruce, pine, oak, maple, linden, aspen | Elk, squirrel, beaver, mink, marten, etc. | Sod-podzolic |
| Broadleaf forests | Moderate continental, monsoon | Oak, beech, hornbeam, elm, maple, linden; in the Far East - cork oak, velvet tree | Roe deer, marten, deer, etc. | Gray and brown forest |
| Forest-steppe | Moderate continental, continental, sharply continental | Pine, larch, birch, aspen, oak, linden, maple with areas of forb steppes | Wolf, fox, hare, rodents | Gray forest, podzolized chernozems |
| Steppe | Moderate continental, continental, sharply continental, subtropical continental | Feather grass, fescue, thin-legged, herbs | Gophers, marmots, voles, corsac, steppe wolf and etc. | Typical chernozems, chestnut, chernozem-like |
| Semi-deserts and temperate deserts | Continental, sharply continental | Wormwood, cereals, dwarf shrubs, feather grass, etc. | Rodents, saiga, gazelle, corsac | Light chestnut, salt licks, gray-brown |
| Mediterranean evergreen forests and shrubs | Mediterranean subtropical | Cork oak, olive, laurel, cypress, etc. | Rabbit, mountain goats, rams | Brown |
| Humid subtropical forests | Subtropical monsoon | Laurel, camellia, bamboo, oak, beech, hornbeam, cypress | Himalayan bear, panda, leopard, macaques, gibbons | Red soil, yellow soil |
| Tropical deserts | Tropical continental | Solyanka, wormwood, acacia, succulents | Antelope, camel, reptiles | Sandy, gray soils, gray-brown |
| Savannah | Baobab, Umbrella Acacias, Mimosas, Palms, Euphorbia, Aloe | Antelope, zebra, buffalo, rhino, giraffe, elephant, crocodile, hippo, lion | Red-brown | |
| Monsoon forests | Subequatorial, tropical | Teak, eucalyptus, evergreen species | Elephant, buffalo, monkey, etc. | Red soil, yellow soil |
| Humid equatorial forests | Equatorial | Palm trees, hevea, legumes, vines, banana | Okapi, tapir, monkeys, forest pig, leopard, pygmy hippopotamus | Red-yellow ferralite |
Continental endemics
| Mainland | Plants | Animals |
| Africa | Baobab, ebony, velvichia | Secretary bird, striped zebra, giraffe, tsetse fly, okapi, marabou bird |
| Australia | Eucalyptus (500 species), bottle tree, casuarines | Echidna, platypus, kangaroo, wombat, koala, marsupial mole, marsupial devil, lyrebird, dingo |
| Antarctica | — | Adelie Penguin |
| North America | Sequoia | Skunk, bison, coyote, grizzly bear |
| South America | Hevea, cocoa tree, cinchona, ceiba | Battleship, anteater, sloth, anaconda, condor, hummingbird, chinchilla, llama, tapir |
| Eurasia | Myrtle, ginseng, lemongrass, ginkgo | European bison, orangutan, Ussuri tiger, panda |
The largest deserts in the world
Features of the nature of continents and oceans
Basic concepts, processes, patterns and their consequences
Mainland- a large land mass surrounded by the waters of the World Ocean. By geological origin, six continents are distinguished (Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Australia). Their total area is 149 million km 2, or 29% of the earth's surface.
Oceans- large parts of the oceans, isolated from each other by continents and possessing a certain unity.
Part of the light- the historically established division of land. Currently, the historical names of six parts of the world have been preserved: Europe, Asia, Africa, America (originally the West Indies), Australia with Oceania, Antarctica. The Old World includes Europe, Asia, Africa. The New World is the result of the Great Geographical Discoveries - America, Australia, Antarctica.
General information about the continents
| Mainland | Area, million km 2 | Height, m | Extreme points | Unique geographic objects and phenomena | ||
| without islands | with islands | maximum | minimal | |||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| Australia and Oceania | 7,63 | 8,89 | 2230, Mount Kostsyushko | -12, Lake Eyre | North. York Cape, 10 ° 41 "S South. South-East Cape, 39 ° 11" S Zap. Steep Point, 113 ° 05 "E East Cape Byron, 153 ° 39" E | The driest continent of the Earth. The largest number of endemic species. The world's largest coral reef is the Great Barrier Reef. |
| Antarctica | 12,40 | 13,98 | 5140, Vinson | Sea level | North. Antarctic Peninsula, 63 ° 13 "S. | Coldest continent. The largest ice sheet. The coldest place on Earth is the Vostok station, -89.2 ° (1983). The strongest wind was recorded - Adelie Land, 87 m / s. Located active volcano Erebus (3794 m). |
| Africa | 29,22 | 30,32 | 5895, Kilimanjaro Volcano | - 153, Lake Assal | North. Cape Ben-Sekka, 37 ° 20 "N South Cape Agulhas, 34 ° 52" S Zap. Cape Almadi, 17 ° 32 "W East Cape Ras Khafun, 51 ° 23" E | The hottest continent. The largest desert on Earth is the Sahara (19,065 million km 2). The hottest place on Earth is the city of Tripoli, + 58 ° С (1922). The longest river on Earth is the Nile with Kagera (6671 km). The highest active volcano on Earth is Kilimanjaro (5895 m). The Congo River (Zaire) crosses the equator twice. |
| Eurasia | 53,54 | 56,19 | 8848, Chomolungma (Everest) | - 395, Dead Sea level. | North. Cape Chelyuskin, 77 ° 43 "N South Cape Piai, 1 ° 16" N Zap. Cape Roka, 9 ° 34 "W. East Cape Dezhnev, 169 ° 40" W. | The largest continent in terms of area. The highest peak of the Earth is Chomolungma (Everest), 8848 m. The lowest place on the Earth's surface is the level of the Dead Sea, - 395 m. The largest lake on Earth is the Caspian Sea (371 thousand km 2). The deepest lake on Earth is Baikal, 1620 m. The most large peninsula Lands - Arabian (3 million km 2). |
| North America | 20,36 | 24,25 | 6193 McKinley | - 85, Death Valley | North. Cape Murchison, 71 ° 50 "N South Cape Maryato, 7 ° 12" N Zap. Cape Prince of Wales, 168 ° 05 "W East Cape St. Charles, 55 ° 40" W | The highest sea tides are in the Bay of Fundy (tide heights are 18 meters). |
| South America | 18,13 | 18,28 | 6960, Aconcagua | - 40, Valdes Peninsula | North. Cape Galinas, 12 ° 25 "N South Cape Froward, 53 ° 54" S Zap. Cape Parignas, 81 ° 20 "W East Cape Cabo Branco, 34 ° 46" W | The wettest continent. The largest river basin on the Earth is the Amazon River basin, 6915 thousand km 2. The highest waterfall on Earth is Angel Falls, 1054 m. The longest mountains on land are the Andes, 9000 km long. The driest place on Earth is the Atacama Desert. |
Basic facts about the oceans
The largest islands
| № | Island | Location | Area, thousand km 2 |
| 1. | Greenland | north atlantic ocean | 2176 |
| 2. | New Guinea | southwest pacific | 793 |
| 3. | Kalimantan | west pacific | 734 |
| 4. | Madagascar | Indian Ocean | 587 |
| 5. | Baffin's Land | north atlantic ocean | 507 |
| 6. | Sumatra | northeast Indian Ocean | 427 |
| 7. | United Kingdom | Northwest Europe | 230 |
| 8. | Honshu | Japanese Sea | 227 |
| 9. | Victoria | 217 | |
| 10. | Ellesmere | Canadian Arctic Archipelago | 196 |
The largest peninsulas
Geography of Russia
Basic concepts, processes, patterns and their consequences
Agro-industrial complex (AIC)- a set of interconnected sectors of the economy involved in the production and processing of agricultural products and bringing it to the consumer.
Unified Energy System (UES) - a system of energy sources, united by means of energy transmission. It provides the ability to quickly maneuver energy capacities, transfer energy or energy carriers (gas) to where energy consumption increases.
Intensive farming(from lat. intensio- "tension, strengthening") - an economy that develops on the basis of scientific and technological progress and better organization of labor with high labor productivity. With an intensive farming, production increases without an increase in the number of jobs, without plowing new areas, without a significant increase in consumption natural resources.
Combine(from lat. combinatus- "connected") - an association of industrial enterprises of different industries, in which the products of one serve as raw materials or semi-finished products for another. Several specialized enterprises are linked by a technological chain that sequentially processes raw materials. The combination creates favorable opportunities for the fullest use of raw materials, the use of production waste and the reduction of environmental pollution.
Machine-building complex- the most important complex industry manufacturing industry, including machine-tool, instrument-making, energy, metallurgical and chemical engineering; agricultural engineering together with tractor construction; transport engineering of all types; electrical industry; radio electronics and computer technology.
Interindustry complex Is a system of enterprises various industries, united by the release of certain products (or the production of certain services).
Scientific and Production Territorial Complex (NPTK)- a combination of scientific, experimental design institutions and industrial enterprises on the same territory.
Market economy- an economy based on the laws of the market, that is, the supply of goods and the demand for them on the scale of the country and the world economy, and the balance of prices based on the law of value (regulates the exchange of goods in accordance with the amount of labor expended on their production). In a market economy, a commodity economy is developing, focused on the purchase and sale of goods, in contrast to a natural economy, in which the products of labor are produced to meet the needs of producers.
Territorial production complex (TPK)- an interconnected and interdependent combination of branches of material production in a certain territory, which is a part of the economic complex of the entire country or any economic region.
Fuel and energy complex (FEC)- the aggregate of the mining (fuel) industry and the electric power industry. The fuel and energy complex provides the activities of all industries, transport, Agriculture, household needs of the population. The fuel and energy complex includes the extraction of coal, oil (as a raw material for obtaining fuel), gas, oil shale, peat, uranium ores (as a raw material for obtaining atomic energy), as well as electricity generation.
Transport node- a point where at least 2-3 lines of any type of transport converge; complex transport hub - a point of convergence different types transport, for example, a river port with suitable railways and highways. Such hubs usually serve as places for transferring passengers and transshipment of goods from one type of transport to another.
Labor resources- part of the country's population capable of working in the country's economy. The labor force includes: the entire working-age population, part of the disabled population (working disabled people and privileged pensioners who retired at a relatively young age), working adolescents aged 14-16 years, a significant part of the working population over the working age.
Economically active population- part of the country's labor resources. Includes the number of people employed in the economy (employed or own business), and the unemployed.
Economic region- territorially and economically integral part National economy country ( region), characterized by the originality of natural and economic conditions, historically formed or purposefully created by the specialization of the economy based on geographical division of labor, the presence of intraregional stable and intensive economic ties.
Extensive farming(from lat. extensivus- "expanding, lengthening") - an economy that develops through new construction, the development of new lands, the use of untouched natural resources, an increase in the number of workers. Extensive farming initially yields good results with a relatively low scientific and technical level of production, but quickly leads to the depletion of natural and labor resources. With an increase in the scientific and technical level of production, extensive farming gives way to intensive the farm.
Brief information (data)
The area of the land- 17.125 million km 2 (first place in the world).
Population- 143.3 million people (2013).
Form of government- republic, form of administrative-territorial structure - federation.
Extreme points of Russia
Largest geographic objects
Land borders of Russia
Political and administrative structure of the Russian Federation
| P / p No. | Name of the subject of the Russian Federation | Area, thousand km 2 | Administrative center |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| Republics | |||
| 1 | Republic of Adygea (Adygea) | 7,6 | Maykop |
| 2 | Altai Republic | 92,6 | Gorno-Altaysk |
| 3 | Republic of Bashkortostan | 143,6 | Ufa |
| 4 | The Republic of Buryatia | 351,3 | Ulan-Ude |
| 5 | The Republic of Dagestan | 50,3 | Makhachkala |
| 6 | The Republic of Ingushetia | 19,3 | Magas |
| 7 | Kabardino-Balkar Republic | 12,5 | Nalchik |
| 8 | Republic of Kalmykia | 76,1 | Elista |
| 9 | Karachay-Cherkess Republic | 14,1 | Cherkessk |
| 10 | Republic of Karelia | 172,4 | Petrozavodsk |
| 11 | Komi Republic | 415,9 | Syktyvkar |
| 12 | Mari El Republic | 23,2 | Yoshkar-Ola |
| 13 | The Republic of Mordovia | 26,2 | Saransk |
| 14 | The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) | 3103,2 | Yakutsk |
| 15 | Republic of North Ossetia-Alania | 8,0 | Vladikavkaz |
| 16 | Republic of Tatarstan (Tatarstan) | 68,0 | Kazan |
| 17 | Tyva Republic | 170,5 | Kyzyl |
| 18 | Udmurtia | 42,1 | Izhevsk |
| 19 | The Republic of Khakassia | 61,9 | Abakan |
| 20 | Chechen Republic | 19,3 | Grozny |
| 21 | Chuvash Republic (Chuvashia) | 18,3 | Cheboksary |
| 22 | Autonomous Republic of Crimea | 26,11 | Simferopol |
| The edges | |||
| 23 | Altai region | 169,1 | Barnaul |
| 24 | Kamchatka Krai | 773,8 | Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky |
| 25 | Krasnodar region | 76,0 | Krasnodar |
| 26 | Krasnoyarsk region | 2339,7 | Krasnoyarsk |
| 27 | Perm Territory | 160,6 | Permian |
| 28 | Primorsky Krai | 165,9 | Vladivostok |
| 29 | Stavropol region | 66,5 | Stavropol |
| 30 | Khabarovsk region | 788,6 | Khabarovsk |
| 31 | Zabaykalsky Krai | 450,5 | Chita |
| Areas | |||
| 32 | Amurskaya | 361,9 | Blagoveshchensk |
| 33 | Arkhangelsk | 589,8 | Arkhangelsk |
| 34 | Astrakhan | 44,1 | Astrakhan |
| 35 | Belgorodskaya | 27,1 | Belgorod |
| 36 | Bryansk | 34,9 | Bryansk |
| 37 | Vladimirskaya | 29,0 | Vladimir |
| 38 | Volgograd | 113,9 | Volgograd |
| 39 | Vologda | 145,7 | Vologda |
| 40 | Voronezh | 52,4 | Voronezh |
| 41 | Ivanovskaya | 21,8 | Ivanovo |
| 42 | Irkutsk | 767,9 | Irkutsk |
| 43 | Kaliningrad | 15,1 | Kaliningrad |
| 44 | Kaluga | 29,9 | Kaluga |
| 45 | Kemerovo | 95,5 | Kemerovo |
| 46 | Kirovskaya | 120,8 | Kirov |
| 47 | Kostroma | 60,1 | Kostroma |
| 48 | Kurgan | 71,0 | Mound |
| 49 | Kursk | 29,8 | Kursk |
| 50 | Leningradskaya | 83,9 | St. Petersburg |
| 51 | Lipetsk | 24,1 | Lipetsk |
| 52 | Magadan | 461,4 | Magadan |
| 53 | Moscow | 46,0 | Moscow |
| 54 | Murmansk | 144,9 | Murmansk |
| 55 | Nizhny Novgorod | 76,9 | Nizhny Novgorod |
| 56 | Novgorod | 55,3 | Velikiy Novgorod |
| 57 | Novosibirsk | 178,2 | Novosibirsk |
| 58 | Omsk | 139,7 | Omsk |
| 59 | Orenburg | 124,0 | Orenburg |
| 60 | Orlovskaya | 24,7 | Eagle |
| 61 | Penza | 43,2 | Penza |
| 62 | Pskov | 55,3 | Pskov |
| 63 | Rostov | 100,8 | Rostov-on-Don |
| 64 | Ryazan | 39,6 | Ryazan |
| 65 | Samara | 53,6 | Samara |
| 66 | Saratov | 100,2 | Saratov |
| 67 | Sakhalin | 87,1 | Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk |
| 68 | Sverdlovsk | 194,8 | Ekaterinburg |
| 69 | Smolensk | 49,8 | Smolensk |
| 70 | Tambov | 34,3 | Tambov |
| 71 | Tverskaya | 84,1 | Tver |
| 72 | Tomsk | 316,9 | Tomsk |
| 73 | Tula | 25,7 | Tula |
| 74 | Tyumen | 1435,2 | Tyumen |
| 75 | Ulyanovsk | 37,3 | Ulyanovsk |
| 76 | Chelyabinsk | 87,9 | Chelyabinsk |
| 77 | Yaroslavl | 36,4 | Yaroslavl |
| Cities | |||
| 78 | Moscow | 1,081 | |
| 79 | St. Petersburg | 2,0 | |
| 80 | Sevastopol | 0,86 | |
| Autonomous region and autonomous regions | |||
| 81 | Jewish Autonomous region | 36,0 | Birobidzhan |
| 82 | Nenets Autonomous Okrug | 176,7 | Naryan-Mar |
| 83 | Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug - Yugra | 523,1 | Khanty-Mansiysk |
| 84 | Chukotka Autonomous District | 737,7 | Anadyr |
| 85 | 767,6 | Salekhard | |
Climate types of Russia
| Climate type | Characteristic |
| Arctic | Islands of the Arctic Ocean. Low temperatures all year round. Winter temperatures range from -24 to -30 ° C. Summer temperatures are close to 0 ° C, while at the southern borders they rise to + 5 ° C. Little precipitation (200-300 mm), falls mainly in the form of snow, which lasts most of the year. |
| Subarctic | Northern coast of the country. Winters are long and the severity increases from west to east. Summers are cold (from +4 to +14 ° C in the south). Precipitation is frequent, but in small amounts, the maximum is in summer. The annual amount of precipitation is 200-400 mm, but at low temperatures and low evaporation, excessive moisture of the surface is created and waterlogging occurs. |
| Temperate climate Moderate continental |
European part of the country. Influence of humid air from the Atlantic. Winter is less severe. January temperatures range from -4 to -20 ° C, summer temperatures range from +12 to +24 ° C. The maximum amount of precipitation is in the western regions (800 mm), but due to frequent thaws, the thickness of the snow cover is low. |
| Continental | Western Siberia. The annual amount of precipitation in the north is no more than 600 mm, in the south - 100 mm. Winters are harsher than in the west. Summers are sultry in the south and warm enough in the north. |
| Sharply continental | Eastern Siberia and Yakutia ... Winter temperatures are from -24 to -40 ° C, significant warming up in summer (up to +16 ... +20 ° C, in the south up to +35 ° C). Annual precipitation is less than 400 mm. The moisture coefficient is close to 1. |
| Monsoon | Pacific coast of Russia, Primorsky and Khabarovsk territories. The winter is cold, sunny and with little snow. Summers are cloudy and cool, with a large amount of precipitation (up to 600-1000 mm), falling in the form of showers, which is associated with the influx of sea air from the Pacific Ocean. |
| Subtropical | South of Russia, in the Sochi region. Roast and dry summer, winter is warm and humid. Annual precipitation is 600-800 mm. |
Population density in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation
National composition of the population of Russia
| Maximum performance | Minimum rates | ||
| Nationality | Nationality | Share of the total population of Russia,% | |
| Russians | 79,83 | Central Asian Arabs, Krymchaks, | 0,0001 |
| Tatars | 3,83 | Izhorians, Tazy, Enets | 0,0002 |
| Ukrainians | 2,03 | Central Asian gypsies, Karaites | 0,0003 |
| Bashkirs | 1,15 | Slovaks, Aleuts, English | 0,0004 |
| Chuvash | 1,13 | Cubans, Orochi | 0,0005 |
Religious affiliation of the peoples of Russia
The largest hydroelectric power plants (HPP) in Russia
| Power station | The subject of the Russian Federation | River | Power, MW |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| Sayano-Shushenskaya | Krasnoyarsk Territory, Republic of Khakassia | Yenisei | 6400 |
| Krasnoyarsk | Krasnoyarsk region | Yenisei | 6000 |
| Bratsk | Irkutsk region | Angara | 4500 |
| Ust-Ilimsk | Irkutsk region | Angara | 4320 |
| Boguchanskaya | Krasnoyarsk region | Angara | 4000 (under construction) |
| Volgograd | Volgograd region | Volga | 2563 |
| Volzhskaya | Samara Region | Volga | 2300 |
| Bureyskaya | Amurskaya Oblast | Bureya | 2000 (under construction) |
| Cheboksary | Chuvash Republic | Volga | 1404 |
| Saratov | Saratov region | Volga | 1360 |
| Zeyskaya | Amurskaya Oblast | Zeya | 1290 |
| Nizhnekamsk | Republic of Tatarstan | Kama | 1248 |
| Chirkeyskaya | The Republic of Dagestan | Sulak | 1000 |
The largest nuclear power plants (NPP) in Russia
| Power station | The subject of the Russian Federation | Number of power units | Power, MW | Interesting Facts |
| Kursk | Kursk region | 4 | 4000 | The Kursk NPP is located in the city of Kurchatov on the left bank of the Seim River, 40 km south-west of Kursk. |
| Balakovskaya | Saratov region | 4 | 4000 | It is one of the largest and most modern energy enterprises in Russia, providing a quarter of electricity production in the Volga federal district... Electricity of Balakovo NPP is the cheapest among all NPPs and thermal power plants in Russia. |
| Leningradskaya | Leningrad region | 4 + 2 under construction | 4000 | Built 80 km west of St. Petersburg in the town of Sosnovy Bor on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. The Leningrad NPP is the first plant in the country with RBMK-1000 reactors (high-power channel reactor). |
| Kalininskaya | Tver region | 4 | 4000 | It generates 70% of the total volume of electricity produced in the Tver region. Due to its geographical location, the station carries out high-voltage transit of electricity. |
| Smolensk | Smolensk region | 3 | 3000 | Smolensk NPP is a city-forming, leading enterprise in the region, the largest in the region's fuel and energy balance. The station annually produces an average of 20 billion kWh of electricity, which is more than 80% of the total generated in the region. |
| Novovoronezh | Voronezh region | 3 | 2455 | One of the oldest nuclear power plants in the Russian Federation. Novovoronezh NPP fully meets the needs of the Voronezh Region for electrical energy... This is the first NPP in Russia with pressurized water reactors (VVER). |
| Kola | Murmansk region | 4 | 1760 | Located 200 km south of the city of Murmansk on the shores of Lake Imandra. It is the main supplier of electricity for the Murmansk region and Karelia. |
| Rostov | Rostov region | 2 + 2 under construction | 2000 | The Rostov NPP is located on the bank of the Tsimlyansk reservoir, 13.5 km from the city of Volgodonsk. She happens to be largest enterprise energy sector of the South of Russia, providing about 15% of the annual electricity generation in the region. |
| Beloyarskaya | Sverdlovsk region | 2 + 1 under construction | 600 | This is the first large nuclear power plant in the history of the country's nuclear power industry and the only one with reactors different types on the site. It is at the Beloyarsk NPP that the world's only powerful power unit with a fast neutron reactor is operated. |
| Bilibinskaya | Chukotka Autonomous Okrug | 4 | 48 | When the air temperature drops to -50 ° C, the NPP operates in a heating mode and develops a heating capacity of 100 Gcal / h while reducing the generated electric power to 38 MW. |
| Obninsk | Kaluga region | The world's first nuclear power plant. It was launched in 1954 and stopped in 2002. At present, a museum is being created on the basis of the station. | ||
| Under construction | ||||
| Baltic | Kaliningrad region | 2 | ||
| Academician Lomonosov | Kamchatka Krai | 2 | ||
Main metallurgical bases of Russia
| Base name | Share in the extraction of ferrous metal ores (%) | Share in steel production (%) | Share in rolled products production (%) | Types of metallurgical production | Largest centers |
| Ural | 16 | 43 | 42 | full cycle | Magnitogorsk, Serov. Chelyabinsk, Nizhny Tagil, Novotroitsk, Alapaevsk, Asha |
| blast | Satka | ||||
| reprocessing | Yekaterinburg, Zlatoust, Izhevsk | ||||
| ferroalloy production | Chelyabinsk, Serov | ||||
| pipe production | Chelyabinsk, Pervouralsk, Kamensk-Uralsky | ||||
| Central | 71 | 41 | 44 | full cycle | Cherepovets, Lipetsk, Stary Oskol |
| blast | Tula | ||||
| reprocessing | Moscow, Elektrostal, St. Petersburg, Kolpino, Oryol, Nizhny Novgorod, Vyksa, Volgograd | ||||
| pipe production | Volgograd, Volzhsky | ||||
| Siberian | 12 | 16 | 12 | full cycle | Novokuznetsk |
| reprocessing | Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, Petrovsk-Zabaikalsky production | ||||
| ferroalloys | Novokuznetsk | ||||
| Far Eastern | 1 | reprocessing | Komsomolsk-on-Amur | ||
| South | 1 | conversion pipe production | Taganrog |
Main bases and centers of non-ferrous metallurgy in Russia
| Base name | Raw materials and energy base | Specialization | Largest centers |
| Ural | Al, Cu, Ni, resource and energy deficient area | aluminum metallurgy | Kamensk-Uralsky, Krasnoturinsk |
| titanium metallurgy | Bereznyaki | ||
| copper metallurgy | Mednogorsk, Revda, Karabash, Krasnouralsk | ||
| nickel metallurgy | Orsk, Verkhny Ufaley | ||
| zinc metallurgy | Chelyabinsk | ||
| Siberian | Ni, Pb, Zn, Sn, W, Mo, Au, Pt, main hydropower region | alumina metallurgy | Achinsk |
| metallurgy of nickel and copper | Norilsk | ||
| aluminum metallurgy | Bratsk, Krasnoyarsk, Sayanogorsk, Shelikhov, Novokuznetsk | ||
| zinc metallurgy | Belovo | ||
| tin metallurgy | Novosibirsk | ||
| Northwest | Al, Ni, energy-rich area | alumina metallurgy | Boksitogorsk |
| aluminum metallurgy | Kandalaksha, Nadvoitsy, Volkhov | ||
| metallurgy of nickel and copper | Zapolyarny, Monchegorsk | ||
| Far Eastern | Аu, Ag, Pb, Zn, Sn, hydropower resources | lead metallurgy | Dalnegorsk |
Characteristics of large economic regions of Russia
| Subject of the federation | Area, thousand km 2 | Population, thousand people 2010 r. | Share of urban population,% 2010 | States with which it has a land border | Out to the ocean | Specialization | |
| industry | Agriculture | ||||||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 8 | |
| Northwest economic region | |||||||
| Leningrad region | 85,3 | 1629,6 | 66 | Finland, Estonia | There is | Heavy, power, precision engineering, shipbuilding, machine tools, chemical, light | |
| Novgorod region | 55,3 | 640,6 | 70 | No | No | ||
| Pskov region | 55,3 | 688,6 | 68 | Belarus, Latvia, Estonia | No | ||
| St. Petersburg | 0,6 | 4600,3 | 100 | No | There is | ||
| Kaliningrad region | |||||||
| Kaliningrad region | 15,1 | 937,9 | 76 | Lithuania, Poland | There is | Mechanical engineering, pulp and paper | Dairy and beef cattle breeding, potato growing, flax growing |
| Central Black Earth Economic Region | |||||||
| Belgorod region | 27,1 | 1530,1 | 66 | Ukraine | No | Extraction of iron ore, ferrous metallurgy, heavy, precision engineering, tractor construction, equipment for the chemical and food industries, chemical, cement, sugar, oil mill, flour milling, mining and processing of amber | Grain farming, beet growing, sunflower cultivation |
| Voronezh region | 52,4 | 2268,6 | 63 | Ukraine | No | ||
| Kursk region | 29,8 | 1148,6 | 65 | Ukraine | No | ||
| Lipetsk region | 24,1 | 1157,9 | 64 | No | No | ||
| Tambov Region | 34,3 | 1088,4 | 58 | No | No | ||
| Central economic region | |||||||
| Bryansk region | 34,9 | 1292,2 | 69 | Belarus, Ukraine | No | Automotive, machine tool, tractor, railway, agricultural, precision engineering, chemical, textile, cement. Artistic craft (Palekh, Khokhloma, etc.) Aviation industry, tourism | Vegetable growing, potato growing |
| Vladimir region | 29 | 1430,1 | 78 | No | No | ||
| Ivanovo region | 23,9 | 1066,6 | 81 | No | No | ||
| Kaluga region | 29,9 | 1001,6 | 76 | No | No | ||
| Kostroma region | 60.1 | 688,3 | 69 | No | No | ||
| Moscow | 1 | 10 563 | 100 | No | No | ||
| Moscow region | 46 | 6752,7 | 81 | No | No | ||
| Oryol Region | 24,7 | 812,5 | 64 | No | No | ||
| Ryazan Oblast | 39,6 | 1151,4 | 70 | No | No | ||
| Smolensk region | 49,8 | 966 | 72 | Belarus | No | ||
| Tver region | 84,1 | 1360,3 | 74 | No | No | ||
| Tula region | 25,7 | 1540,4 | 80 | No | No | ||
| Yaroslavskaya oblast | 36,4 | 1306,3 | 82 | No | |||
| Volgo-Vyatka economic region | |||||||
| Kirov region | 120,8 | 1391,1 | 72 | No | No | Automotive, shipbuilding, tractor, machine tool, precision engineering, chemical, forestry | |
| Nizhny Novgorod Region | 74,8 | 3323,6 | 79 | No | No | ||
| Mari El Republic | 23,2 | 698,2 | 63 | No | No | ||
| The Republic of Mordovia | 26,2 | 826,5 | 61 | No | No | ||
| Chuvash Republic | 18,3 | 1278,4 | 58 | No | No | ||
| Northern economic region | |||||||
| Arkhangelsk region, including the Nenets Autonomous District | 410,7 176,7 |
1254,4 | 74 | No | There is | Oil, gas, coal, shipbuilding, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, mining, fish, butter and cheese, forestry, pulp and paper, port facilities | Flax growing, dairy and beef cattle breeding |
| Murmansk region | 144,9 | 836,7 | 91 | Finland, Norway | There is | ||
| Republic of Karelia | 172,4 | 684,2 | 76 | Finland | There is | ||
| Komi Republic | 415,9 | 951,2 | 76 | No | No | ||
| Volga economic region | |||||||
| Astrakhan region | 44,1 | 1007,1 | 66 | Kazakhstan | No | Power engineering, oil and gas, automobile construction, shipbuilding, machine tools, equipment for the food and chemical industries, tractor engineering, precision engineering, chemical, cement, light, flour milling, oil mill, fish | Grain farming, sunflower growing, vegetable growing, meat and dairy cattle breeding, sheep breeding |
| Volgograd region | 113,9 | 2589,9 | 75 | Kazakhstan | No | ||
| Penza region | 43,2 | 1373,2 | 67 | No | No | ||
| Republic of Kalmykia | 76,1 | 283,2 | 45 | No | No | ||
| Republic of Tatarstan | 68 | 3778,5 | 75 | No | No | ||
| Samara Region | 53,6 | 3170,1 | 81 | No | No | ||
| Saratov region | 100,2 | 2564,8 | 74 | Kazakhstan | No | ||
| Ulyanovsk region | 37,3 | 1298,6 | 73 | No | No | ||
| Ural economic region | |||||||
| Kurgan region | 71 | 947,6 | 57 | Kazakhstan | No | Oil and gas, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, heavy and precision machine building, auto building, car building, tractor building, machine tool building, chemical, forestry, cement. Extraction and processing of precious, semi-precious and semi-precious stones | Grain farming, meat and dairy and dairy and meat cattle breeding |
| Orenburg region | 124 | 2112,9 | 57 | Kazakhstan | No | ||
| Perm Territory | 127,7 | 2701,2 | 74 | No | No | ||
| Republic of Bashkortostan | 143,6 | 4066 | 60 | No | No | ||
| Republic of Udmurtia | 42,1 | 1526,3 | 68 | No | No | ||
| Sverdlovsk region | 194,8 | 4393,8 | 83 | No | No | ||
| Chelyabinsk region | 87,9 | 3508,4 | 81 | Kazakhstan | No | ||
| North Caucasian economic region | |||||||
| Krasnodar region | 76 | 5160,7 | 52 | Georgia | There is | Gas, coal, non-ferrous metallurgy, locomotive building, agricultural, energy, precision engineering, chemical, canning, sugar, oil mill, winemaking, flour milling, traditional craft (carpet weaving, jewelry making, dishes, weapons, etc.). Tourism and recreation | Grain farming, beet growing, sunflower growing, vegetable growing, viticulture, sheep breeding, pig breeding, dairy and meat, meat and dairy cattle breeding |
| Republic of Adygea | 7,6 | 443,1 | 53 | No | No | ||
| The Republic of Dagestan | 50,3 | 2737,3 | 42 | Azerbaijan, Georgia | No | ||
| The Republic of Ingushetia | 4,3 | 516,7 | 43 | Georgia | No | ||
| Republic of Kabardino-Balkaria | 12,5 | 893,8 | 56 | Georgia | No | ||
| Republic of Karachay-Cherkessia | 14,1 | 427 | 43 | Georgia | No | ||
| Republic of North Ossetia - Alania | 8 | 700,8 | 64 | Georgia | No | ||
| Republic of Chechnya | 15 | 1268,1 | 36 | Georgia | No | ||
| Rostov region | 100,8 | 4229,5 | 67 | Ukraine | There is | ||
| Stavropol region | 66,5 | 2711,2 | 57 | No | No | ||
| West Siberian economic region | |||||||
| Altai region | 169,1 | 2490,7 | 53 | Kazakhstan | No | Oil, gas, coal, ferrous, non-ferrous metallurgy, heavy, energy, precision engineering, car building, tractor building, machine tool building, chemical, forestry | Grain farming, dairy and meat and meat and dairy cattle breeding |
| Kemerovo region | 95,5 | 2820,6 | 85 | No | No | ||
| Novosibirsk region | 178,2 | 2649,9 | 76 | Kazakhstan | No | ||
| Omsk region | 139,7 | 2012,1 | 69 | Kazakhstan | No | ||
| Altai Republic | 92,6 | 210,7 | 27 | Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia | No | ||
| Tomsk region | 316,9 | 1043,8 | 70 | No | No | ||
| Tyumen region | 161,8 | 3430,3 | 78 | Kazakhstan | There is | ||
| Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug | 523,1 | 1538,6 | 92 | No | No | ||
| Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District | 750,3 | 546,5 | 85 | No | There is | ||
| East Siberian economic region | |||||||
| Irkutsk region | 745,5 | 2502,7 | 79 | No | No | Electricity, non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, forestry | Fur harvesting |
| Krasnoyarsk region | 2340 | 2893,9 | 76 | No | There is | ||
| The Republic of Buryatia | 351,3 | 963,5 | 56 | Mongolia | No | ||
| Republic of Tuva (Tuva) | 170,5 | 317 | 51 | Mongolia | No | ||
| The Republic of Khakassia | 61,9 | 539,2 | 68 | No | No | ||
| Zabaykalsky Krai | 412,5 | 1117 | 64 | China, Mongolia | No | ||
| Far Eastern economic region | |||||||
| Amurskaya Oblast | 363,7 | 860,7 | 65 | China | No | Non-ferrous metallurgy, forestry, fishing, shipbuilding, diamond mining, port facilities | Grain farming (soybean production), reindeer husbandry, ginseng cultivation |
| Jewish Autonomous Region | 36 | 185 | 66 | China | No | ||
| Kamchatka Krai | 170,8 | 342,3 | 79 | No | There is | ||
| Magadan Region | 461,4 | 161,2 | 96 | No | There is | ||
| Primorsky Krai | 465,9 | 1982 | 75 | China, DPRK | There is | ||
| The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) | 3103,2 | 949,3 | 65 | No | There is | ||
| Sakhalin Region | 87,1 | 510,8 | 78 | No | There is | ||
| Khabarovsk Territory | 788,6 | 1400,5 | 80 | China | There is | ||
| Chukotka Autonomous District | 737,7 | 48,6 | 68,4 | No | There is | ||
Archived: three lessons in geography on the topic "Lithosphere"
"Litosfera_plita"
The lithospheric plate is a large stable area of the earth's crust, part of the lithosphere. According to the theory of plate tectonics, lithospheric plates are limited by zones of seismic, volcanic and tectonic activity - the boundaries of the plate.
The division of the earth's crust into plates is not unambiguous, and as geological knowledge accumulates, new plates are identified, and some plate boundaries are recognized as non-existent.
A. Wegener came up with the idea of a possible displacement of the continents when he carefully examined the geographical map of the world. He was struck by the amazing similarity of the outlines of the coast of South America and Africa.
The formation and movement of plates is associated with mixing of the mantle material due to the temperature difference in its upper and lower parts.
There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.
There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.
Formation of mountains and median ridges
Displacement of plates during earthquakes
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"Skladch. belt"
Horst - an elevated, usually elongated section of the earth's crust, formed as a result of tectonic movements.
Graben - a section of the earth's crust, lowered relative to the surrounding area along tectonic faults.
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"Ancient continents"
Ancient continents
Geography of continents and oceans
The history of the formation of the Earth's relief
Since the formation of the Earth - 4.6 billion years ago - the appearance of its surface has changed many times: continents and oceans acquired different sizes and outlines. The modern geographical position of continents and oceans, the features of their relief are the result of a long geological development Earth.
Pangea, 200 million years ago
Pangea is the name given Alfred Wegener the proto-continent that arose in the Paleozoic era.
Ancient continent and ocean
In the process of the formation of Pangea, mountain systems arose from the more ancient continents at the places of their collision, some of which have survived to our time, for example, the Urals or the Appalachians. These early mountains are much older than such relatively young mountain systems such as the Alps in Europe, the Cordillera in North America, the Andes in South America or the Himalayas in Asia. Due to erosion lasting many millions of years, the Urals and Appalachians are low-rolling mountains.
The giant ocean that washed Pangea is called
Panthalassa .
About 200 million years ago, Pangea began to split and first split into two continents: Laurasia and Gondwana.
Further splits divided Laurasia into North America and Eurasia, and Gondwana - on southern continents: Africa, South America, India, Australia and Antarctica.
Due to the divergence of lithospheric plates, the continents moved away from each other and eventually took up their present position. The depressions of the Atlantic, Indian and Arctic oceans expanded between the continents.
What does the future hold for the continents?
Black lines on the maps are the boundaries of giant plates slowly and steadily spreading the continents. Scientists can now predict the geography of the future: the last map tells about the planet tomorrow... Look - the Atlantic Ocean has gotten even wider, and Africa has split up.
Presumably, our continents will collide again and form a new supercontinent, which has already been named - Pangea Ultima. The term Pangea Ultima and the very theory of the appearance of the continent were invented by the American geologist Christopher Scotese, who, using various methods of calculating the movement of lithospheric plates, established that a merger could occur somewhere in 200 million years.
The last Pangea, as this continent is sometimes called in Russia, will be almost entirely covered with deserts, and in the northwest and southeast there will be huge mountain ranges.
Lesson topic "Lithosphere"
Goals: create conditions for the formation of students' ideas about the hypotheses of the formation of the Earth; create conditions for students to assimilate knowledge: the internal structure of the Earth; lithosphere; two types of structure of the earth's crust.
Equipment in the lesson: plan on the board, a projector for viewing slides (presentation), table: "The internal structure of the Earth."
Terminology: lithosphere, core, mantle, crust: continental, oceanic.
Lesson type: assimilation of new knowledge.
Forms of organization: frontal, steam room.
Working methods: explanatory - illustrative, reproductive, partly - search, interactive (slide show), method of control and self-assessment.
How to work: reception of surprise, fantastic addition, reflection.
Plan :
Internal structure of the Earth: the earth's crust; mantle; core.
Lithosphere.
Methods for studying the Earth.
During the classes
Stage I. Organizational moment (readiness for the lesson) .
Emotional attitude. Hello guys. I hope our mutual work in the lesson will be fruitful, and you are active. Sit down. Today we begin to study new topic... For successful work in the lesson, we have prepared everything you need: a textbook, a notebook, a simple pencil, a pen.
Stage II. Knowledge update .
Guys, you will now carefully listen to the text, and then answer a series of questions. I read the text. “Initially, the planet was cold, then it began to warm up, and then began to cool down again. In this case, the "light" elements were raised, and the "heavy" ones fell. This is how the original earth's crust was formed. Heavy elements formed the inner substance of the planet - the core and mantle. "
Teacher. What do these lines say?
Student. On the hypothesis of the origin of the Earth. The Schmidt - Fesenkov hypothesis has fewer contradictions and answers more questions.
Teacher. What cloud did our planet form from?
Student. From a cold cloud of gas and dust.
Teacher. What is the shape of the earth?
Student. The shape of the Earth is spherical.
Teacher. Remember from the material of natural history, what outer shells of the Earth do you know?
Student. The Earth has the following outer shells: atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, lithosphere.
Intelligent warm-up
After studying geography, grade 6, you will learn about each of these shells in more detail. And we will begin to study the planet Earth from the shell, the name of which is hidden in the rebus. You all have a technological map on the tables, in which there is a rebus.
Exercise. Solve the rebus, name the hidden earth shell.
SLIDE 2.
We begin our study of the "Lithosphere" section with an acquaintance with what is inside the Earth.
The topic of today's lesson. “The structure of the Earth and methods of its study. Lithosphere ".
SLIDE 3.
The purpose of the lesson: to study the internal structure of the Earth; get acquainted with the methods of studying the Earth; to formulate the concept of the lithosphere.
We write down the number and topic of our lesson in the technological map.
Motivation. Guys, I happened to witness such an incident. I will now read it to you, and you will listen carefully, because then I will ask you questions. I am reading the story. "Candy Earth".
– Kolya, Kolya! - Vasya ran into the room, - such an idea came to my mind!
– What, Vasya?
– The earth is like a ball, isn't it? - Vasya specified.
– Well, yes...
– So if we dig right through the Earth, we'll end up in a different place, right?
– Exactly! - Kolya was delighted.
– Let's run!
– Baaaaa grandma!
– What, Kolya?
– Grandma, where do we have a shovel?
– In the barn, Kolenka. Why do you need a shovel? - answered the grandmother.
– We want to dig the Earth, maybe we'll get somewhere, - Kolya said happily.
Grandma smiled and asked:
– Do you even know how it works?
– And what is there to know, - Vasya answered, - earth by earth - what could be simpler!
– But no. Not everything is so simple - answered the grandmother.
– But as? Grandma, tell me, please. Well, please! - Began to beg the grandmother Kolya.
– Well, okay, okay - the grandmother agreed, and began her story.
– The earth is like a candy: in the center of a nut is a kernel, then there is a creamy filling - this is a mantle, and on top chocolate glaze- this is the earth's crust. The distance only from here to the center of the nucleus is more than 6,000 km, but you want it right through, ”the grandmother grinned.
– So, everything is canceled, - Kolya was upset ...
– Yeah, it would be nice to have such a candy, - Vasya said dreamily.
Stage III. Explanation of the new material .
Teacher. After listening to the story and using (visual aid) TABLE "Internal structure of the Earth", answer the questions.
SLIDE 4.
Teacher. What is the internal structure of the Earth?
Student. The earth has a layer-by-layer structure: the core, the mantle, the earth's crust.
Teacher. If we compare our planet with an egg, we get some similarities. Which? What do scientists want to show with this comparison?
Student. Shell - the earth's crust; squirrel - mantle; the core is the yolk. The earth has a layered structure.
SLIDE 5.
Independent work - orally. The internal structure of the Earth in the figure is shown in numbers. What does each number stand for?
SLIDE 6.
Work with the textbook, with illustrations. Filling the table. Pair work (in writing).
Using the material of the textbook (page 38 §16 paragraph 3, determine the temperature), (Figure 22, page 39 §16, determine the thickness of the mantle), fill in the gaps (cells) in the table "Internal structure of the Earth". Pair work (mutual check).
SLIDE 7.
Internal structure of the Earth.
№
Shell name
Size (thickness)
State
Temperature
Pressure
Percentage
Earth's crust
5–80 km
Solid
Various, from -7 ° С to + 57 ° С
760 mm. rt. Art.
Top mantle
200-250 km
Plastic, softened
2000 ° C
1.3 million atm.
82%
Bottom mantle
2900 km
Solid, crystalline
External core
2250 km
Molten, liquid
2000-5000 ° C
3.6 million atm.
17%
Internal core
1250 km
Solid
Cells for students to fill out in italics.
Rule: starting from a depth of 20-30m, the temperature of the earth's crust increases by an average of 3 ° for every 100m.
Teacher. Why is the mantle called the main part of the Earth?
Student. The mantle occupies the main interior Earth.
Teacher. How the temperature in the bowels of the Earth changes.
Student. The temperature rises when moving inward of the Earth.
Physical education
The separation into shells occurred due to the heating of the planet's interior and the separation of matter by specific gravity: the heavier elements sank to the center of the Earth and formed the core, the lighter ones floated up, forming the mantle and the earth's crust. Heating is supported by an internal source of energy - the decay of radioactive elements.
Teacher. Guys, what is the lithosphere.
Lithosphere: "lithos " - stone, "sphere "- a ball. This hard, rocky shell of the Earth, consisting of the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle, has a thickness of 70 to 250 km.
Lithosphere - unites the inner and outer shells of the Earth.
The earth's crust (the upper part of the lithosphere), in turn, is divided into continental (continental) and oceanic.
SLIDE 8.
Exercise. Using the picture, fill in the diagram.
SLIDE 9.
What are the types of the earth's crust?
How many and what layers compose the continental crust and oceanic crust?
The thickness of the continental crust is up to 70 km in the mountains, 30–40 km under the plains. It has 3 layers (sedimentary, granite, basalt). It is older.
The thickness of the oceanic crust is 5-10 km beneath the oceans. It has 2 layers (sedimentary, basalt). The younger one is formed in the area of the tops of the oceanic ridges.
This arrangement of the layers is not accidental and is explained by the density of the substances composing them. Granite mainly consists of less dense substances, such as feldspar, mica. Basalt - denser, heavier substances: labradorite, magnetite, olivine, etc. Therefore, the basalt layer lies under the granite layer.
The earth's crust was melted out of the mantle material gradually, as a result of a long and complex physicochemical transformation. At the same time, granite and basalt layers were first distinguished. Sedimentary arose later, mainly from the products of their destruction and transformation by living organisms. It covers almost the entire surface of the Earth. The sedimentary layer is composed of sedimentary rocks. The granite layer is represented by igneous (granites, etc.) and metamorphic rocks, similar in composition to granites (gneisses, etc.). Basalt layer of igneous and dense metamorphic rocks, rich in magnesium and iron.
How did the formation of the earth's crust take place? The formation of the earth's crust took place billions of years ago from the viscous-liquid substance of the mantle - magma. The most widespread and light parts of it chemical substances- silicon and aluminum - solidified in the upper layers. Having solidified, they no longer drowned and remained afloat in the form of peculiar islands. But these islets were not stable, they were at the mercy of internal mantle currents, which carried them down, and often simply drowned in hot magma.Magma (from greektagma - thick mud) - a molten mass formed in the Earth's mantle. But time passed, and the first small solid massifs gradually joined together, forming territories of an already significant area. Like ice floes in the open ocean, they moved around the planet at the behest of internal mantle currents.
How did people manage to get an idea of the internal structure of the Earth? Humanity receives valuable information about the structure of the Earth as a result of drilling super-deep wells, as well as with the help of special seismic research methods (from the Greek "seismos" - oscillation). This is how geophysicists study our Earth. This method is based on studying the speed of propagation in the Earth of vibrations that occur during earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or explosions. For this purpose, a special device is used - a seismograph.. Scientists-seismologists receive unique information about the bowels of the Earth from observations of volcanic eruptions. The science of seismology is the science of earthquakes. Based on seismic data, 3 main shells are distinguished in the structure of the Earth, differing chemical composition, state of aggregation and physical properties.
A bit of history. One of the first seismographs was invented at the beginning of the 20th century. Russian physicist and geographer Boris Borisovich Golitsyn. Based on the developments of Golitsyn, the first seismic station was created in our country. Applying the seismic method of studying the internal structure of the Earth, in 1916, at a depth of about 500 km, he discovered the boundary of a sharp change in the properties of the planet (the so-called Golitsyn layer), along which the lower boundary of the upper mantle is drawn.
The name of the device speaks of its purpose - recording the vibrations of the earth's matter. How does this happen? Under the influence of powerful shocks occurring inside the Earth, the earth's matter begins to vibrate, while it turned out that the speed of propagation of the vibrations is different. Investigating this phenomenon in the laboratory, scientists took substances of different density. The results showed that the speed of vibrations from shocks of the same strength in substances of different density is different. On the basis of this, scientists have come to the conclusion that the earth's crust consists of substances of different density. So, according to the rate of fluctuations of the earth's substance in the earth's crust, three of its layers were identified: the upper one is sedimentary (composed of limestone, sand, clay and other rocks), the middle one is granite and the lower one is basalt. In granite rocks, for example, the wave propagation speed is about 5 km / s, in sandstones it is less - about 3 km / s.
SLIDE 10.
Working with the tutorial. Using p. 40 clause # 3 §16 name the deepest well.
The deepest mine goes to a depth of no more than 8 km, and the deepest well reaches 15 km on the Kola Peninsula.
And this is a negligible value in comparison with the dimensions of the Earth. After all, the distance from the surface to the center of the Earth is 6370 km. And yet, deep drilling is one of the most reliable methods for studying the interior of the earth, it allows you to learn a lot about the structural features of our planet.
Why is it necessary to study the structure of the Earth? Revealing the secrets of the Earth's internal structure will make it possible to correctly explain the formation and development of the planet, the origin of continents and oceans, make it possible to predict volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, accelerate the search for mineral deposits, and much more.
Stage IV. Anchoring .
Exercise. Find a match (drag and drop method).
Core
Layer thickness 5-10 km
Mantle
Temperature from +2000 ° С to + 5000 ° С, solid state
Continental crust
Temperature +2000 ° С, viscous state, closer to solid, consists of two layers
Oceanic crust
Consists of granite, basalt and sedimentary rocks.
Answer. 1B, 2V, 3G, 4A
SLIDE 11.
Stage V. Generalization .
Exercise.
The game"Erudite". Tell as much as possible about the lithosphere, but it is allowed to speak only one sentence at a time, starting with the words: "I know that ...". You cannot repeat and pause between the answers of the opponents for more than 5 seconds.
I know that the lithosphere is the shell of the Earth.
I know that the lithosphere is made up of the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle.
I know that the lithosphere unites the inner and outer shells of the Earth.
I know that the lithosphere is the stone shell of the Earth ("lithos " - stone, "sphere "- ball).
I know that the lithosphere has a thickness of 70 to 250 km.
I know that the earth's crust is divided into continental and oceanic ...
Stage VI. Homework
§ 16, creative task. Write a poem, fairy tale, or story about the lithosphere.
Stage VII. Summarizing. Assessment of students. Reflection .
The guys in the lesson today set tasks: to study the internal structure of the Earth, methods of study and the lithosphere.
Do you think we have coped with these tasks? Yes.
That is, the goal of the lesson has been achieved? Yes.
The process chart contains emoticons that show the mood. Note what mood you were in the lesson today.
SLIDE 12.
Praises. Tell each other kind word... A positive assessment from the class with a round of applause for Good work at the lesson.
SLIDE 13.
The lesson is over. Thanks to all. Well done!
The internal structure of the Earth includes three shells: the earth's crust, mantle and core. The shell structure of the Earth was established by remote sensing methods based on measuring the speed of propagation of seismic waves having two components - longitudinal and shear waves. Longitudinal (P) waves associated with tensile (or compression) stresses oriented in the direction of their propagation. Transverse (S) waves cause vibrations of the medium, oriented at right angles to the direction of their propagation. These waves do not propagate in a liquid medium. The main values of the physical parameters of the Earth are given in Fig. 5.1.
Earth's crust- a stony shell, composed of a solid with an excess of silica, alkali, water and an insufficient amount of magnesium and iron. It separates from the upper mantle the border of Mohorovicic(Moho layer), on which there is a jump in the velocities of longitudinal seismic waves up to about 8 km / s. This line, established in 1909 by the Yugoslav scientist A. Mohorovich, is believed to coincide with the outer peridotite shell of the upper mantle. The thickness of the earth's crust (1% of the total mass of the Earth) averages 35 km: under young folded mountains on continents, it increases to 80 km, and under mid-oceanic ridges it decreases to 6 - 7 km (counting from the surface of the ocean floor) ...
Mantle represents the largest shell of the Earth in terms of volume and weight, extending from the bottom of the earth's crust to Gutenberg boundaries, corresponding to a depth of approximately 2900 km and taken as the lower boundary of the mantle. The mantle is subdivided into bottom(50% of the Earth's mass) and upper(eighteen%). By modern ideas, the composition of the mantle is rather uniform due to intense convective mixing by intramantle currents. There are almost no direct data on the material composition of the mantle. It is assumed that it is composed of a molten silicate mass saturated with gases. The velocities of propagation of longitudinal and transverse waves in the lower mantle increase, respectively, up to 13 and 7 km / s. The upper mantle from a depth of 50-80 km (under the oceans) and 200-300 km (under the continents) to 660-670 km is called asthenosphere. This is a layer of increased plasticity of a substance close to the melting point.
Core is a spheroid with an average radius of about 3500 km. There is also no direct information on the composition of the kernel. It is known that it is the most dense shell of the Earth. The core is also subdivided into two areas: external, to a depth of 5150 km, being in a liquid state, and internal - solid. In the outer core, the velocity of propagation of longitudinal waves drops to 8 km / s, and transverse waves do not propagate at all, which is taken as a proof of its liquid state. Deeper than 5150 km, the velocity of propagation of longitudinal waves increases and transverse waves pass again. The inner core accounts for 2% of the Earth's mass, and the outer - 29%.
The outer "hard" shell of the Earth, including the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle, forms lithosphere(fig.5.2). Its capacity is 50-200 km.
Rice. 5.1. Changes in physical parameters in the bowels of the Earth (according to S.V. Aplonov, 2001)
Rice. 5.2. The internal structure of the Earth and the velocity of propagation of longitudinal (R) and transverse (S) seismic waves (after S.V. Aplonov, 2001)
The lithosphere and the underlying moving layers of the asthenosphere, where intra-terrestrial movements of a tectonic nature usually originate and are realized, as well as often there are foci of earthquakes and molten magma, are called tectonosphere.
Composition of the earth's crust. Chemical elements in the earth's crust form natural compounds - minerals, usually solids with specific physical properties. The earth's crust contains more than 3000 minerals, including about 50 rock-forming ones.
Natural natural combinations of minerals form rocks. The earth's crust is composed of rocks of different composition and origin. By origin, rocks are subdivided into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are formed due to solidification of magma. If this happens in the thickness of the earth's crust, then intrusive crystallized rocks, and when magma erupts onto the surface, effusive education. According to the content of silica (SiO2), the following groups of igneous rocks are distinguished: sour(> 65% - granites, liparites, etc.), average(65-53% - syenite, andesite, etc.), the main(52-45% - gabbro, basalts, etc.) and ultrabasic(<45% - перидотиты, дуниты и др.).
Sedimentary rocks arise on the earth's surface due to the deposition of material in various ways. Some of them are formed as a result of the destruction of rocks. it fragmental, or plastic, rocks. The size of the fragments varies from boulders and pebbles to dusty particles, which makes it possible to distinguish among them rocks of different granulometric composition - boulders, pebbles, conglomerates, sands, sandstones, etc. Organogenic rocks are created with the participation of organisms (limestone, coal, chalk, etc.). A significant place is occupied by chemogenic rocks associated with the precipitation of a substance from a solution under certain conditions.
Metamorphic rocks are formed as a result of changes in igneous and sedimentary rocks under the influence of high temperatures and pressures in the bowels of the Earth. These include gneisses, crystalline schists, marble, etc.
Crystalline rocks of magmatic and metamorphic genesis make up about 90% of the earth's crust. For the geographic envelope, a relatively thin and discontinuous layer of sedimentary rocks (stratisphere), which are in direct contact with various components of the geographic envelope, plays an important role. The average thickness of sedimentary rocks is about 2.2 km, the real thickness ranges from 10-14 km in troughs to 0.5-1 km in the ocean bed. According to the research of A.B. Ronov, the most common sedimentary rocks are clays and shales (50%), sands and sandstones (23.6%), carbonate formations (23.5%). In the composition of the earth's surface, an important role is played by loesses and loess-like loams of non-glacial regions, unsorted strata of moraines in glacial regions, and intrazonal accumulations of pebble-sandy formations of water origin.
The structure of the earth's crust. In terms of structure and thickness (Fig. 5.3), there are two main types of the earth's crust - continental (continental) and oceanic. The differences in their chemical composition can be seen from table. 5.1.
Continental crust consists of sedimentary, granite and basalt layers. The latter is conditionally highlighted because the velocities of seismic waves are equal to those in basalts. The granite layer consists of rocks enriched in silicon and aluminum (SIAL), the rocks of the basalt layer are enriched in silicon and magnesium (SIAM). The contact between a granite layer with an average density of about 2.7 g / cm3 and a basalt layer with an average density of about 3 g / cm3 is known as the Konrad boundary (named after the German explorer V. Konrad, who discovered it in 1923).
Ocean crust two-layer. Its main mass is composed of basalts, on which a thin sedimentary layer lies. The thickness of the basalts exceeds 10 km; in the upper parts, interlayers of sedimentary Late Mesozoic rocks have been reliably established. The thickness of the sedimentary cover, as a rule, does not exceed 1-1.5 km.
Rice. 5.3. The structure of the earth's crust: 1 - basalt layer; 2 - granite layer; 3 - stratisphere and weathering crust; 4 - basalts of the ocean floor; 5 - areas with low biomass; 6 - areas with high biomass; 7 - ocean waters; 8 - sea ice; 9 - deep faults of continental slopes
The basalt layer on the continents and on the ocean floor is fundamentally different. On the continents, these are contact formations between the mantle and the most ancient terrestrial rocks, as it were, the primary crust of the planet, which arose before or at the beginning of its independent development (possibly evidence of the "lunar" stage of the Earth's evolution). In the oceans, these are real basaltic formations, mainly of the Mesozoic age, which arose due to underwater eruptions during the spreading of lithospheric plates. The first should be several billion years old, the second should be no more than 200 million years old.
Table 5.1. Chemical composition of the continental and oceanic crust (according to S.V. Aplonov, 2001)
| Content, % | ||
| Oxides | Continental crust | Ocean crust |
| SiO2 | 60,2 | 48,6 |
| TiO2 | 0,7 | 1.4 |
| Al2O3 | 15,2 | 16,5 |
| Fe2O3 | 2,5 | 2,3 |
| FeO | 3,8 | 6,2 |
| MnO | 0,1 | 0,2 |
| MgO | 3,1 | 6,8 |
| CaO | 5,5 | 12,3 |
| Na2O | 3,0 | 2,6 |
| K2O | 2,8 | 0,4 |
In some places there is transitional type the earth's crust, which is characterized by significant spatial heterogeneity. It is known in the marginal seas of East Asia (from the Bering Sea to the South China Sea), the Sunda Archipelago and some other regions of the world.
The presence of different types of the earth's crust is due to differences in the development of individual parts of the planet and their age. This problem is extremely interesting and important from the point of view of the reconstruction of the geographic envelope. Previously, it was assumed that the oceanic crust is primary, and the continental crust is secondary, although it is many billions of years older than it. According to modern concepts, the oceanic crust arose due to the introduction of magma along the faults between the continents.
Scientists' dreams of practical verification of the concepts of the structure of the lithosphere, based on remote geophysical data, came true in the second half of the 20th century, when deep and superdeep drilling on land and the bottom of the World Ocean became possible. Among the most famous projects is the Kola superdeep well, drilled to a depth of 12,066 m (drilling was stopped in 1986) within the Baltic Shield in order to reach the boundary between the granite and basalt layers of the earth's crust, and, if possible, its bottom - the Moho horizon. The Kola superdeep borehole refuted many well-established ideas about the structure of the Earth's interior. The location of the Konrad horizon in this area at a depth of about 4.5 km, supposed by geophysical sounding, was not confirmed. The velocity of longitudinal waves changed (did not increase, but fell) at the level of 6842 m, where the volcanic-sedimentary rocks of the Early Proterozoic were replaced by amphibolite-gneiss rocks of the Late Archean. The "culprit" of the change was not the composition of the rocks, but their special state - hydrogenic decompaction, first discovered in a natural state in the Earth's mass. Thus, another explanation of the change in the velocities and directions of geophysical waves became possible.
Structural elements of the earth's crust. The earth's crust was formed for at least 4 billion years, during which it became more complex under. the impact of endogenous (mainly under the influence of tectonic movements) and exogenous (weathering, etc.) processes. Manifesting with different intensity and at different times, tectonic movements formed the structures of the earth's crust, which form relief planets.
Large landforms are called morphostructures(eg mountain ranges, plateaus). Relatively small landforms form morphosculptures(for example, karst).
The main planetary structures of the Earth - continents and oceans. V large structures of the second order are distinguished within the continents - folded belts and platforms, which are clearly expressed in the modern relief.
Platforms - These are tectonically stable areas of the earth's crust, usually of a two-tiered structure: the lower one, formed by the most ancient rocks, is called foundation, upper, composed mainly of sedimentary rocks of a later age - sedimentary cover. The age of the platforms is estimated by the time the foundation was formed. Areas of platforms where the foundation is submerged under a sedimentary cover are called slabs(for example, Russian plate). The places where the platform foundation rocks emerge on the day surface are called shields(for example, the Baltic shield).
Tectonically stable areas are distinguished at the bottom of the oceans - thalassocratons and mobile tectonically active bands - georiftogenals. The latter spatially correspond to mid-oceanic ridges with alternating uplifts (in the form of seamounts) and subsidence (in the form of deep-sea depressions and trenches). Together with volcanic manifestations and local uplifts of the oceanic bottom, oceanic geosynclines create specific structures of island arcs and archipelagos, expressed on the northern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean.
Contact zones between continents and oceans are divided into two types: active and passive. The first are the centers of the strongest earthquakes, active volcanism and a significant range of tectonic movements. Morphologically, they are expressed by the conjugation of marginal seas, island arcs and deep-sea trenches of the oceans. The most typical are all the outskirts of the Pacific Ocean ("Pacific Ring of Fire") and the northern part of the Indian Ocean. The latter are an example of a gradual change of continents across the shelves and continental slopes to the ocean floor. These are the margins of most of the Atlantic Ocean, as well as the Arctic and Indian Oceans. We can talk about more complex contacts, especially in the Regions of the development of transitional types of the earth's crust.
Dynamics of the lithosphere. The concepts of the mechanism of formation of terrestrial structures are developed by scientists of various directions, which can be combined into two groups. Representatives fixism proceed from the statement about the fixed position of the Continents on the surface of the Earth and the predominance of vertical Movements in tectonic deformations of the layers of the earth's crust. Supporters mobilism the primary role is assigned to horizontal movements. The main ideas of mobilism were formulated by A. Wegener (1880-1930) as continental drift hypothesis. New data obtained in the second half of the 20th century made it possible to develop this direction to the modern theory neomobilism, explaining the dynamics of processes in the earth's crust by the drift of large lithospheric plates.
According to the theory of neomobilism, the lithosphere consists of plates (their number, according to various estimates, ranges from 6 to several dozen), which move horizontally at a speed of several millimeters to several centimeters per year. Lithospheric plates are set in motion as a result of thermal convection in the upper mantle. However, recent studies, in particular deep drilling, show that the asthenosphere is not continuous. If we recognize the discreteness of the asthenosphere, then the prevailing ideas about convective cells and the structure of movement of blocks of the earth's crust, which underlie classical models of geodynamics, should also be rejected. PN Kropotkin, for example, believes that it is more correct to speak of forced convection, which is associated with the movement of matter in the Earth's mantle under the action of alternating increases and decreases in the Earth's radius. Intense mountain building in the last tens of millions of years, in his opinion, was due to the progressive compression of the Earth, amounting to about 0.5 mm per year, or 0.5 km per million years, possibly with the general tendency of the Earth to expand.
According to the modern structure of the earth's crust, in the central parts of the oceans, the boundaries of the lithospheric plates are mid-ocean ridges with rift (fault) zones along their axes. On the periphery of the oceans, in the transition zones between the continents and the bed of the oceanic basin, geosynclinal mobile belts with folded-volcanic island arcs and deep-sea trenches along their outer margins. There are three options for the interaction of lithospheric plates: discrepancy, or spreading; collision, accompanied, depending on the type of contacting plates, by subduction, eduction or collision; horizontal slip one plate relative to the other.
Concerning the problem of the emergence of oceans and continents, it should be noted that at present it is most often solved by recognizing the fragmentation of the earth's crust into a number of plates, the expansion of which caused the formation of huge depressions occupied by ocean waters. The geological structure of the ocean floor is shown in Fig. 5.4. The diagram of the reversals of the magnetic field of the basalts of the oceanic bottom shows the surprising regularities of the symmetrical arrangement of the same type of formations on both sides of the spreading zone and their gradual aging towards the continents (Fig. 5.5). Not only for the sake of justice, we note the existing opinion about the sufficient antiquity of the oceans - deep ocean sediments, as well as relics of the basalt oceanic crust in the form of ophiolites, are widely represented in the geological history of the Earth over the past 2.5 billion years. Blocks of the ancient oceanic crust and lithosphere, imprinted into the deeply submerged foundation of sedimentary basins - a kind of crustal sinkholes, according to S.V. Aplonov, testify to the unrealized potential of the planet - “failed oceans”.
Rice. 5.4. Scheme of the geological structure of the Pacific Ocean bed and its continental framing (according to A.A. Markushev, 1999): / - continental volcanism (a- individual volcanoes, b - trap fields); II - volcanoes of island blowers and continental margins (a - underwater, b- ground); III- volcanoes of underwater ridges (a) and oceanic islands (b); IV - volcanoes of the marginal seas (a - underwater, b - ground); V- spreading structures of the development of modern tholeiite-basalt submarine volcanism; VI- deep water troughs; Vii- lithospheric plates (numbers in circles): 1 - Burmese; 2 - Asian; 3 - North American; 4 - South American; 5 - Antarctic; 6 - Australian; 7- Solomonov; 8- Bismarck; 9 - Philippine; 10 - Mariana; 11 - Juan de Fuca; 12 - Caribbean; 13 - Coconut; 14 - Nazca; 15 - Skosha; 16 - Pacific; VIII - the main volcanoes and trap fields: 1 - Baker; 2 - Lassen Peak; 3-5- traps {3 - Colombia, 4 - Patagonia, 5 - Mongolia); 6 - Tres Virgines; 7 - Parikutin; 8 - Popocatepetl; 9 - Mont Pele; 10 - Cotopaxi; 11 - Tarawera; 12 - Kermadec; 13 - Maunaloa (Hawaiian Archipelago); 14- Krakatoa; 75- Taal; 16- Fujiyama; 17 - Theologian; 18 - Katmai. Basalt age is given according to drilling data
Rice. 5.5. Age (Ma) of the Atlantic Ocean floor, determined using a magnetostratigraphic scale (according to E. Zeibol and V. Berger, 1984)
Formation of the modern appearance of the Earth. V throughout the history of the earth, the location and configuration of the continents and oceans have been constantly changing. According to geological data, the continents of the Earth have united four times. Reconstruction of the stages of their formation over the last 570 Ma (in the Phanerozoic) indicates the existence of the last supercontinent - Pangeas with a fairly thick, up to 30-35 km continental crust, formed 250 million years ago, which disintegrated into Gondwana, occupied the southern part of the globe, and Laurasia, uniting the northern continents. The collapse of Pangea led to the opening of the body of water, initially in the form paleo-Quiet ocean and ocean Tethys, and later (65 million years ago) - modern oceans. Now we are watching the continents diverge. It is difficult to imagine what will be the dislocation of modern continents and oceans in the future. According to S.V. Aplonov, it is possible to unite them into a fifth supercontinent, the center of which will be Eurasia. V.P. Trubitsyn believes that in a billion years the continents may again gather at the South Pole.