MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

S W №43

Abstract on the topic:

"ANCIENT INDIA"

Pupils 10 "B" class

Kutuzova Elena

Mogilev, 2002

Bibliography :

1.G.I. Dovgyalo "What is History?"

2. O.V. Perzashkevich and A.A. Prokhorov "Countries of the Ancient East"

Minsk

"People's Asveta"

1996
Content:

1. List of references……………………………………………2p

3. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………...4page

4. ANCIENT STATE OF INDIA…………………………….5str

4.1. Location and nature of Ancient India…………..5str

4.2. The formation of states in ancient India.………………6str

4.3. Economic life. ……………………………………...7page

5. CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIA ………………………………………………………………9str

5.1. Languages ​​and writing of ancient India. …………………..9str

5.2. Literature. …………………………………………….……9str

5.3. Religion of Ancient India.…………………………………...10str

6. INTERESTING ABOUT INDIA……………………………………… 11str

6.1. Excavations in Mahenjo-Daro……………………..…………11str

6.2. The social structure of the Indian according to ancient laws ... 12str

7. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………….

Introduction

India is an ancient country about 8 thousand years old. The amazing Indian people lived on its territory. which were divided into several public classes. Where priests played an important role. Although historians do not know who ruled such an amazing state. The Indians had their own language and script. Their letters cannot be deciphered by scientists to this day.

The ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They made a thin fabric of chintz. They have tamed the world's largest animal, the elephant.

They worshiped and believed in different gods. Animals were deified. Along with the gods, the Vedas, the Sanskrit language and the Brahmins were revered as the guardians of culture and sacred knowledge. Brahmins were considered living gods.

This is a very interesting state and people.

ancient state of india

Location and nature of ancient India .

In the south of Asia, behind the Himalayan range, there is an amazing country - India. Its history goes back almost 8 thousand years. However, modern India differs in size from the ancient country of the same name. In terms of area, Ancient India was approximately equal to Egypt, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Iran, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine combined.

This vast territory had a variety of natural conditions. In the west, the Indus River flowed, it rained relatively infrequently, but in summer there were large floods. Vast steppes spread out here.

In the east they carried their waters to Indian Ocean the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. It always rained heavily here, and the whole land was covered with marshy swamps and impenetrable jungle. These are dense thickets of trees and shrubs, where twilight reigns even during the day. There were tigers, panthers, elephants in the jungle, Poisonous snakes and a wide variety of insects.

The central and southern parts of India in ancient times were mountainous spaces, where it was always hot and there was a lot of rain. But the abundance of moisture was not always a blessing. Dense vegetation and swamps were a big obstacle for ancient farmers armed with stone and copper axes. Therefore, the first settlements appear in India in the less wooded north-west of the country. The Indus Valley had another advantage. It was closer to the ancient states of Western Asia, which facilitated communication and trade with them.

State formation in ancient India .

While scientists have little information about social order and culture of Indian cities. The fact is that the writing of the ancient Indians has not yet been deciphered. But today it is known that in the III and the first half of the II millennium BC. e. in the Indus Valley there was a single state with two capitals. it Harappa in the north and mohenjo-daro on South. The inhabitants were divided into several public classes. It is not known exactly who ruled the state. But they played a big role priests.

With the decline of the Indian state, the public organization also collapsed. Writing has been forgotten.

Appearing in the middle II millennium BC. e., the arias brought with them their social organization. It was based on the division of society into "their own" (Aryans) and "strangers" (dasov). Using the right of the conquerors, the Aryans gave the Dasas a dependent position in society.

There was also a division among the Aryans themselves. They were divided into three classes - varnas. The first and highest brew were Brahmins - priests, teachers, guardians of culture. Second varna - kshatriyas. It was military nobility. In the third varna - vaishyas- included farmers, artisans and merchants. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the fourth varna appeared - sudras. It means "servant". This varna included all non-Aryans. They were obliged to serve the first three varnas. The lowest position was "untouchables". They did not belong to any of the varnas and were obliged to do the dirtiest work.

With the development of crafts, the growth of population and the complication of public life, in addition to varnas, an additional division by profession. This division is called division into castes.

And in a certain varna, like a caste, a person fell by birthright. If you are born in a brahmin family, you are a brahmin; if in a sudra family, you are a sudra. Belonging to one or another varna and caste determined the rules of behavior for every Indian.

The further development of Indian society led in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. to the emergence of kingdoms headed by rajas. (In ancient Indian "raja" means "king".)

At the end of the IV century. BC e. formed in India mighty empire. Its founder was Chandragupta, who stopped the advance of the army of Alexander the Great. This power reached its highest power under the grandson of Chandragupta Ashok (263-233 BC).

Thus, already in the III-beginning of the II millennium BC. e. India had a state. It not only was not inferior in its development, but at times surpassed Egypt and Mesopotamia. After the decline of Indian culture and the arrival of the Aryans, the social order ancient Indian society. Its culture was created by the Aryans with the participation of the local population. At this time, a caste system is formed. A mighty empire arose. changing, ancient Indian culture has survived to the present day.

Economic life.

Already in the III millennium BC. e. The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley was agriculture. They grew wheat, barley, peas, millet, jute and, for the first time in the world, cotton and sugar cane.

Animal husbandry was well developed. The Indians raised cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, elephants. The horse came later.

The Indians were well acquainted with metallurgy. The main tools of labor were made of copper. Knives, spear and arrowheads, hoes, axes and much more were smelted from it. Artistic casting, masterful stone processing, alloys, among which bronze occupied a special place, were no secret to them. The Indians knew gold and lead. But iron at that time they did not know.

The craft was also developed. Spinning and weaving played an important role. The craftsmanship of the jewelers is impressive. They worked precious metals and stones, ivory and shells.

Maritime and land trade reached a high level. In 1950, archaeologists found the first port in history for anchoring ships at low tide.

The most active trade was with the Southern Mesopotamia. Cotton and jewelry were brought here from India. Barley, vegetables, fruits were brought to India. There were trade links with Egypt and the island of Crete. Probably the Indians exchanged with neighboring nomadic peoples and even built a city on the Amu Darya River.

With the decline of Indian culture, economic life came to a standstill. Appeared in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. The Aryans were nomads and lagged far behind the Indians in economic development. The only thing in which the Aryans were ahead of the Indians was in the use of the horse.

Only at the turn of II - I millennia BC. e. the new population of India - the Indians - again switched to agriculture. Crops of wheat, barley, millet, cotton and jute appeared. The farmers of the Ganges River valley gathered especially large crops.

Along with a horse and a large cattle An important place in the economy was occupied by an elephant. With its help, people successfully fought the impenetrable jungle.

Metallurgy is developing. Having quickly mastered bronze, already at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Indians learned how to mine iron. This greatly facilitated the development of new lands previously occupied by swamps and jungles.

The craft is also being revived. Again, a prominent place in the economy is occupied by pottery and weaving. Indian cotton fabrics were especially famous, products from which could be threaded through a small ring. These fabrics were very expensive. In honor of the goddess of arable land Sita they were named chintz. There were also simpler cheap fabrics.

Only trade remained at a low level. It was limited to the exchange of goods between neighboring communities.

Thus, the ancient Indians gave humanity such agricultural crops as cotton and sugar cane. They have tamed the world's largest animal, the elephant.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIA

Languages ​​and writing of ancient India.

At the end of the III millennium BC. e. India was a major power with a highly developed culture. But it is not yet known what language the inhabitants of the Indus Valley spoke. Their writing is still a mystery to scientists.

History of ancient India

The civilization of ancient India until the beginning of the twentieth century was relatively little studied by archaeologists and historians, it was believed that the main centers of civilization of the ancient world lay in the Middle East, between the Tigris and Euphrates, and in ancient egypt. Everything changed thanks to the finds of the English archaeologist James Breasted, who was the first to discover in India traces of the ancient Harappan civilization, or Proto-Indian, as it is also called. And it turned out that the ancient Indian civilization is as ancient as the ancient Egyptian, that the culture of ancient India was no less developed than in ancient Sumer or . About ancient India, its history, culture, religion, art, our today's article.

History of ancient India

As we have already said, the most ancient Indian civilization, called the Harappan or proto-Indian civilization, was discovered by archaeologists at the beginning of the last twentieth century. Before the astonished eyes of scientists, a bright culture appeared, with developed cities, houses equipped with running water (this is at a time when people in Europe still lived in caves in places), developed crafts, trade and art. The ancient Indian city of Harappa was the first to be excavated, which gave the name to this civilization, then Mohenjo-Daro and many other ancient settlements of that time.

The territory of ancient India of that ancient period is located along the valley of the Indus River and its tributaries, and as if covered with a necklace East Coast Arabian Sea in what is now India and Pakistan.

The origin of ancient India is still the subject of debate among historians and archaeologists. There is no agreement between them as to whether the ancient proto-Indian civilization had local roots, or whether it was brought from neighboring Mesopotamia, with which, by the way, intensive trade was conducted.

One way or another, but most scientists believe that the proto-Indian civilization was formed from local early agricultural cultures that existed in the fertile Indus River valley. And archaeological finds support this point of view, since archaeologists have discovered many ancient agricultural settlements in the Indus Valley, which date back to the 6th-4th millennia BC. e.

The fertile Indus Valley, favorable climate, large deposits of silicon, providing raw materials for the manufacture of materials, all this contributed to the fact that these lands soon became one of the first cradles of the most ancient civilization of mankind.

Unfortunately, we cannot say much about the earliest page of ancient Indian history, since no written sources have come down to us from this period, the only way we can judge the life of the ancient Indians is archaeological finds. For this reason, we can say a lot about the culture of ancient India, about how their life and economy were, but we know practically nothing, for example, which kings ruled ancient India, what laws were there, whether they fought wars, and so on.

Decline of Indian Civilization

The reasons for the decline and decline of the ancient proto-Indian civilization also remain a historical mystery. But what we can tell from archaeological sources is that the crisis did not happen quickly, but gradually. The ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro gradually emptied, buildings were abandoned, handicraft production was reduced, and trade fell into decay. Metal was used less and less.

There are several hypotheses regarding the reasons for this decline, one of them says that all this was caused by changes in ecology, a change in the course of the Indus River due to a strong earthquake that caused floods, a change in the direction of the monsoons, previously unknown diseases and epidemics, severe drought.

And the last straw that caused the fall of the Harappan civilization was the invasion of nomadic tribes - the Aryans, who came to India from the Central Asian steppes. Due to internal turmoil, the Harappan cities could not resist the newcomers, and were soon conquered by them. Gradually, the Aryans mixed with the local population, and their mixture formed the modern Indian people.

Culture of ancient India

The Harappan culture of ancient India was very advanced, as for that time, which is what it says, at least the presence of highly developed cities that had straight streets. The houses were built of mud bricks and were even equipped with running water. Among the houses of the ancient Indian city there were necessarily public granaries, in the city itself there were quarters of various artisans. In particular, the ancient Indians were skilled potters, their artistically painted pottery was in demand far beyond the borders of India itself.

In the surrounding villages, barley and wheat were grown, sheep and goats were bred. A little later they began to plant date palms, sow rye, grow rice and cotton.

Art of ancient India

The ancient Indians were very creative people, but they achieved the greatest success in architecture and sculpture. True, unfortunately, much more late works of Indian art have survived to our times than with ancient period India, Harappan civilization.

As for the comparatively later Indian art, it is very strongly influenced by the religion of ancient India, both Buddhism and Hinduism. Images of Buddha and many Indian deities have been preserved to this day on many ancient Indian temples and wall paintings.

The erotic motif is also very strong in Indian art, the most striking example of which is the Indian temple of Khajuraho, where the Kama Sutra is depicted in stones in the most direct sense.

This is yet the most innocent image from the Khajuraho temple.

In general, the Hindus had a peculiar attitude towards sex, for them it was not something shameful, but, on the contrary, almost a spiritual practice, hence the proximity of eroticism and religion in Indian culture.

Religion of ancient India

India became the homeland for one of the three world religions - Buddhism, although, paradoxically, Buddhism itself did not accept, remaining true to its original religion - Hinduism. Buddhism, having originated in India, spread to all surrounding countries.

Hinduism, the traditional religion of India, has deep roots, as it comes to us from the ancient times of Indian history, in fact, it is a mixture of the beliefs of the ancient Indians of the Harappan civilization and the Aryan aliens. Mixing with the local population, the Aryans thoroughly mixed the religion of ancient India.

Hinduism is based on belief in many different gods, and there are so many gods in Hinduism that even the Hindus themselves cannot name their exact number. So every Indian village can have its own local patron god. And the gods of ancient India are divided into two large groups: suras and asuras, which in some Indian myths oppose each other, in some myths asuras are not gods at all, but more demons opposing divine suras. In this divine opposition of the Hindu gods, one can see the echoes of the real opposition of two cultures, the Aryan and the Harappan (proto-Indian).

And, nevertheless, in the divine diversity of the gods of Hinduism, several more main gods can be distinguished, which are revered by all Hindus, these are:

• Brahma is the creator god, according to Hinduism, it is Brahma who is the creator of all things.
• Shiva is the destroyer god. If Brahma is such a divine pencil, then Shiva is an eraser responsible for destruction, including the destruction of everything bad.
• Vishnu, the supreme god-observer, the very word "Vishnu" is translated from Sanskrit as "comprehensive." It is the guardian of the universe and all things. He also watches over his "divine colleagues" Brahma and Shiva, so that one of them does not overdo it in his creation, and the second - in his destruction.

• In addition to Hinduism and Buddhism, India is home to a huge number of different philosophical and religious teachings. Therefore, India is sometimes called the "land of a thousand religions."
• It was from ancient India that chess, yoga, tea came to us (according to legend, an Indian monk meditated under a tea tree, a bowl of water lay next to him, and a leaf accidentally fell from the tree into the bowl, after tasting the bowl of water and tea leaf, the monk came to amazement at a delicious drink, and so tea was born).
• Among the sciences in ancient India, mathematics was especially developed, and the ancient Indian mathematicians were the first to invent decimal system calculus, the number 0, the rules for extracting square and cube roots, and also calculated the number "Pi" with great accuracy.
• No less skillful were the ancient Indian astronomers, who were able to determine the phases of the moon without a telescope.
• India is one of the origins of writing, Indian Sanskrit, which was written by Indian scientists and priests - Brahmins, became especially popular. However, the development of writing in ancient India began already in the post-Harappan period, with the arrival of the Aryans.

ancient india video

And in conclusion, an interesting documentary about ancient India from the Discovery channel.

At the beginning of the XX century. in archaeological science, there is a strong opinion that the Middle East is the birthplace of the productive economy, urban culture, writing, and civilization in general. This area, according to the apt definition of the English archaeologist James Breasted, was called the "Fertile Crescent". From here, the achievements of culture spread throughout the Old World, to the west and to the east. However, new research has made serious adjustments to this theory.

The first finds of this kind were made already in the 1920s. XX century. Indian archaeologists Sahni and Banerjee discovered civilization on the banks of the Indus, which existed simultaneously from the era of the first pharaohs and the era of the Sumerians in the III-II millennia BC. e. (the three most ancient civilizations in the world). Before the eyes of scientists, a vibrant culture appeared with magnificent cities, developed crafts and trade, and a kind of art. First, archaeologists unearthed the largest urban centers of this civilization - Harappu and Mohenjo-Daro. By the name of the first she received name - Harappan civilization. Later, many other settlements were found. Now there are about a thousand of them. They covered the entire Indus Valley and its tributaries with a continuous network, like a necklace covering the northeastern coast of the Arabian Sea in the territory of present-day India and Pakistan.

The culture of ancient cities, large and small, turned out to be so bright and original that the researchers had no doubts: this country was not the outskirts of the Fertile Crescent of the World, but an independent hotbed of civilization, today forgotten by the world of cities. There is no mention of them in written sources, and only the earth has preserved traces their former glory.

Map. Ancient India - Harappan Civilization

History of Ancient India - Indus Valley Proto-Indian Culture

Other mystery of ancient indian civilization- its origin. Scientists continue to argue whether it had local roots or was brought from outside, with which there was intensive trade.

Most archaeologists believe that the proto-Indian civilization grew out of the local early agricultural cultures that existed in the Indus basin and the neighboring region of Northern Balochistan. Archaeological discoveries support their point of view. In the foothills closest to the Indus Valley, hundreds of settlements of ancient farmers of the 6th-4th millennium BC were discovered. e.

This transitional zone between the mountains of Balochistan and the Indo-Gangetic plain provided the first farmers with everything they needed. The climate favored the cultivation of plants during the long, warm summers. Mountain streams provided water for irrigating crops and, if necessary, could be blocked by dams to retain fertile river silt and regulate irrigation of fields. Here the wild progenitors of wheat and barley grew, herds of wild buffalo and goats roamed. Flint deposits provided the raw material for making tools. A convenient position opened up opportunities for trade contacts with Central Asia and Iran in the west and the Indus Valley in the east. This area, like no other, was suitable for the emergence of an agricultural economy.

One of the first agricultural settlements known in the foothills of Balochistan was called Mergar. Archaeologists have excavated a significant area here and identified seven horizons of the cultural layer in it. These horizons, from the lower, the most ancient, to the upper, dating back to the 4th millennium BC. e., show a complex and gradual way of the emergence of agriculture.

In the earliest layers, hunting was the basis of the economy, while agriculture and cattle breeding played a secondary role. They grew barley. Of the domestic animals, only the sheep was tamed. Then the inhabitants of the settlement did not yet know how to make pottery. Over time, the size of the settlement increased - it stretched along the river, the economy became more complicated. Local residents built houses and granaries from raw bricks, grew barley and wheat, raised sheep and goats, made earthenware and painted it beautifully, at first only in black, and later with different colors: white, red and black. The pots are decorated with whole processions of animals walking one after another: bulls, antelopes with branched horns, birds. Similar images have been preserved in Indian culture on stone seals. Hunting still played an important role in the economy of farmers, they did not know how to process metal and made their tools from stone. But a stable economy was gradually formed, developing on the same foundations (primarily on agriculture) as the civilization in the Indus Valley.

In the same period, stable trade relations with neighboring lands were established. This is indicated by decorations made of imported stones, widespread among farmers: lapis lazuli, carnelian, turquoise from the territory of Iran and Afghanistan.

Mergar's society became highly organized. Public granaries appeared among the houses - rows of small rooms separated by partitions. Such warehouses acted as central points for the distribution of products. The development of society was also expressed in an increase in the wealth of the settlement. Archaeologists have discovered many burials. All residents were buried in rich attire with jewelry from beads, bracelets, pendants.

Over time, agricultural tribes settled from the mountainous regions to the river valleys. They mastered the plain irrigated by the Indus and its tributaries. The fertile soil of the valley contributed to the rapid growth of the population, the development of crafts, trade and agriculture. Villages grew up in cities. The number of cultivated plants. A date palm appeared, in addition to barley and wheat, rye, rice and cotton were grown. To irrigate the fields began to build small canals. They tamed a local species of cattle - a zebu-like bull. So gradually grew ancient civilization of the northwest of Hindustan. At an early stage, scientists identify several zones within the range: eastern, northern, central, southern, western, and southeastern. Each of them is characterized its own characteristics. But by the middle of the III millennium BC. e. differences are almost erased, and in the heyday the Harappan civilization entered as a culturally unified organism.

True, there are other facts. They bring doubts to the slim theory of the origin of the Harappan, Indian civilization. Studies by biologists have shown that the ancestor of the Indus Valley domestic sheep was a wild species that lived in the Middle East. Much in the culture of the early farmers of the Indus Valley brings it closer to the culture of Iran and South Turkmenistan. By language, scientists establish a connection between the population of Indian cities and the inhabitants of Elam, an area that lay east of Mesopotamia, on the coast of the Persian Gulf. Judging by appearance ancient Indians, they are part of one large community that settled throughout the Middle East - from the Mediterranean Sea to Iran and India.

Putting all these facts together, some researchers have concluded that the Indian (Harappan) civilization is a fusion of various local elements that arose under the influence of Western (Iranian) cultural traditions.

Decline of Indian Civilization

The decline of the proto-Indian civilization also remains a mystery, waiting for a final solution in the future. The crisis did not begin at the same time, but gradually spread throughout the country. Most of all, as evidenced by archaeological data, the major centers of civilization located on the Indus suffered. In the capitals of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, it took place in the 18th-16th centuries. BC e. In all probability, decline Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro belong to the same period. Harappa lasted only a little longer than Mohenjo-Daro. The crisis hit the northern regions faster; in the south, far from the centers of civilization, the Harappan traditions survived longer.

At that time, many buildings were abandoned, hastily made counters piled up along the roads, new ones grew on the ruins of public buildings. small houses deprived of many benefits of a dying civilization. Other rooms have been rebuilt. They used old brick, selected from the destroyed houses. New brick was not produced. In cities, there was no longer a clear division into residential and craft quarters. On the main streets there were pottery kilns, which was not allowed in the old days of exemplary order. The number of imported things has decreased, which means that we have weakened external links and trade collapsed. Handicraft production was reduced, ceramics became rougher, without skillful painting, the number of seals decreased, and metal was used less frequently.

What has come reason for this decline? The most likely reasons seem to be of an ecological nature: a change in the level of the seabed, the bed of the Indus as a result of a tectonic shock that led to a flood; change in the direction of the monsoons; epidemics of incurable and possibly previously unknown diseases; droughts due to excessive deforestation; salinization of the soil and the onset of the desert as a result of large-scale irrigation ...

A certain role in the decline and death of the cities of the Indus Valley was played by the enemy invasion. It was during that period that the Aryans appeared in Northeast India - tribes of nomads from the Central Asian steppes. Perhaps their invasion has become last straw on the scales of the fate of the Harappan civilization. Due to internal turmoil, the cities were unable to withstand the onslaught of the enemy. Their inhabitants went to look for new, less depleted lands and safe places: to the south, to the sea, and to the east, to the Ganges valley. The remaining population returned to a simple rural lifestyle, as it was a thousand years before these events. It adopted the Indo-European language and many elements of the culture of nomadic newcomers.

What did people look like in ancient India?

What kind of people settled in the Indus Valley? What did the builders of magnificent cities, the inhabitants of ancient India, look like? These questions are answered by two types of direct evidence: paleoanthropological materials from the Harappan burial grounds and images of ancient Indians - clay and stone sculptures that archaeologists find in cities and small towns. So far, these are few burials of the inhabitants of proto-Indian cities. Therefore, it is not surprising that the conclusions regarding the appearance of the ancient Indians often changed. Initially, the racial diversity of the population was assumed. The organizers of cities showed features of the proto-Australoid, Mongoloid, Caucasoid races. Later, the opinion was established about the predominance of Caucasoid features in the racial types of the local population. The inhabitants of the proto-Indian cities belonged to the Mediterranean branch of the large Caucasoid race, i.e. were mostly human dark-haired, dark-eyed, swarthy, with straight or wavy hair, long-headed. This is how they are depicted in the sculptures. The figurine of a man in clothes richly decorated with a pattern of shamrocks, carved from stone, was especially famous. The face of the sculptural portrait is made with great care. Hair caught with a strap, a thick beard, regular features, half-closed eyes give a realistic portrait of a city dweller,

Indian civilization is one of the most ancient on the planet. The religious and ethical teachings and works of art created here are distinguished by their extraordinary beauty and originality. Wherein big interest represents the political history of India, full of incredible turns and events.

ancient india

Harappan civilization (3000-1500 BC)

About 5000 years ago, the Harappan civilization arose in the Indus Valley in what is now Punjab. Scientists believe that ethnically the Harappans belong to the Dravidian peoples who still inhabit the south of India. There were suggestions that the first civilization in India was created by settlers from Sumer or Aryan tribes. But recent archaeological research suggests that, apparently, the Harappans were the indigenous inhabitants of this region, and their culture was quite original.

Around 2500 B.C. e. the "golden age" of the Harappan civilization began. Large cities with thoughtful and clear layouts were built here. In the two largest cities - Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, according to some estimates, from 30 to 100 thousand inhabitants could live at a time. The houses of the townspeople were different, depending on the wealth of the owners. The poor lived in small one-room buildings, while the houses of the rich could be real multi-story palaces. Each courtyard had its own well, and archaeologists also discovered the remains of a sewer system in the Harappan cities.

Artifacts found in the Indus Valley indicate that the Harappans were a peaceful people. They preferred trade and crafts to conquests. Excavations of the city of Lothala showed that the locals were talented seafarers. The city was both a port and a center of crafts and trade. There were entire streets, consisting of workshops where they made dishes, jewelry and fabrics. From Lothala, boats loaded with goods were sent to northeast Africa and Western Asia. Archaeologists have found many tablets and ceramics with inscriptions that testify to the existence of writing already at that time. But, unfortunately, scientists have not yet been able to decipher the language of the Harappans.

The main occupations of the Harappans, like most peoples bronze age was agriculture and animal husbandry. They were familiar with many agricultural crops. Complex irrigation systems were created to irrigate the fields. The Harrapians also managed to tame sheep, goats, cows, cats, dogs and elephants.

Religious ideas of the inhabitants of the Harappan civilization are still little studied. Apparently, their religion already contained some elements of the future Hinduism. Archaeological finds allow us to conclude that the cult of the mother goddess was popular among the Harappans, and mythological subjects borrowed from the Sumerian-Akkadian religion were also widespread.

Around 1500 B.C. e. Harappan cities began to decline. Crafts become more rude and primitive, fall into disrepair public buildings and palaces, sewerage and irrigation systems are being destroyed. Scientists express a number of hypotheses explaining the barbarization of the Harappan culture: soil salinization, changes in the course of the Indus, floods and droughts. Shortly after the final decline of the Harappan civilization, new tribes came to these lands.

Aryan conquest of India. Vedic civilization (1500 - 500 BC)

Approximately in the XII-VII centuries BC. e. Aryan conquerors came to the territory of modern India. modern science can already give an answer to the question, where was the ancestral home of the Aryans. Once upon a time, Indians and Iranians were one people. Their ancestors lived in the region of Central Asia - in the Caspian steppes, Western Siberia, on the territory of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. Most likely, the Indo-Aryans moved from there to Hindustan in several migration waves. The newcomers settled in the north of the peninsula, while the Harappans and other local tribes were forced to move south. However, in many regions, settlers and natives coexisted peacefully, adopting each other's culture and traditions.

Indo-Aryan culture is often also called Vedic, since the Vedas are the main cultural asset of this civilization - scriptures which outlines the foundations of Hinduism. The most famous Veda is the Rig Veda, dating back to the 11th-10th centuries BC. e. Thanks to the Rigveda, scientists were able to learn a lot about the philosophical and religious picture of the world of the Indo-Aryans and get an idea of ​​the social structure, life and main occupations of the local population. The Indo-Aryans were polytheists. Their pantheon included:

• Indra - thunderer and warrior;
• Varuna - the god of heavenly bodies and the legislator;
• Vishnu is the god of the sun;
• Agni is the god of fire;
• Soma is the deity of the intoxicating drink of immortality;

In addition, the Indo-Aryans believed in the existence of many evil and good small spirits.

Vedic culture belongs to iron age. Thanks to iron tools, the Indo-Aryans could explore the impenetrable areas of Hindustan, effectively cultivate the soil and reach high level in many crafts.

Unlike the Harrapians, where the basis public organization were popular assemblies, among the Indo-Aryans, the king played a key role, whose person the subjects deified. From Iran, the ancient Indians borrowed the varno-caste system, which developed here precisely in the Vedic era.

Buddhist (Magadh-Maurian) period (V - II centuries BC)

Revolutionary in the history of India was the era of the Mauryan dynasty. These powerful rulers:

• created a united state with a developed infrastructure on the Hindustan Peninsula;
• contributed to the flourishing of local culture, the spread of writing, the deepening of scientific knowledge;
• did a lot to develop trade.

During this period, Buddhism spread in India and such religious teachings as Vishnuism and Shaivism appeared.

In the middle of the first millennium BC. e. the Ganges valley became a battlefield between many small states. Each of them sought to establish their influence in the region. Gradually began the rise of Magadha - a strong and rich kingdom located in the northeast of modern India, with its capital in Pataliputra. In the course of a stubborn struggle, the kings of Magadha managed to crush most of their political opponents.

The northwestern regions of India in the VI century. BC e. became part of the Achaemenid Empire, who ruled in Persia. In the IV century. BC e. the state of the Achaemenids fell under the onslaught of the troops of Alexander the Great. After the victory, the Macedonian ruler immediately advanced to India. However, the tired army demanded that Alexander return home. Alexander the Great was forced to turn around before reaching Magadha.

In 322 BC. e. Chandragupta, a representative of the new Mauryan dynasty, becomes the king of Magadha. In order to get the throne, Chandragupta had to fight not only with the kings of the former dynasty - the Nandas, but also with the Greek garrisons left in India by Alexander the Great. The Mauryan kings managed to unite under their rule all the principalities of northern India and maintained close ties with Egypt and the Seleucid Empire. The Mauryan Empire stretched from the Himalayas to the central part of Hindustan.

The Mauryas did a lot to spread Buddhism on the peninsula, managed to strengthen the vertical of power and created a complex bureaucratic system. Thanks to the appearance of the coin, credit and banking and trade began to develop in the country.

The end of the Mauryan Empire was the conspiracy of Pushyamirta Shunga (185 BC), after which a new dynasty came to power.

Classic period (IV-V centuries)

Even under the last Mauryas, the empire began to gradually collapse. The new dynasty - the Shungs - had to face the disobedience of the petty Indian princelings, as well as the Greek and Iranian conquerors.

In the 1st century n. e. The mighty Kushan Empire arose on the territory of Central Asia. The Kushan kings managed to subjugate the lands that were once part of the Mauryan state and some Greek colonies. In the III century. The Kushan Empire fell and a period of fragmentation began on the territory of India. Magadha again became the center of the revival of a united India. In 320, the Gupta dynasty was strengthened on the royal throne of Magadha. Their reign is considered a "golden age" in Indian history. The Guptas were talented warriors and managed to create the largest empire in terms of area in the Ancient East.

However, in the middle of the 5th century, the Gupta Empire faced a serious opponent - the Iranian-speaking Ephtalite tribes. The aliens occupied almost all of northern India. The later Guptas only managed to maintain control over Magadha.

Middle Ages and Modern Times

The Hephthalites stayed briefly in India. Some of them left, and some assimilated and adopted the culture of the local population. India again plunged into strife and feudal fragmentation. Some principalities for a time towered over others, but literally after a few years they fell into decay. In this chaos, a system of seignioral-vassal relations arose, similar to the European one. Serious changes in the region began in the 11th century, when India began to be subjected to raids by Islamic conquerors. Mired in internecine wars, the Indian princes could not resist the new threat and were forced to submit.

Islamic period

The Turkic conquerors who professed Islam were also very heterogeneous and often competed with each other. In 1206, the Delhi Sultanate arose in India, which quickly became the leader in the region. The local and Muslim nobility preferred to submit to the Delhi rulers, since news of the aggressive campaigns of Genghis Khan had already come from Central Asia. In the XIII century, the Mongols invaded Northern India more than once, each time leaving many victims and destruction.

The sultans pursued a policy of Islamization. According to their decrees, many Hindu temples were destroyed, and mosques were erected in their place. Due to additional taxes imposed on the “infidels”, a certain decline in crafts and trade is noted during this period. Rajas and maharajas from among ethnic Indians could retain their possessions only on the condition of complete submission to the Sultan, providing him with their military detachments and paying tribute.

In the XIV century, the Delhi Sultanate began to weaken. Its final fall occurred at the end of the same century after the invasion of India by Tamerlane. In 1526, one of the descendants of Tamerlane, Babur, was forced to flee Central Asia. Babur, together with his army, invaded Northern India and soon subjugated it, thereby laying the foundation for the Mughal Empire.

The descendants of Babur understood that in order to maintain stability within the empire, they needed support in the person of the local nobility. Therefore, they stopped the destruction of Hindu shrines and began to accept Hindus into the bureaucratic corps. The Great Mughals were talented conquerors and wise rulers who did a lot to develop the economy and culture.

However, to XVII century the empire was greatly weakened. This was due to many factors:

• the beginning of the European invasion of India;
• internecine wars between heirs to the throne;
• the actions of the Hindu nobility, determined to overthrow the power of foreigners;
• peasant unrest;
• performances of the Sikhs (the people in northern India who fought for independence).

The final fall of the Mughal Empire took place in 1858, when the British troops captured Delhi and captured the last Mughal ruler.

Europeans in India

For Europeans, India was a rich and attractive land. The European nobility was willing to pay huge sums of money for Indian spices, fabrics and jewelry. The struggle for India began in the 16th century, when the first Portuguese colony appeared on Hindustan. Soon rivalry for Indian wealth and domestic markets unfolded between Portugal, Spain, France, England and the Netherlands.

Europeans, with the help of money or a military threat, lured local nobles to their side, trying to enlist their support. In the middle of the 18th century, France became the most active player in the region, starting the creation of its colonial empire here. Her plans were thwarted by the British. During the conflict, both sides used detachments of sepoys - Indian soldiers who fought under the banner of European powers. The result of the Anglo-French war was the victory of the British, who began the immediate development of India.

To strengthen their power in the occupied territories, the British concluded agreements with the Indian principalities, according to which they had to renounce independent foreign policy and a huge part of the taxes in exchange for military assistance. Since the British exported everything of at least minimal value from India, the principalities were rapidly impoverished and were forced to completely renounce their sovereignty.

Huge taxes, the decline of many crafts, enslaving conditions for renting land led to the impoverishment of the population, the irretrievable death of many crafts and mass starvation. Unlike the previous conquerors, the British were not going to assimilate and adopt local ways. All resources were simply pumped out of India. Moreover, if the Indian feudal lords, interested in a constant influx of taxes, tried not to oppress the landowners too much, then the British were absolutely not worried about the standard of living of the population. Therefore, colonial India was much poorer than feudal India. In the 19th century, the colonialists tried to create bourgeois relations and a developed industry in India. In some cities, such as Bombay, this has been successful. But due to the preservation of feudal vestiges, the Indian economy could not develop fully.

The local population tried more than once to oppose the colonialists. The most famous such attempt was the sepoy uprising of 1857-59. However, the rebels failed because:

• the leaders of the uprising were unable to present a united front;
• to know, who led the popular movement, was not ready to make concessions to the peasants;
• the British managed to lure most of the feudal lords to their side;
• the sepoy army was too weak for serious military operations;
• the rebels were unable to create a clear political program and put forward slogans suitable for the entire population.

But, despite the defeat of the rebels, the British administration was forced to make a number of concessions.

Although the colonialists brought the Indian people a lot of grief, they also contributed to the rallying of the Indians in the face of a common threat. In addition, the British built factories, railways and schools. Young people from wealthy families went to study abroad, bringing new knowledge and ideas from there. At the beginning of the 20th century, political parties and circles began to appear in India, promoting independence and freedom. Also, the revolutions in Russia, Germany and China had an impact on the internal situation of India.

One of the most active public figures of that time were Mahatma Gandhi and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Their ideas became especially popular after the end of the First World War. Gandhi managed to establish contacts not only with the Hindus, but also with the Indian Muslims who started the caliphate movement. The movement of disobedience initiated by the intelligentsia in the early 1920s was also taken up by the peasants. The Indian National Congress was responsible for coordinating all actions - the first Political Party countries.

At first, the British were ready to make concessions, but in the context of the aggravated international situation, the British administration took drastic measures, arresting Gandhi and his associates. India soon entered World War II as part of the British Empire.

Throughout the war, actions against the British continued. The situation was aggravated by the growth of mutual hatred between Hindus and Muslims. After the end of the war, the British authorities came to the conclusion that London was no longer able to hold Indian colonies. In order to prevent further religious and ethnic conflicts, it was decided to divide India into two parts - Muslim and Hindu. So in August 1947, two independent countries appeared on the world map at once - Pakistan and, in fact, India.

Independent India

Despite the division of the former British colonies, the conflict between Muslims and Hindus continued for many more years and led to several Indo-Pakistani wars. The border on both sides was flooded with refugees, with occasional regional clashes.

In 1948, Gandhi was assassinated and the government was headed by Jawaharlal Nehru. In the National Congress in the 1950s, the rivalry between the two political factions began. One advocated development along the Western capitalist path, while the other insisted on public administration economy. As a result, the left opposition broke away from the National Congress and founded its own party.

Today, India's economy can be described as a mixed one. Thanks to the talented leaders of the country, such as Indira Gandhi, Lal Bahadur Shastri and Narasimha Rao, a number of successful economic reforms and many technological innovations have been introduced here. India even became a nuclear power in the 1970s. Today because of the cheapness manual labor and raw materials in India there are branches of many large European and American industrial enterprises.

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Historical article: ancient india

Description: This article is intended for those who are fond of History ancient world and Ancient India, teachers, parents and children.
Target: raise cognitive activity given themes and to the history of India itself.
Tasks:
1. Tell about the origin of Indian civilization.
2. Describe the main stages of Ancient India

3. Explain the basis of the belief.
4. The fall of the empire.

ancient india

ancient india- this is one of the first civilizations of the world, which brought the world culture the largest number of various spiritual values, with a turbulent and complex history. It was here that the greatest religions were once born, empires appeared and collapsed, but from century to century the “enduring” originality of Indian culture was preserved. This civilization built large and very well-planned cities with bricks with running water and built a pictographic script, which to this day cannot be deciphered.
At the end of the 3rd millennium BC, on the Hindustan Peninsula, not far from the Indus River valley, two main centers of India arose: Harappa and Mohejo-Daro, therefore, on behalf of the river, it received its name. Its development was directly connected with the organization of high yields of irrigated agriculture. The nature and climate of India are very diverse. Almost the entire Hindustan peninsula is occupied by a plateau with a hot, arid climate.
Later, nomadic tribes of the Aryans penetrate into India from the north-west, who mix with the local population (II millennium BC).
Gradually, India is being transformed and many small states arise in the Ganges valley, led by rajas in the period from the 7th-6th centuries BC. The epic poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" tell about the wars waged between the rajas. The development of agriculture and handicrafts, as well as aggressive wars, led to the emergence of property inequality among the Aryans. The rajas who led the predatory campaigns accumulate a lot of wealth. With the help of warriors, they strengthen their power, make it hereditary. The Rajas and their warriors turn the captives into slaves. From the peasants and artisans they demand the payment of taxes and work for themselves. Rajas are gradually turning into kings of small states. During wars, these small states are united into one, and then the ruler becomes a maharaja (“big king”).
During this period, the national religion of Brahmanism (the god Brahma) also appeared, which contributed to the formation of a varied system of society. Thus, the entire population of Ancient India was divided into four groups, called castes (varnas) - hereditary social groups. These were 1) Brahmins (priests) who did not engage in physical labor and lived on income from sacrifices; 2) kshatriyas (wars), in their hands was also state administration, there was often a struggle between the brahmins and kshatriyas; 3) vaishyas (artisans, farmers), various merchants and shepherds also treated them; 4) Shudras (servants), the lowest of the castes, all the local population conquered by the Aryans also made up the fourth caste. Slaves were not included in any caste. The peculiarity of the castes was such that a person born in one of the castes could not move to another, and therefore there was social inequality in society.
6th century BC was characterized for a short period with Alexander the Great, as he captured northwestern India. But after his departure, almost all of India was under the rule of the kings of the Maurya dynasty. This state reached its peak under King Ashoka, continuing the aggressive policy of Chandragupta, Ashoka annexes a number of neighboring regions to his possessions, and also actively contributes to the spread of a new religion for India, like Buddhism - the earliest of the three world religions (268-231 BC). The founder is Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha).
As a result, the Mauryan empire breaks up into several states (beginning of the 2nd century BC). a short time unity is reappearing in India empire state Guptov (beginning of the 4th century BC). The city of Magadha again becomes the center of a large slave-owning state - the Gupts. The kings of this state made a number of successful campaigns of conquest in the Ganges valley and in Central India. The rulers of small kingdoms paid tribute to them. India carried on extensive land and sea trade with other countries.
But the final fall of the slave system in India and the period ancient history contributed to the invasion in the middle of the 5th century. northern tribes of the Huns, who finally ruined the country and formed their state in India.

Literature:
1. Forgotten Civilization in the Indus Valley by M. F. Albedil
2. India. History of the country of Sinharaja Tammita-Delgoda