The assessment of lexical compatibility in expressive speech cannot be approached stereotypically, since there are special laws of “attraction” of words to each other. In particular, in artistic and journalistic works the boundaries of lexical compatibility can be expanded. It has been noted that restrictions on semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative word usage: phrases are possible that seem meaningless if their constituent words are taken literally ( the sunset is burning, the years are flying, dark thoughts). The semantic incompatibility of words is not an obstacle to the creation of artistic images. It is the violation of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, that underlies many classical images that have become textbook examples of epithets, metaphors, and metonymies: gray winter threat(A. Pushkin); The bell cries loudly, / And laughs and squeals(P. Vyazemsky); Sometimes he falls passionately in love / With his elegant sadness...(M. Lermontov); potbellied nut bureau(N. Gogol); mental and moral cleavage; bald syllogism(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin).
Violation of lexical compatibility can become effective means creating a comic sound of speech in a humorous context: From that day on, Evstigneika became famous(M. Gorky); apple with a mole; ebullient lazy person(I. Ilf and E. Petrov); based on a comprehensive and double-edged squabble(I. Ilf); single fox terrier(L. Lench). Violation of lexical compatibility as a striking stylistic device for creating a comic effect underlies various jokes and aphorisms that are usually published on the humorous pages of magazines and newspapers:
The genius was recognized alive; It is difficult to forgive other people's shortcomings, but even more difficult to forgive other people's virtues; our sworn friends; an inveterate leader; Finally, the government achieved a significant deterioration in the lives of the people; Despite the fall, she pulled herself together and took fifth place in the individual championship at the Sochi Olympics.
Inconsistency makes headlines catchy, for example: A genre destined for success (O parodies); Memories of the future(name of the movie); Alone with everyone(play by A. I. Gelman); Stalkers of the skies(about helicopter pilots working in areas of high radiation); Turn on the silence, What they were silent about in the subway; Long, multi-episode life; Bouquet of stars (stage).
Poets often violate lexical compatibility. The unusual combinations of words in the songs of V. S. Vysotsky are expressive:
Poets walk with their heels on the blade of a knife
And they cut their barefoot souls to blood.
In non-expressive, prosaic speech, phrases walking heels, barefoot souls would seem impossible, absurd, but in a poetic context they amaze with their artistic power. Another example from a song by the same author:
By morning they shot the hushed mountain echo -
And tears flowed like stones from the wounded rocks...
If the author does not strive to achieve a certain stylistic goal, a violation of lexical compatibility becomes speech error. This reflects a characteristic feature of the dialectical nature of language: in one case, a phenomenon that represents a deviation from the linguistic norm turns out to be an effective means of creating speech expression, in another - evidence of the author’s negligence and inattentive attitude to the word. Involuntary violation of lexical compatibility is a very common speech error.
See for example: Although in these competitions our favorite skaters were defeated, the audience greets them standing, says the sports commentator (but: win, lose). Maybe insomnia has come to you, / And you’re lying there, not closing my eyes blue, – writes the poet (but: you can close your eyes, but not sight). The basin produced cozy experience, – the journalist notes in the essay (you can produce pleasant impression, but not cozy). This event was accepted village residents with joy and enthusiasm,– a schoolgirl notes in an essay about the upcoming restoration of a local temple (but: accept Can sick person etc., and event should still be perceive). Some words are often used in incorrect combinations ( the meeting is convened, the conversation is read, increase attention, give importance, increase horizons and etc.).
Violation of lexical compatibility can be caused by contamination of outwardly similar phrases, for example: satisfy modern needs (mixing combinations satisfy the requirements of And meet needs); With this recovered material damage in favor of victims (material damage May be refunded ; collected can be money); Improved art level exhibitions folk museums (level Maybe increase, increase; improve Can quality). More examples of contamination: take action (cf.: take action - take steps); deserved fame (gained fame - earned respect); unflagging help (constant help – unflagging attention); doesn't matter (doesn't matter – doesn't matter). The mixture of phrases gave rise to a joke:
Tastes could not be discussed:
Some people respect apricots in brine,
Others like jam with mustard.
But all this has no role
And besides, doesn't matter.
(E. Svistunov)
When using words that have extreme limited opportunities lexical connections, violation of lexical compatibility often becomes the reason for the comic sound of speech. See for example:
Serious problems collapsed for young entrepreneurs by surprise; Leaders paid serious attention to disadvantages achieved; They worked like the best notorious specialists; People came to us dejected by the experience.
The comedy in such cases arises because words that have limited lexical compatibility “suggest” variants of phrases, as a rule, with the exact opposite meaning (cf.: achievements achieved, notorious swindlers, grief-stricken).
Let's look at examples of stylistic editing of sentences in which lexical compatibility is violated:
As you can see, stylistic editing mainly comes down to replacing words, the use of which led to a violation of lexical compatibility.
Lexical compatibility disorders
Words in a language do not exist in isolation, but are combined into groups - systems of different sizes. Of all the systems that we find in language, the lexical system is the most flexible.
Like other levels of language (phonetic, word-formative, grammatical), vocabulary is a system, i.e. a set of elements (including phraseological units) that are in regular relationships and together form a certain integrity. This is the lexical (lexical-semantic) system of language. Its elements are lexical units that are connected by relations of identity, similarity, opposition, inclusion, etc.
An example of the simplest lexical unit is a word taken in one of its meanings, or a “word-concept”.
The word in the lexical system is the basic unit of language. A word is a versatile linguistic sign. It combines the signifier - the external, sound side, the sound shell and the signified - the internal side, meaning. The word is characterized by syntactics - different combinability properties, i.e. the ability to be combined with other words, as well as pragmatics (from the Greek pragma - deed, action) - the speaker’s attitude to reality, to the content of the message, to the addressee enshrined in the word.
Lexical meaning is the most important part of the semantics of a word. The content (semantics) of a lexeme word, that is, a significant word, consists of two components: subject-material (lexical) and formal (grammatical) meanings. So, denoting a large populated area, Russian word the city is at the same time inanimate noun masculine, can change according to cases and numbers - this is its grammatical content, formed in coherent speech and serving coherent speech. Functional words - conjunctions, prepositions, particles - indicating various connections and relationships between words and sentences, various shades of the expressed thought (confidence, doubt, etc.), do not name anything, and therefore their semantics, as already noted, consists only of grammatical meaning, and they have no lexical meaning.
Lexical meaning is the most important part of the semantics of a lexeme. It is this aspect of the word that is interesting to native speakers. The vast majority of linguistic dictionaries, primarily explanatory monolingual and translated bilingual dictionaries, are designed to store and transmit information about the meaning of words. Studying foreign language spends most of his energy on mastering words, and the stages of language training are measured by movement from a minimum dictionary.
Often in a language systems of words are formed in which the commonality of meaning corresponds to parallelism of forms. For example, verbs denoting movement in the Russian language form a harmonious system, the elements of which differ according to three main characteristics: the method of movement (walk, drive, swim, etc.), the independent or non-independent nature of the movement (compare go, ride, with one sides, and lead, carry, carry - on the other) and the direction of movement (expressed by prefixes: in - “inside”, you - “inside”, vz - “up”, s - “down”, etc.).
Even in this harmonious system we find inconsistencies. Thus, the upward movement in some cases is indicated by the prefix vz - (to ascend), in others - to - (to drive onto...), as a result of which the ambiguity of the verb is formed (to enter the city and drive up the mountain).
Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are united in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, attribute, action, etc.). Such systemic relationships in groups of words united by common features are called paradigmatic (from the Greek paradeigma “example, sample”).
Paradigmatic connections between words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems consist of words grouped based on similar meanings and synonyms. They form synonymous series, diverse thematic groups with a hierarchy of units compared as specific and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexical and grammatical classes - parts of speech. [Shmelev D.N. 1964: 72-73].
Lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are quite stable and are not subject to changes under the influence of context. However, the semantics of specific words can reflect the features of the context, which is a reflection of systemic connections in the vocabulary.
The words in a sentence are related to each other grammatically and meaningfully. Grammatical connections ensure the grammatical correctness of speech. An example of grammatical connections are: agreement of an adjective-definer with a defined noun in gender, number and case (ripe ear - ripe cherry - ripe apple - ripe fruits), verbal control of nouns (I hammer a nail, went outside, played sports), etc. .
Semantic connections ensure the correctness of the statement in terms of its meaning.
The compatibility of a word is realized in the context. The foundations of the doctrine of context, of the contextological analysis of words were laid by N.N. Amosova. [Amosova N.N., 1963: 28]. Context N.N. Amosova calls “the combination of a semantically realized word (i.e., a word in relation to the implementation of the meaning of which the context is isolated) with an indicative minimum (i.e., an element of the speech chain that carries the required semantic indication).”
Context can be variable or constant. In a variable context, free meanings of words are realized, as evidenced by the variability of the demonstrative minimum within the same semantic result.
By the nature of the demonstrative minimum, the variable context can be lexical and syntactic. The first contains such an indicative minimum, “which contributes to the realization of the meaning of the word through the very semantics of the word or complex of words that makes up this indicative minimum...” [Amosova N.N., 1963: 34].
The second is characterized by the fact that the indicative minimum in it is the syntactic construction itself, the element of which is a semantically realized word, regardless of the lexical meanings of the words included in this construction [Amosova N.N., 1963: 34].
The demonstrative minimum in a syntactic context can appear in the form of either the syntactic function of a keyword or phrase in relation to a semantically realized word, or the syntactic function of the semantically realized word itself in a sentence.
Finally, the lexical context, depending on the number of words included in the demonstrative minimum, can be a context of the first degree (the demonstrative minimum in it is represented by one keyword that is in direct syntactic connection with the semantically realized word; the keyword can be the main or dependent member of the phrase, subject or predicate, homogeneous member) or context of the second degree, containing a “polynomial demonstrative minimum” [Amosova N.N., 1963: 39].
Second degree context is required when the keyword performs only a negative function, signaling what meanings the word cannot have, but not talking about the implementation actual value, or when the keyword turns out to be polysemantic, capable of being combined with a semantically realized word also in its different meanings.
Unlike grammatical connections, which, as a rule, reveal themselves in the form of connected words (for example, in endings), the semantic relationships of words are rarely expressed in their appearance. However, when using a word in speech, we must coordinate its meaning with other words. This semantic coordination is expressed in two types of verbal compatibility - semantic and lexical.
Semantic compatibility of the word- this is its ability to enter into combinations with entire classes of words united by a common meaning. For example, the verbs think, believe, rejoice, laugh, be sad and others describe various states person; This means that they can only be combined with words that designate a person (this is one of the semantic classes): boy, old man, passerby, doctor, teacher, etc. Only in a fairy tale, a fantastic story or in an ironic presentation are expressions like “the goat thinking” or “the closet laughed” possible.
Lexical compatibility of a word- this is its ability to enter into combinations not with any word from any semantic class, but only with some. For example, there is a class of words united by the common meaning of “many”, “collection”: herd, herd, flock, swarm, school, etc. If it is necessary to designate many animals, we cannot combine the name of any animal with any of these words. They say: a herd of cows, a herd of horses, a flock of birds, a swarm of bees, a school of fish (but not “a herd of fish or fishes,” “a herd of bees,” “a swarm of horses,” etc.).
Lexical compatibility (or - compatibility of word meanings) is manifested in the selectivity of lexemes. Within a phrase, significant words enter into certain, more or less stable relationships with each other, the violation of which leads to a violation of lexical compatibility, for example: to provide care, interest instead of to provide a service, attention, to show care, interest.
The reason for such diversity can be seen in the real multiplicity of designated objects, substances and phenomena: for example, cows and birds, horses, bees and fish are so different by their very nature that there is nothing to be surprised at the different “behavior” of the corresponding words in combination with other words.
But even in the case when we are not talking about specific things, but about relationships or actions (i.e., about abstract, abstract vocabulary), the compatibility of words is lexically determined. They write: to attack, to inspect, to resist, to give advice. It is obvious that the verbs commit, produce, render, give in these combinations play the same role - they “verb” a noun, which, if necessary, can easily be turned into a verb equal in meaning to the entire phrase: attack, inspect, resist, advise. However, the language clearly delineates the combinability of these verbs (and nouns with verbs), and not a single person who speaks Russian will ever say or write “commit advice” or “carry out an attack.” [Leshkova O.O., 2004: 77]
In general, lexical compatibility is the crystallization of the semantics of a word, which is realized in the context of a statement. But there is no doubt that lexical compatibility is also manifested in the lexical structure of the word, grammatical features and stylistics. In accordance with this, three types of compatibility can be distinguished: [Pleschenko T.P., 2001: 97] lexical, grammatical and stylistic. The boundaries between these types of compatibility are quite arbitrary and it seems possible to clearly delimit them speculatively.
The boundaries of compatibility are largely determined semantic features words, their meaning. Here are some typical examples [Quote: Oral and writing business person: Directory. Workshop..-M.: Flint: Science, 2000]:
"1. The words hatred and envy, like love, mean “feelings,” and rain, heat and humidity, like frost and wind, refer to “weather and climatic conditions”; one cannot say:
· strong hatred, envy (you can: strong love),
· heavy rain, intense heat, humidity (but: severe frost).
2. The compatibility of a word is determined by the semantic (semantic) features of words, but at the same time it has its own limits. For example:
Unlike wash, its synonym wash is combined only with the names of objects made of fabric or having the properties of fabric.
We can increase what we apply the high parameter to: high yield > increase productivity; high speed > increase speed.
Therefore, it is impossible to say: increase the training of specialists (only: improve preparation...), increase the production of machine tools ( increase production of machine tools).
3. Combinations of words that contain semantic features that negate each other are unacceptable: These drying installations have a high (+) drying depth (-). It should be said: high degree drying".
Studying different types of word compatibility provides the following opportunities:
· as a result of the action of the law of semantic coordination, we obtain information about the actual seme included in the meaning of one of the combining words, and about the potential seme of the meaning of another combining word.
· information about the volume and content of the meaning of the word being studied is expanded, deep associations caused by the use of the word come to the surface, the figurative meanings of the word are justified, etc.
· differences in compatibility make it possible to quite clearly and very objectively determine how many meanings a polysemantic word has.
Based on these possibilities, it is important to understand that the word, in addition to its indirect correlation with real world and significance, it also has the potential to be combined in a certain way with other words. This property of a word (as a practical manifestation of lexical compatibility) was called its valence - the ability of a word to enter into different types of syntactic connections with other words. For example, the valence of the verb “buy” is manifested in its ability to be combined: a) with a direct object (buy a coat); b) with indirect object(buy something for daughter); c) with the circumstance of place (buy something in a store), etc.
Lexical combinability of words is characterized by:
valence, i.e. ability to participate in different syntactic structures. [Loseva L.M. 1980:66]
the presence of syntactical-semantic connections that make up the valence of a word in terms of their strength, necessity, and centrality.
Speaking about the norm of lexical compatibility, we note the work of O.O. Leshkova, in which the norm is defined, on the one hand, as orderliness characteristic not only of language, but also of the world as a whole, and on the other hand, as a “language norm” associated with the rules and accuracy of the use of linguistic forms [Leshkova O.O., 2004 : 52].
Lexical compatibility is determined by the semantic features of words. According to the meaning of the word, two main types of lexical compatibility can be distinguished: free and non-free. Free compatibility occurs when there is a combination of words with a direct meaning. And in this form, free compatibility is determined by the objective, logical nature of the word. Also L.S. Vygotsky emphasized the connection between words and thinking, defining the development of speech as an undoubted act of thinking, i.e. Using words to describe certain actions and manipulations with objects and objects of the surrounding world, a person must operate with the meanings that are embedded in these sign systems in order to ensure both the understanding of this act of communication and the appropriate use of the object. Thus, lexical incompatibility of this type predetermines the erroneous perception and transmission of information. The combination of words that are semantically incompatible with each other leads to illogicalities. [Bagirokov X.3. 2004: 47]
Non-free compatibility is characterized by certain intralingual semantic relations. The manifestation of this type of incompatibility is associated with phraseological meanings and not all semantically compatible concepts can be compatible. Lexical compatibility, determined by intralingual mechanisms, is not typical, in the sense that it is specific to each language and has a “national character”.
Grammatical compatibility is determined grammatical meaning. Any word, as belonging to a certain language system, is subject to the rules of this system and thus, each grammatical unit has fairly strict syntactic connections with other words.
Stylistic compatibility [Pleschenko T.P., 2001: 101] is associated with the stylistic connotations of linguistic units. Stylistically marked words are freely combined with lexemes that have identical colors. Neutral words are freely combined only with neutral ones, expressive words - only with strongly expressive ones.
In fact, the problem of lexical incompatibility arises from the fact that language is not just a means of communication, but, first of all, a means of thinking.
Verbosity, or speech redundancy
Unjustified repetition of words (tautology)
Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.
Keep in mind that the most common vocabulary violations are the following.
Non-discrimination of paronymous words. Paronyms (from Greek. para"nearby" + Opota“name”) - words with the same root, similar in sound, but different in meaning: dress- put on, business trip- businessman, meaning- significance, warranty- guaranteed, economic-economical and so on. For example: At this enterprise there are selective(instead of elective) positions. Registration of travel allowances(instead of business travelers) is carried out in the lobby.
Incorrect use of synonyms. At the same time, the writer demonstrates inattention to the shades of meaning of synonymous words, leading to semantic violations. For example: 1) It's time to sum up the results(instead of results) of the meeting. Flaws(instead of shortcomings) in the team’s training were revealed at the very first competitions.
The presence of pleonasms in the text. Pleonasm(Greek pleopastos- “excess”) - the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore logically unnecessary. These errors are most often caused by ignorance of the meaning of the borrowed word (when combining words of Russian and foreign origin that mean the same thing). For example: price list(necessary: price list), autobiography of life(necessary: autobiography), reality(necessary: reality or actuality), professional colleague(necessary: colleague), vacancy(necessary: job vacancy) and so on.
This is repetition (Greek tauto - “the same” and 1оgos - “meaning”) within a sentence of the same word, cognates, making it difficult to perceive the phrase and making it dissonant. For example: The processing process lasts several hours.
The use of words and phrases that carry unnecessary information. For example: words are superfluous work, activity, event with a pretext By in the following phrases - work to implement(necessary: implementation), implementation activities(necessary: implementation), implementation event(necessary: implementation) and so on.
Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to be combined with each other in speech: to pay a visit, to take action, to be of interest, to bring to attention, to be aware of. Typical mistakes: have a role(necessary: play a role), play a role(necessary: matter) and so on.
5. Using a word without taking into account its stylistic affiliation
The stylistic coloring of a word is additional information to the lexical meaning of a word, phrase or sentence about the scope of their use (official - unofficial), about the attribution of a linguistic unit to the style of a literary language (official business, scientific, newspaper journalistic, colloquial, the language of fiction) , about belonging to the time series (obsolete - new) and to the expressive category (high - reduced; literary - non-literary) of linguistic means.
The use of words in speech with a stylistic coloring that is unusual for a given communication situation or a given text is perceived as a speech error.
Working on the style of a work means, first of all, working on its vocabulary, since the word is the basis for understanding speech. Lack of clarity of speech is an invariable sign of confusion of thought, argued L.N. Tolstoy; Jokingly, the writer remarked: “If I were a king, I would make a law that a writer who uses a word whose meaning he cannot explain will be deprived of the right to write and receive 100 blows of the rod.”
The stylistic approach to the study of vocabulary puts forward the most important problem of choosing a word for the most accurate expression of thought. The correct use of words by the author is not only a virtue of style, but also necessary condition the informational value of the work, the effectiveness of its content. Incorrect choice words distorts the meaning of the statement, generating not only lexical, but also logical errors in speech.
Words should be used in strict accordance with their semantics, i.e. meaning. Each significant word has a lexical meaning, naming phenomena and objects of reality to which certain concepts correspond in our minds. With a clear presentation of thoughts, the words used by the authors fully correspond to their subject-logical meaning. V.G. Belinsky wrote: “Each word in a poetic work must so exhaust the entire meaning required by the thought of the whole work, so that it can be seen that there is no other word in the language that could replace it.”
1.2.2. Finding the right word
Finding the only necessary word in a text requires the writer to exert creative forces and tireless work. This work is sometimes reflected in manuscripts, allowing us to familiarize ourselves with the lexical substitutions that the author made, polishing the style of the work. For example, in the draft of the story by A.S. Pushkin’s “Dubrovsky” we find the following correction: Members (of the court) met him (Troekurov) with expressions of deep respect [deep devotion; deep servility] - the last word most expressively characterized the behavior of the officials bribed by Troyekurov, and the writer left it in the text.
N.V. worked a lot on their manuscripts. Gogol, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov, A.P. Chekhov, I.A. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin and other Russian writers. Finding the right word reflects their auto-editing. It is interesting to compare the original and final versions of some of the texts of our classics. Let us give examples from the story by N.V. Gogol "Taras Bulba".
| Initial version | Published text |
| 1. The rising breeze made it clear that there was little time left before dawn. | 1. A rushing breeze let us know that there was little time left before dawn. |
| 2. The Cossacks made a noise and at once felt their strength. | 2. The Cossacks made a noise and immediately sensed their strength. |
| 3. ...They laughed at the Orthodox faith. | 3. They mocked the Orthodox faith. |
| 4. - “Good!” - repeated in the ranks of the Cossacks. | 4. - “The Koschevoi also said a kind word!” - echoed in the ranks of the Cossacks. |
| 5. “Well, well, tell me what it is!” - the crowd answered in one voice. | 5. ...the crowd shouted in one voice. |
| 6. These words penetrated like lightning. | 6. These words flew by like lightning. |
The desire to find the exact words encourages writers to edit the text by comparing possible options expressions of thought. N.A. Nekrasov we find such a stylistic correction in the description of the scene “at the front entrance”, which so amazed the poet, who later composed the famous poem: “There’s nothing to do, [let’s go, let’s go, head out, stretch] turned into a tavern.” As we can see, it was not so easy for the author to choose a verb of motion that conveyed the mood of the offended peasants.
The stylistic editing of the writers in the manuscript reflects the last stage of work on the text, and what kind of work preceded this, how many drafts were written and then destroyed, how many times the author uttered this or that phrase “to himself” before writing it down on paper - you can talk about this just guess.
A.P. Chekhov spoke about his work like this: “...I’m busy, busy up to my neck: I write and cross out, write and cross out.” He advised his brother: “You have to smudge it fiercely,” noting: “...I don’t want to admit stories without blots.” Reproaching one of the young writers for negligence, A.P. Chekhov reminded: “The manuscripts of all true masters are dirty, crossed out along and across, worn and covered with patches, which in turn are crossed out and defaced.” And he recommended working like this: “You need to write a story for 5-6 days and think about it all the time... It is necessary that each phrase, before being written down, lies in your brain for two days...” This enormous work of the writer on the word is hidden from us, because we see the finished work. The researcher, by comparing drafts and the white version, comparing different editions of works, partially penetrates into the writer’s creative laboratory and can judge by lexical substitutions how he worked on the word.
Many lexical substitutions were made by A.I. Kuprin, working on the article “In Memory of Chekhov.” Here are examples of a more precise choice of words in the process of stylistic editing of a manuscript by the writer himself:
| Options | Published text |
| 1. - But no one knows what is most important in this person. | 1. - But no one realizes that most characteristic in this person. |
| 2. He could be kind and generous without loving, affectionate and gentle... without counting on appreciation. | 2. He could be kind and generous without loving, affectionate and sympathetic... without expecting gratitude. |
| 3. ...I came, it seems, with the main purpose of showing the then sick A. P-chu the production of his play. | 3. ...I came, it seems, with the sole purpose... |
An interesting edit by M. Gorky in the novel “Mother”:
Typically, writers correct lexical errors themselves during the editing process. The editor can also make stylistic edits to the manuscript. Authors for whom literary work is an unusual activity need the help of an editor, although literary editing of the text is not a prerequisite for its publication.
1.2.3. Speech errors caused by incorrect word choice
During the process of literary editing of a manuscript, the editor often has to note errors in word usage. The wrong choice of word makes the speech inaccurate, and sometimes distorts the meaning of the statement: The weather was favorable have a good rest(instead of favored); Martens will soon have an inheritance (meaning offspring); I want to continue the family dynasty and therefore decided to become an officer (instead of tradition). In such cases we talk about using a word without taking into account its semantics. Such lexical errors arise as a result of the author’s stylistic negligence, inattention to the word or poor knowledge of the language. Thus, in a newspaper article we read: New railways will appear in areas difficult to develop. The word “emerge” means “to appear, begin, form, originate”; it is not suitable for naming an action that requires significant effort. Suspicion, anxiety, doubt (spontaneous states) may arise, difficulties, obstacles may arise... Railways cannot arise, they are built by people.
The use of words without taking into account their semantics changes the meaning of the statement: The beginning of 1992 was marked by a deterioration climatic conditions- blizzards, sharp drops in temperature. The author meant, of course, weather(bad weather), the climate could not change in one year.
When reading a manuscript, the editor has to weigh every word, eliminating such errors. Stylistic editing in such cases often comes down to a simple lexical replacement:
However, sometimes, in order to achieve accuracy and clarity, you have to resort to more complex types edits, updating the lexical composition of the sentence, changing the wording, rebuilding the structure. Let's look at examples of such stylistic edits:
The use of words without taking into account their semantics can cause an illogical and even absurd statement.
In one essay it was written: “...And our Far Eastern birches stand in their wedding shroud” (the author confused the shroud and veil).
Such errors arise under the influence of false associations. At the entrance exam to the Academy of Printing, the young man wrote in his essay: “I know that the ancestors of A.S. are still alive. Pushkin” (of course, he meant the poet’s descendants). The absurdity of the statement in such cases gives the phrase a comical sound.
The inaccuracy of word usage is explained not only by low speech culture author; sometimes they deliberately do not want to use this or that word in order to veil the negative meaning of the statement. They write: he fantasizes instead of lies, accepted gifts instead of took bribes, etc. Let us recall an episode from the story of A.I. Kuprin’s “Inquiry”: “Ask him, did he take boots from Esipaka?
The second lieutenant was again convinced of his inexperience and cowardice, because out of some bashful and delicate feeling he could not pronounce the real word “stole”. Words and expressions that soften the rough meaning of speech are called euphemisms (from the gr. eu - good, phēmi - I say). The euphemism of speech is often explained by the author’s desire to dull the critical edge of the statement when describing the negative phenomena of our life. For example, in a local newspaper, a correspondent reported: The collective farm board paid little attention to the protection of public property, while it should have been admitted that the collective farm board was irresponsible in protecting public property (or turned a blind eye to the theft of public property). Inaccuracy of speech in such cases leads the reader away from the truth and distorts the meaning.
Wrong word choice can cause various speech errors. Thus, due to inaccurate use of words, anachronism may arise (violation of chronological accuracy when using words associated with a certain historical era): In Ancient Rome plebeians dissatisfied with the laws organized rallies (the word “meeting” appeared much later, and in England); In the 18th century, several printing houses were closed in Leningrad (the name of the city on the Neva, which the author used, was unknown in the 18th century; it should have been written: in St. Petersburg).
Incorrect use of words often leads to logical errors. Among them we will name alogism - a comparison of incomparable concepts, for example: The syntax of encyclopedic articles is different from other scientific articles. It turns out that the syntax is compared with scientific articles. Eliminating illogicality, you can write: The syntax of encyclopedic articles differs from the syntax of other scientific articles, or: The syntax of encyclopedic articles has a number of features that are unusual for the syntax of other scientific articles. Often identifying illogicalism does not cause difficulties; stylistic editing in these cases is simple:
However, sometimes the illogicalities are not so obvious, and in order to eliminate them, you have to significantly change the author's text. For example: Our knowledge of the riches of the earth's interior is only a small part of hidden, even greater riches. We can offer the following options for stylistic correction of this phrase: We still know so little about the richest deposits of minerals, the secret of which is kept by the bowels of the earth; Huge riches are hidden in the depths of the earth, about which we still know so little; Our knowledge of minerals is still so incomplete! We know only about a small part of the wealth hidden in the depths of the earth.
The reason for the illogicality of the statement may be the substitution of the concept, which often arises as a result of incorrect word usage: It’s bad when all the cinemas in the city show the same film title. Of course, it is the film that is shown, not its title. One could write: It’s bad when all the cinemas in the city show the same film. Similar errors in speech also arise due to insufficiently clear differentiation of concepts, for example: The theater staff is waiting for the approach of the premiere day with special excitement (they are waiting not for the approach of the premiere, but for when the premiere will take place).
In case of substitution of a concept, the stylistic edit may be different: sometimes it is enough to replace unsuccessfully used word, in other cases, lexical replacement is combined with the use of new, clarifying words; finally, sometimes it is necessary to redo a sentence in order to correctly convey the author’s idea.
Our speech is also made illogical by the unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept that arises as a result of mixing generic and specific categories: With good care, each animal can be milked 12 liters of milk (we should have used not the generic name - animal, but the specific name - cow); At any time of the day, medicine should come to the aid of a child. It should have been written: At any time of the day, medicine should come to the aid of the patient (after all, not only children need medical care).
It is especially common to observe the use of a generic name instead of a specific one, and this not only deprives the speech of accuracy, leads to the loss of those specific information that make up the living fabric of the narrative, but also gives the style an official, sometimes clerical, coloring. Generic names often seem more significant to the speaker and create the impression of “importance” of the statement. Therefore, as the writer P. Nilin noted, “a person who wants to speak out “more uncultured” sometimes does not dare to call a hat a hat, and a jacket a jacket. And instead he says strict words: headdress or outerwear” (Nilin P. The danger is not there // New World. - 1958. - No. 4.). K.I. Chukovsky, in his book “Alive as Life,” recalled how, during the preparation of a radio broadcast, they “edited” the speech of a young writer who was going to say: “It rained heavily.” “The head of the club winced:
It won't do. It should be more literary. It’s better to write like this: “Heavy precipitation fell.”
Unfortunately, this unfounded predilection for generic names becomes a kind of cliche: some authors, without thinking, give preference to precipitation over rain, downpours, drizzle, snow, blizzard; green spaces - in front of lilac, jasmine, rowan, bird cherry; bodies of water - in front of lakes, ponds, rivers, streams... Replacing species categories with generic ones makes our speech colorless, official. It is no coincidence that the great artist of words S.Ya. Marshak addressed his contemporaries with a bitter reproach: “...We called lunches and dinners food, but the room was living space for us.”
The reason for the illogicality of a statement and the distortion of its meaning sometimes lies in the unclear distinction between concrete and abstract concepts, for example: We need to think about winter feed for public animal husbandry (meaning, of course, feed for animals and livestock).
Let's look at examples of stylistic editing of sentences in which the illogicality of a statement is a consequence of an unjustified expansion of a concept or its narrowing, or the replacement of a specific concept with an abstract one:
Distortion of the meaning and even the absurdity of a statement arises as a result of a discrepancy between premise and consequence, for example: The rate of reproduction of pests depends on how persistently and systematically the fight against them is carried out. It turns out that the more pests are controlled, the faster they multiply. In this case, one should write not about the reproduction of pests, but about destruction, then the idea would be formulated correctly. Various options for stylistic editing of the proposal are acceptable: The speed of destruction of pests depends on how persistently and systematically the fight against them is carried out; Persistent pest control leads to faster destruction; In order to quickly destroy pests, it is necessary to wage a persistent and systematic fight against them; By persistently fighting pests, you can quickly achieve their destruction, etc.
Logical errors in speech are a great evil: they not only create ambiguity in the statement and distort its meaning, but also lead to absurdity and inappropriate comedy of speech. The parodic sound of certain statements in such cases negates their informational value. One advertisement, praising pills for those who want to lose weight, states: The company guarantees 100% weight loss.
Another example. While working on the manuscript of the article “Physical Education and Health,” the editor finds in it the following reasoning:
It is not old age that is terrible, but decrepitude, therefore It's better to die young and healthy. Many people think so.
The absurdity of the statement in this case arose due to the fact that the author did not notice the substitution of the concept by using the word die, but should have written: It would be nice to remain young and healthy until the end of your life, or: It would be nice to maintain vigor and health until old age. Careful attention to vocabulary, correct word choice, and thoughtful analysis of the logical side of speech will help the author and editor avoid such mistakes.
1.2.4. Lexical compatibility
For correct use words in speech are not enough to know their exact meaning; it is also necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the lexical compatibility of words, i.e. their ability to connect with each other. Thus, “similar” adjectives long, long, long, long-term, long are “attracted” to nouns in different ways: long period, long period (but not long, long, long period); long way, long way; long fees, long-term loan. Often words with the same meaning can have different lexical compatibility (cf.: a true friend - a genuine document).
The doctrine of lexical compatibility is based on the position of Acad. V.V. Vinogradova about phraseologically associated meanings words that have a single compatibility (bosom friend) or limited compatibility possibilities ( stale bread, loaf; a callous person, but one cannot say “stale candy” (chocolate), “callous comrade” (father, son).
For the development of the theory of lexical compatibility, Vinogradov’s identification of phraseological combinations and the establishment of the main types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language were of great importance. Phraseological combinations deals with phraseology, the subject of lexical stylistics is the study of the combination in speech of words that have free meanings, and the determination of the restrictions that language imposes on their lexical compatibility.
Many linguists emphasize that the lexical compatibility of a word is inseparable from its meaning. Some scientists, studying the problems of lexical compatibility, come to the conclusion that there are no absolutely free combinations of lexemes in the language, there are only groups of words with different combinability capabilities. With this formulation of the question, the distinction between free combinations and phraseologically related ones is destroyed.
Combining words into phrases may encounter various kinds of restrictions. Firstly, words may not be combined due to their semantic incompatibility (purple orange, leaning back, water is burning); secondly, combining words into a phrase can be excluded due to their grammatical nature (mine - swim, close - cheerful); thirdly, the combination of words can be hampered by their lexical features (words denoting seemingly compatible concepts do not combine; they say to cause grief, trouble, but one cannot say to cause joy, pleasure).
Depending on the restrictions governing the combination of words, three types of compatibility are distinguished: semantic (from the term “semantics” - the meaning of a word), grammatical (more precisely, syntactic) and lexical.
Semantic compatibility is broken, for example, in the following cases: K today's hour no information yet; Need to speed up bloodshed settlement; My father's maiden name Sobakin; After Lensky's death, without a duel, Olga married a hussar... Funny combinations of words, isn't it? But if you think about it, in other cases a very undesirable hidden meaning arises: not to stop, but only to regulate the bloodshed?..
Parody example of violation grammatical compatibility known: My yours does not understand (possessive adjectives cannot be combined with verbs in the personal form). More examples: Our leader healthy inside and out ; Most of the time deputies spend on discussions.
The most dramatic violation of the laws of “word attraction” is lexical incompatibility: The voice of numbers is not comforting; In the recent past We all had our tongues held. Comedians play up the vivid effect of “deceived expectations” in caustic jokes: We were victorious and no longer has the right to hesitate; Reached the yawning peaks.
Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the incorrect use of polysemantic words. Thus, in its basic meaning, the word deep can be freely combined with any other that is suitable in meaning: deep (that is, having great depth) well, bay, reservoir, lake, river. However, in the meaning of “reaching the limit, complete, perfect,” this word is combined with few (deep autumn, winter, but not summer, not spring, deep night, silence, but not morning, not day, not noise; deep old age, but not youth). Therefore, the statement makes us laugh: B deep childhood he looked like his mother.
The word take place is interpreted in dictionaries through the synonyms happen, come true, but unlike them, this verb is appropriate if the planned events were prepared and planned (A meeting was held; A meeting of a candidate for Duma deputy with voters took place). And if the correspondent writes: On the streets of the city armed clashes took place, - one might think that armed clashes were prepared or planned by someone. As we can see, a violation of lexical compatibility can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.
Lexical stylistics should focus on assessing lexical compatibility. However, the boundaries between various types combinability is very unclear, therefore, when stylistically analyzing a text, one has to talk not only about “pure” lexical combinability, but also take into account various transitional cases.
All significant words that have free meanings can be divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically unlimited within the limits of their subject-logical connections; these are, for example, adjectives characterizing physical properties objects - color, volume, weight, temperature (red, black, big, small, light, heavy, hot, cold), many nouns (table, house, person, tree), verbs (live, see, work, know). Another group is formed by words that have limited lexical compatibility (and in the case of polysemous words, this restriction can only apply to individual meanings). This group of words is of particular interest.
Limitations of lexical compatibility are usually characteristic of words that are rarely found in speech. Words that have the maximum frequency of use (they are included in the 2500 most frequent words in the Russian language) easily enter into lexical connections. For example, when comparing the compatibility of the words fear and fear, it turned out that the word fear is more actively combined with various verbs.
Lexical combinability of words is of an intralingual nature. In our native language, we usually “predict” possible variants of lexical connections of words (mainly by intuition). Markings of lexical compatibility in explanatory dictionaries are rare and inconsistent. Of practical importance is the “Dictionary of combinability of words in the Russian language,” ed. P.N. Denisova, V.V. Morkovkina (2nd ed. M., 1983).
1.2.5. Violation of lexical compatibility as a stylistic device
The assessment of lexical compatibility in expressive speech cannot be approached with the usual yardstick; here the laws of “attraction” of words to each other are special. In artistic and journalistic works, the boundaries of lexical compatibility can be expanded. For example, it has been noted that restrictions on semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative word usage: phrases are possible that seem meaningless if their constituent words are taken in their literal meaning (the sunset is blazing, the years are flying, dark thoughts). Semantic incompatibility of words is not an obstacle to the creation of artistic images. It is the violation of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, that underlies many classical images that have become textbook examples of epithets, metaphors, metonymies: gray winter threat (P.); The bell cries loudly, and laughs, and squeals (Elm.); Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness... (L.); pot-bellied nut bureau (G.); mental and moral decollete, bald syllogism (S.-Sch.).
Violation of lexical compatibility can become an effective means of creating a comic sound of speech in a humorous context: From that day glory befell Evstigneika (M. G.); an apple with a mole, an ebullient lazy person (I. and P.); based on a comprehensive and double-edged squabble (I. Ilf); single fox terrier (L. Lench). Violation of lexical compatibility as a striking stylistic device for creating a comic effect underlies various jokes and aphorisms that are usually published on the humorous pages of magazines and newspapers. For example: A genius was recognized alive (“LG”); It is difficult to forgive other people’s shortcomings, but even more difficult to forgive other people’s virtues; our sworn friends; an inveterate leader; Finally, the government achieved a significant deterioration in the life of the people; With perestroika, another event befell us: humanitarian aid from the West (from the newspaper).
Inconsistency makes headlines catchy: “A genre doomed to success” (about parody); “Memories of the Future” (movie title); “Alone with Everyone” (play by A. Gelman); “Lifelong Friend” (about V. Zhirinovsky’s “friendship” with Saddam Hussein); “Stalkers of the Sky” (about helicopter pilots working in areas of high radiation); “Turn on silence”; “What they were silent about on the subway”; “A long, multi-episode life”; “Bouquet of Stars” (variety). Poets often violate lexical compatibility. The unusual combinations of words in Vl’s songs are expressive. Vysotsky: Poets walk with their heels on the blade of a knife and cut their barefoot souls to blood. In unexpressive, prosaic speech, the phrases “walking with heels”, “barefoot souls” would seem impossible, absurd, but, in a poetic context, they amaze with their artistic power. Another example from a song by the same author: By morning they shot at the silent mountain echo... And stones splashed out like tears from the wounded rocks.
1.2.6. Violation of lexical compatibility as a speech error
If the author does not strive to achieve a certain stylistic goal, a violation of lexical compatibility becomes a speech error. This reflects a characteristic feature of the dialectical nature of language: in one case, a phenomenon that represents a deviation from the linguistic norm turns out to be an effective means of creating speech expression, in another - evidence of the author’s negligence and inattention to the word. Involuntary violation of lexical compatibility is a very common speech error.
“Although in these competitions our favorite skaters were defeated, the audience greets them standing,” says the sports commentator (but: they win, they lose). “Perhaps insomnia has come to you, and you are lying without closing your blue gaze,” the poet writes (but: you can close your eyes, not your gaze). In the essay, the journalist notes: “The basin produced cozy experience"(you can make a pleasant impression, not a cozy one). Some words are often used in speech in incorrect combinations (meeting convened, conversation read, increase attention, give meaning, increase horizons, etc.).
Violation of lexical compatibility can be caused by contamination of outwardly similar phrases. For example, they say: to satisfy modern needs, mixing combinations; to satisfy requirements and meet needs; From him recovered material damage in favor of the victims (material damage can be compensated; money can be recovered); Folk museums have improved the artistic level of their exhibitions (the level can increase, improve; the quality can be improved). More examples of contamination of phrases: take measures (take measures - take steps); earned fame (gained fame - earned respect); unrelenting help (constant help - unremitting attention); doesn't matter (doesn't matter - doesn't matter). The mixture of phrases gave rise to a joke:
Tastes could not be discussed:
Some people respect apricots in brine,
Others like jam with mustard.
But none of this matters
And, besides, it does not matter.
(E. Svistunov)
When using words that have extremely limited possibilities for lexical connections, a violation of lexical compatibility often becomes the reason for the comic sound of speech. For example: Serious problems collapsed on young entrepreneurs by surprise; Leaders paid serious attention to shortcomings achieved; They worked like the best notorious specialists; People came to us dejected by experience. The comedy in such cases arises because words that have limited lexical compatibility suggest variants of phrases with often directly opposite meanings (cf.: achieved successes, notorious swindlers, dejected by grief).
Let's look at examples of stylistic editing of sentences in which lexical compatibility is violated:
As you can see, stylistic editing mainly comes down to replacing words, the use of which led to a violation of lexical compatibility.
1.2.7. Speech failure
A careless attitude towards language can cause speech insufficiency - accidental omission of words necessary for the precise expression of a thought: The management must strive to get rid of this indifference (missed); Oil paintings are placed in frames (missing written). Speech impairment often occurs in oral speech when the speaker is in a hurry and does not monitor the correctness of the statement. Comic situations arise if the “speaker” addresses those present using a microphone. So, at a dog show you can hear appeals to the owners of purebred dogs:
Dear participants, sort it out by breed and get ready for the parade!
Comrade participants, wipe their faces thoroughly from saliva to facilitate examination of the dental system!
Prizewinners, please come urgently for the award ceremony. Owners without muzzles will not be awarded.
From such calls from the administrator it follows that all these tests await not the dogs, but their owners, because it is to them that the speech is addressed. With speech insufficiency, ambiguity often arises; here are examples of such errors included in protocols and other business documents: Gr. Kalinovsky L.L. was driving down the street without a license plate; Set the day for the submission of insurance agents to the accounting department before the 10th day of each month; We will send the persons you are interested in by mail; Class teachers ensure the attendance of their parents.
Due to speech insufficiency, the grammatical and logical connections of words in a sentence are disrupted, its meaning is obscured. Omitting words can completely distort the author’s thought: To improve production indicators, it is necessary to unite all workers involved in economic issues (it is necessary: to unite the efforts of all workers); Due to the cold in the room, we only do urgent fractures - a notice on the X-ray room door (this refers to urgent X-ray images of fractures).
Omitting a word can cause various logical errors. Thus, the absence of the necessary link in the expression of thought leads to illogicality: The language of Sholokhov’s heroes differs sharply from the heroes of other writers (one can compare the language of Sholokhov’s heroes only with the language of the heroes of other writers); The conditions of the city are different from those of the village (it is permissible to compare the living conditions in the city only with the living conditions in the village).
Often, as a result of missing a word, a substitution of a concept occurs. For example: Patients who have not visited the outpatient clinic for three years are placed in the archive - we are talking about patient cards, and from the text it follows that “patients are submitted to the archive.” Such speech insufficiency gives rise to the comedy and absurdity of the statement [Kuibyshev river port produces men for permanent and temporary work as port workers (“Kr.”); She took second place in gymnastics among girls of the 2nd category (“Kr.”); The State Insurance Inspectorate invites you to Gosstrakh any Thursday for injury (announcement)].
Speech insufficiency, which arises as a result of the author’s stylistic negligence, can be easily corrected: you need to insert an accidentally missed word or phrase. For example:
| 1. Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on their farm. | 1. Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm. |
| 2. The competition showed that strong checkers players on the hundred-square board appeared in our city. | 2. The competition showed that strong checkers players appeared in our city, playing on a hundred-square board. |
| 3. Isochrones - lines on geographic maps passing through points on the earth's surface at which a particular phenomenon occurs at the same moment. | 3. Isochrones - lines on geographical maps passing through points relevant points on the earth's surface at which one or another natural phenomenon occurs at the same moment. |
If the speaker “does not find the words” to correctly express the thought and constructs the sentence somehow, omitting certain links in the chain of logically related concepts, the phrase becomes insufficiently informative, chaotic, and the editor correcting such a statement has to work hard to achieve clarity. For example, in the manuscript of an article about the restoration of a printing enterprise we read: At first, equipment was installed in a format of half a printed sheet. Based on this “truncated” information, it is not easy to guess that when the printing plant resumed its work, equipment was initially installed only for the production of products in a half-sheet format. Insufficient information content of a sentence in which important words and phrases are omitted especially often leads to the absurdity of a statement, which could be observed in “stagnant times” when our newspapers published numerous reports about “victories and conquests” in the implementation of five-year plans. For example: On this shift, between 16 and 20 hours, the thousandth billion Soviet power engineers were produced. It is not easy to reconstruct the truth from such a message; in reality, we are talking about the fact that Soviet power engineers, working on the evening shift, gave the country a thousandth billion kilowatt-hours of electricity.
Speech insufficiency, as a common error, should be distinguished from ellipsis - a stylistic figure based on the deliberate omission of one or another member of a sentence to create special expressiveness. The most expressive are elliptical constructions without a predicate verb, conveying the dynamism of movement (I am for a candle, the candle is in the stove! I am for a book, that is to run and jump under the bed. - Chuk.). With ellipsis, there is no need to “restore” the missing members of the sentence, since the meaning of elliptical constructions is clear, and the introduction of clarifying words into them will deprive them of the expression, their inherent lightness. In case of speech insufficiency, on the contrary, restoration of missing words is necessary; without them, the sentence is stylistically unacceptable.
1.2.8. Speech redundancy
The ability to find the exact words to name certain concepts helps to achieve brevity in the expression of thoughts, and, on the contrary, the author’s stylistic helplessness often leads to verbal redundancy - verbosity. Scientists and writers A.P. have repeatedly drawn attention to verbosity as a great evil. Chekhov noted: “Brevity is the sister of talent.” A.M. Gorky wrote that laconicism, as well as accuracy of presentation, is not easy for a writer: “... It is extremely difficult to find the exact words and put them in such a way that a few can say a lot, “so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious.”
Verbosity manifests itself in various forms. One can often observe an obsessive explanation of well-known truths: Consumption of milk is a good tradition, not only children eat milk, the need for milk, the habit of milk persists until old age. Is this a bad habit? Should I give it up? - No! Such idle talk is naturally suppressed by the editor: arguments that do not represent informational value are excluded during literary editing. However, such editing-reduction is not directly related to lexical stylistics, since it affects not the lexical side of the text, but its content.
The subject of lexical stylistics is speech redundancy that occurs when the same thought is repeated, for example: They were shocked by the sight of the fire, which they witnessed; Our athletes arrived at international competitions in order to to take part in competitions in which not only ours, but also foreign athletes will participate; He could not stay away from family conflicts, as a woman's husband and children's father; The machine park was updated with new machines (emphasized words are superfluous).
Sometimes the manifestation of speech redundancy borders on absurdity: The corpse was dead and did not hide it. Stylists call such examples of verbosity lapses of speech. The origin of this term is not without interest: it is formed on behalf of the French marshal Marquise of La Palisa, who died in 1525. The soldiers composed a song about him, which included the words: Our commander was alive 25 minutes before his death. The absurdity of the blunder lies in the assertion of a self-evident truth.
Lapalissades add inappropriate comedy to speech, often in situations that arose as a result of tragic circumstances. For example: Since the executive editor of the collection has died, it is necessary to introduce a new living editor to the editorial board; The dead corpse lay motionless and showed no signs of life .
Speech redundancy can take the form of pleonasm. Pleonasm (from the gr. pleonasmos - excess) is the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore unnecessary ( the main point, everyday routine, uselessly disappears, premonition in advance, valuable treasures, dark darkness, etc.). Often pleonasms appear when combining the synonyms kissed and kissed; long and prolonged; courageous and brave; only; nevertheless, however; for example.
Also A.S. Pushkin, considering brevity one of the merits of the work, reproached P.A. Vyazemsky in a letter to him because in his fairy tale “Terrain of the Territory” the speech of one of the characters is “extended”, and the phrase “Almost doubly painful is almost pleonasm.”
Pleonasms usually arise due to the stylistic negligence of the author. For example: Local forest workers do not limit themselves only to protecting the taiga, but also do not allow the richest gifts of nature to be wasted in vain. When making stylistic edits, highlighted words must be excluded. However, one should distinguish such a manifestation of speech redundancy from “imaginary pleonasm,” to which the author consciously turns to as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. In this case, pleonasm becomes a striking stylistic device. Let us remember F. Tyutchev: The vault of heaven, burning with the glory of the stars. Looks mysteriously from the depths, And we float, a burning abyss surrounded on all sides; S. Yesenina: Give me your paw, Jim, for luck. I have never seen such a paw. Let's bark with you in the moonlight quiet, silent weather... Another example: The time when the history of our country was rewritten for the sake of a false ideology will not return (from the newspaper).
The use of pleonastic combinations is also typical for folklore: Where are you going, Volga? Where are you going? To give you a place by name, by patronymic... In oral folk art, expressively colored pleonastic combinations of sadness-melancholy, sea-okiyan, path-path, etc. have traditionally been used.
A type of pleonasm is tautology (from the gr. tauto - the same, logos - word). Tautology as a phenomenon of lexical stylistics can arise when repeating words with the same root (tell a story, multiply many times, ask a question, resume again), as well as when combining a foreign and Russian word that duplicates its meaning (memorable souvenirs, debuted for the first time, an unusual phenomenon that drives leitmotif). In the latter case, they sometimes talk about a hidden tautology.
Repetition of cognate words, creating a tautology, is a very common mistake (the Plaintiff proves his case unsubstantiated evidence; Crime increased; Citizens are pedestrians! Cross the street only along pedestrian crossings!). The use of cognate words creates unnecessary “treading water”, for example: ... It follows quite naturally that labor productivity at certain stages of technological development is determined completely certain patterns. To comprehend such a statement, it is necessary, first of all, to get rid of the tautology. The following variant of stylistic correction is possible: A well-founded conclusion follows that labor productivity at various stages of technological development is determined by objective laws.
However, repetition of cognate words should not always be considered a stylistic error. Many stylists rightly believe that excluding words of the same root from sentences, replacing them with synonyms, is not always necessary: in some cases this is impossible, in others it can lead to impoverishment and discoloration of speech. Several cognate words in a close context are stylistically justified if related words are the only carriers of the corresponding meanings and they cannot be replaced by synonyms (coach - train; elections, voters - choose; habit - get out of the habit; close - lid; cook - jam, etc. .). How to avoid, say, the use of cognate words when you need to say: White flowers bloomed on the bushes; The book was edited by the editor-in-chief?
The language has many tautological combinations, the use of which is inevitable, since they use terminological vocabulary (dictionary of foreign words, fifth-level unit, first-team foreman, etc.). We have to put up with this, for example, word usage: investigative authorities... investigated; suffer from Graves' disease; the seam is cut by a cutting machine, etc.
Many words related from an etymological point of view in the modern language have lost their word-formation connections (cf.: remove - raise - understand - hug - accept, song - rooster, morning - tomorrow). Such words, which have a common etymological root, do not form tautological phrases (black ink, red paint, white linen).
A tautology that occurs when a Russian word is combined with a foreign word that has the same meaning usually indicates that the speaker does not understand the exact meaning of the borrowed word. This is how the combinations appear: young prodigy, tiny little things, interior interior, leading leader, break interval, etc. Tautological combinations of this type sometimes become acceptable and become fixed in speech, which is associated with a change in the meanings of words. An example of a loss of tautology would be the combination of time period. In the past, linguists considered this expression to be tautological, since the word period, which is of Greek origin, means “time.” However, the word period gradually acquired the meaning of "a period of time", and therefore the expression period of time became possible. The combinations monumental monument, real reality, exhibits of an exhibition, second-hand book and some others also became entrenched in speech, because in them the definitions ceased to be a simple repetition of the main feature already contained in the word being defined. The tautology that arises when using abbreviations in scientific and formal business styles, for example: SI system [i.e. “system International System” (about physical units)]; BelNIISH Institute (Belarusian Research Institute of Agriculture).
Tautology, like pleonasm, can be a stylistic device that enhances the effectiveness of speech. In colloquial speech, such tautological combinations as do service, all sorts of things, bitter grief, etc. are used, adding special expression. Tautology underlies many phraseological units (to eat, to see, to walk, to sit, to sit, crammed, to go to waste). Particularly important stylistic meaning acquire tautological repetitions in artistic speech, mainly in poetic speech.
There are tautological combinations of several types: combinations with a tautological epithet (And the new thing was not old, but new new and victorious. - Sl.), with the tautological instrumental case (And suddenly there was a white birch tree in a gloomy spruce forest alone. - Sol.). Tautological combinations in the text stand out against the background of other words; this makes it possible, by resorting to tautology, to pay attention to especially important concepts(So, lawlessness has been legalized; Less and less remains with nature unsolved mysteries). The tautology in the headlines of newspaper articles has an important semantic function (“The green shield asks for protection”; “ Extremes of the Extreme north”, “Is it an accident?”, “Is the old bicycle outdated?”).
Tautological repetition can give a statement special significance, aphorism ( To the winner student from defeated teacher. - Bug.; Fortunately, the fashion circle is no longer in fashion. - P.; AND old thing is outdated, and the old are delirious of the newness. - P.). As a source of speech expression, tautology is especially effective if words of the same root are compared as synonyms (It’s like they haven’t seen each other for two years, their kiss was long, long. - Ch.), antonyms (When did we learn to be strangers? When did we forget how to speak? - Evt. ).
Like any repetitions, tautological combinations increase the emotionality of journalistic speech [Shostakovich’s Seventh Symphony is dedicated to the celebration human in man... To the threat of fascism - dehumanize a person- the composer responded with a symphony about the victorious triumph of everything lofty and beautiful. - A.T.].
Stringing of cognate words is used in gradation (from the Latin gradatio - gradualness) - a stylistic figure based on a consistent increase or decrease in emotional-expressive significance (Oh! for the sake of our past days deceased, ruined happiness, do not destroy the last fate in my soul! - Og.).
In expressively colored speech, tautological repetitions, like the repetition of sounds, can become expressive means phonics (Then the tractors with guns pulled up, the field kitchen passed, then the infantry went. - Shol.). Poets often combine both techniques - repetition of roots and repetition of sounds (Everything is good: the poet sings, the critic is engaged in criticism. - Lighthouse.).
The possibility of a punning collision of words with the same root makes it possible to use tautology as a means of creating comedy and satirical overtones. N.V. mastered this technique brilliantly. Gogol, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (Let me not allow you to do this; The writer writes, and the reader reads). Tautology is also used as a means of comedy by modern authors of humorous stories, feuilletons, and jokes (Efficiency: Do not do, but you cannot redo all the things; The ladybug, nicknamed the ladybug, shamelessly destroys potato plantings. - “LG”).
1.2.9. Repeating words
Repetition of words should be distinguished from tautology, although it is often a manifestation of speech redundancy. Unjustified lexical repetitions, which are often accompanied by tautology and pleonasms, usually indicate the author’s inability to clearly and concisely formulate a thought. For example, in the minutes of the meeting pedagogical council we read: The essay was copied, and the one who copied does not deny that he copied the essay, and the one who allowed it to be copied even wrote that he allowed the essay to be copied. So the fact is established. Couldn't this idea have been formulated briefly? One only had to indicate the names of those responsible for what happened: Ivanov does not deny that he copied the essay from Petrov, who allowed him to do this.
To avoid lexical repetitions, during literary editing it is often necessary to significantly change the author’s text:
| 1. Were results received, close to results obtained on a ship model. Results showed... | 1. Results were obtained close to those obtained by testing the ship model. This indicates that... |
| 2. It is good to add a small amount of bleach to the water for washing the floor - this is a good disinfection and, in addition, it refreshes the air in the room well. | 2. It is recommended to add a little bleach to the water for washing the floor: it disinfects and freshens the air well. |
| 3. You can always be well dressed and in fashion if you sew for yourself. | 3. Sew yourself, and you will always be dressed fashionably and beautifully. |
However, repetition of words does not always indicate the author’s stylistic helplessness: it can become a stylistic device that enhances the expressiveness of speech. Lexical repetitions help to highlight an important concept in the text (Live forever, learn forever - last; Good is paid for with good - final). This stylistic device was masterfully used by L.N. Tolstoy: She [Anna] was charming in her simple black dress, charming were her full hands with bracelets, the firm neck with a string of pearls is charming, the curly hair of the disordered hairstyle is charming, the graceful light movements of small legs and arms are charming, this beautiful face is charming in its animation; but there was something terrible and cruel in her charm. Publicists turn to repetition of words as a means of logical isolation of concepts. Interesting, for example, are the headlines of newspaper articles: “Mighty forces of a mighty land” (about Siberia), “Opera about opera” (about a musical theater performance), “Be a man, man!”
Repetition of words is usually characteristic of emotionally charged speech. Therefore, lexical repetitions are often found in poetry. Let's remember Pushkin's lines: The novel is classic, ancient, excellently long, long, long...
In poetic speech, lexical repetitions are often combined with various techniques poetic syntax, enhancing emphatic intonation. For example: You hear: a drum is rumbling. Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her, the platoon leaves into the fog, fog, fog, and the past is clearer, clearer, clearer... (Ok.) One of the researchers wittily noted that repetition does not at all mean an invitation to say goodbye twice; it can mean: “soldier, hurry up to say goodbye, the platoon is already leaving”, or “soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye forever, you will never see her again”, or “soldier, say goodbye to her, your only one”, etc. . Thus, “doubling” a word does not mean a simple repetition of a concept, but becomes a means of creating a poetic “subtext” that deepens the content of the statement.
Stringing identical words you can reflect the nature of visual impressions (But the infantry goes, goes past pine trees, pine trees, pine trees endlessly. - Meadow.). Lexical repetitions sometimes, like a gesture, enhance the expressiveness of speech:
The battle raged for the crossing,
And below, a little to the south -
Germans from left to right,
Being late, we continued on our way. (...)
And on the left on the move, on the move
The bayonets arrived in time.
They were pushed into the water, into the water,
And flow the water...
(A.T. Tvardovsky)
Lexical repetitions can also be used as a means of humor. In the parody text, a jumble of identical words and expressions reflects the comedy of the situation being described:
It is very important to be able to behave in society. If, when inviting a lady to dance, you stepped on her foot and she pretended not to notice it, then you must pretend not to notice, just as she noticed, but pretended not to notice. - “LG.”
Thus, in artistic speech, verbal repetitions can perform a variety of stylistic functions. This must be taken into account when giving a stylistic assessment of the use of a word in the text.
Persitsky dragged the reluctant Lapis into the next room. The spectators followed them. There on the wall hung a large newspaper clipping, surrounded by a mourning border.
- Did you write this essay in “The Captain's Bridge”?
- I wrote.
- This seems to be your first experience in prose? Congratulations! “The waves rolled over the pier and fell down like a swift jack...” Well, you were a friend to the “Captain’s Bridge”! “The Bridge” won’t forget you for a long time now, Lapis!
- What's the matter?
- The thing is... Do you know what a jack is?
- Well, of course I know, leave me alone...
- How do you imagine a jack? Describe in your own words.
- So... Falling, in a word.
We cited this excerpt from “The Twelve Chairs” in order to show: it is not enough to know many beautiful, expressive or smart words, you need to be able to use them correctly.
Lexical stylistics is a science that studies the lexical means of language and develops norms for their use.
We already briefly mentioned it in the third lesson, when we looked at functional styles. Selecting vocabulary when writing text is an extremely important and difficult task. It depends on your goals, audience and functional style. In the third lesson, we described what vocabulary is inherent in a particular style, and indicated that it is undesirable to mix different types of vocabulary in one text unless you want to achieve a special artistic effect in this way. In this lesson we will talk in more detail about the basic principles of lexical stylistics, which are useful for every author to know.
Meaning of the word and its connotations
The most important characteristic of a word is its meaning. The meanings of words, along with other types of signs, are studied by semantics. In semantics, there are several approaches to defining meaning. We will not describe in detail the differences between them, we will only say that meaning can be understood as a set of objects, processes, phenomena, a concept, generally accepted rules for using a word, etc. No matter how the meaning is defined, it is important that it is fixed in the language, and we ourselves cannot arbitrarily change it. Therefore, if you are not one hundred percent sure of the meaning of a word, never be lazy to look in the dictionary, otherwise you risk becoming the Lyapis Trubetskoy described above.
Besides direct meaning, which is sometimes referred to as denotation, each word also has additional meanings, or connotations. They are designed to convey the attitude of the speaker or writer to the subject of speech. Therefore, when choosing vocabulary, they also need to be taken into account. They will help you effectively explain your point or your attitude. At the same time, if you haven’t thought about the connotations, then the reader may have them and will form associations that are not the ones you wanted. To illustrate how connotations work, here are the following synonyms: respect, devotion, servility. Respect- a neutral term meaning a feeling of respect resulting from recognition of someone's merits, merits and achievements. Term devotion clearly carries positive connotations: a person devoted to someone not only respects him, but also will not leave him in difficult times. Servility but it has negative connotations: it is stupid, ostentatious respect, which has selfish goals behind it and manifests itself in flattery, servility, and servility.
Speech errors
Using a word without taking into account its meaning and connotations leads to speech errors. “The waves fell down like a swift jack” is a vivid example of a speech error. Lyapis Trubetskoy did not know the exact meaning of the word jack, and therefore inserted it into a completely inappropriate context. It is clear that this example is an exaggeration: most often people confuse words that sound similar ( addressee and addressee, incident and precedent) or value ( development and improvement, accompany and favor). Let us repeat once again that main way To eliminate such errors - check the meanings of words in the dictionary. This is also useful because dictionary entries most often contain common examples of the correct use of a word.
In addition to errors that directly stem from ignorance of the meaning of a word, there are the following types of speech errors: euphemism, anachronism, alogism, substitution of a concept, unjustified expansion or narrowing of a concept. Let's look at them in more detail.
Euphemism is a word or expression used to replace other words that are considered obscene or inappropriate. For example, instead of saying about a woman that she is pregnant or expecting a child, they say that she is in an interesting position. By by and large, euphemism is not a mistake, but its inappropriate and excessive use creates the effect of bad style.
Anachronism- violation of chronology when using words related to any era. For example, “Medieval peasants, dissatisfied with the conditions of their existence, organized rallies.” Word rally appeared much later, and its use in relation to medieval peasants is inappropriate.
Alogism is a comparison of incomparable concepts. For example, Lexicon literary texts richer compared to other texts." In this case, it turns out that the lexicon is compared with texts, although it can only be compared with another lexicon. Correct option: “The lexicon of literary texts is richer compared to the lexicon of other texts.”
Substitution of the concept- an error caused by replacing one concept with another: “The bookshelves were filled with boring titles.” It is clear that the titles cannot stand on the shelves; books were on them. It would be correct to say: “The bookshelves were filled with books with boring titles.”
Unjustified expansion or narrowing of a concept- This is an error that arises as a result of mixing generic categories. It has two varieties: the use of a generic concept instead of a specific one (“Twice a day we walk with our pet,” it’s correct to say with our dog) and, conversely, the use of a specific concept instead of a generic one (“School is important for the socialization of girls,” it must be said children, because boys also need socialization).
Lexical compatibility
Lexical compatibility- This is the ability of words to combine with each other. Understanding whether words go together or not is no less important than knowing their meaning. Words may not be combined for several reasons. Firstly, they may be incompatible in meaning: black sun, cold fire, slowly taking your time. Secondly, restrictions can be imposed by grammar: I go to breathe, my good. Finally, the combination of words is influenced by their lexical features: we can say best friends, but not best enemies.
Violation of lexical compatibility also leads to speech errors. Most often, errors occur for three reasons:
- Confusion in the use of synonyms. Not always synonyms can be included in the same phrases. Let's take, for example, synonyms long, long, long-lasting. We can tell a long day And long day, but not long day.
- Incorrect use of ambiguous words. Often polysemantic words in one of their meanings are easily included in various word combinations, while in another meaning they can be combined only with a few words. For example, the word deep meaning “having great depth” easily combines with all words that fit the meaning: deep well, deep lake, deep river etc. However, in the meaning of “reached the limit, complete, perfect,” this word already has limited compatibility: one can say late at night, but not in the late afternoon, in deep old age, but not in deep childhood.
- Contamination, or mixing of seemingly similar phrases. Common examples of contamination are mixing of phrases play a role And matter, satisfy the requirements of And meet needs etc.
To avoid such mistakes, you must use the Russian Word Compatibility Dictionary.
Lexical deficiency and lexical redundancy
Lexical deficiency- this is the omission of words necessary to accurately express a thought. It is most typical for spoken language, but is also found in written texts. The result of lexical insufficiency is a comic effect or loss of meaning. To illustrate, at a dog show: “Dear participants, wipe your faces and get ready for the parade!” Obviously, the participants should not wipe their own muzzles, but the dogs' muzzles.
Lexical redundancy- unjustified verbosity. It is an indispensable attribute of bad style. There are several types of lexical redundancy:
- Idle talk, or pouring from empty to empty: “Walking in the fresh air is very useful. Everyone should go for a walk: children, adults, old people. This is a healthy habit that should be instilled from childhood. Do you need to go for a walk every day? Of course it is necessary." Such reasoning does not provide any informational value.
- Lyapalissiada- a statement of obvious truth: “Ten minutes before it was ready, the soup was not yet ready.”
- Pleonasm- the use of words that are close in meaning in one phrase: main point, illogical paradox, foresee in advance. Often pleonasms arise from combining synonyms: “With this example he showed and illustrated his thought.”
- Tautology- this is a type of pleonasm that occurs when repeating words with the same root, in other words - butter. Vivid examples of tautologies: tell a story, ask a question. Also tautological is the combination of a Russian word and a word of foreign origin that duplicates its meaning: interior interior, souvenirs, leading leader.
To avoid such mistakes, you just need to be careful. Always reread your text several times. Sometimes it is better to do this a few hours after finishing work on the text. This will help create the necessary distance: you will look at your text through the eyes of your reader.
Test your knowledge
If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time and the options are mixed.