I think that every person, at least once in his life, opened a dictionary. Let's find out what they are.
A dictionary is a collection of words with explanations and interpretations. The words that are given in the collection are located in alphabetical order, so it is much easier for those who know the alphabet to use the dictionary.
Many people know that there are many dictionaries. There are dictionaries for specialists, for a wide range of readers, for schoolchildren. Depending on the tasks of the dictionary, the composition of words will be different, they will be located and explained differently.
- If you are interested in what this or that word means, in what cases it is appropriate to use it, please contact explanatory dictionary. One can guess that since it is named INTELLIGENT, means, explain everything about the word that interests you, including information about the stress in the word, its spelling, the most typical phrases.
The most famous "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegov.
- If you have difficulty with stress and pronunciation, contact orthoepic dictionary.
The most famous orthoepic dictionary "Russian literary pronunciation and stress" ed. R. I. Avanesova and S. I. Ozhegov.
- Understand the meaning of something phraseological expression will help phrasebook.
The most famous "School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by V.P. Zhukov in collaboration with A.V. Zhukov (under the editorship of G.V. Karpyuk).
- Explaining proverbs and sayings winged words and figurative expressions will give dictionaries of proverbs, sayings and winged words.
Known dictionaries:
1) V. P. Zhukov. Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings.
2)C. N. Zigunenko, A. F. Istomin. "A unique illustrated dictionary aphorisms and winged words for children ". 
- The choice of a suitable synonym from the synonymic series will prompt synonym dictionary.
The most famous "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" 3. E. Alexandrova.
- You can learn how to spell words correctly from spelling dictionary.
The most famous "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language" by D.N. Ushakov, S.E. Kryuchkov.
Material prepared by A. A. Taraskin
The existing types of dictionaries are varied. This diversity is explained, first of all, by the complexity and multidimensionality of the very object of the lexicographic description, i.e., the language. In addition, the numerous needs of society in obtaining a wide variety of information about the language also complicate and expand the repertoire of dictionaries. There is practically no way to give in one dictionary all, to one degree or another, comprehensive information about the language that would satisfy equally society as a whole and its individual strata and particulars. That is why in any national lexicography we find dozens or even hundreds of dictionaries of various types.
The division of dictionaries into types occurs, as classifiers say, for various reasons: depending on the purpose of the dictionary, its volume, the order of words in it, the object of description, etc. Many of these points overlap each other, combining in the dictionary of one and of the same type, others stand apart, serving as the basis for dictionaries of a completely different type. There are translation, explanatory, dialect and regional dictionaries, dictionaries of slang, historical, neologisms, etymological, popular expressions and many others. It should be noted that in the science of language there is still no generally accepted typology of dictionaries, although attempts to create one have been made by many linguists, in particular L. V. Shcherba, P. N. Denisov, B. Kemada, Ya. Malkil, L. Zgustoy and others.
First of all, we have to distinguish between dictionaries linguistic and non-linguistic. The former collect and describe lexical units of the language (words and phraseological units) from one point of view or another. A special subtype of linguistic dictionaries are the so-called ideographic dictionaries going from a concept (idea) to the expression of this concept in a word or phrase. In non-linguistic dictionaries, lexical units (in particular, terms, single-word and compound, and proper names) serve only as a starting point for communicating certain information about objects and phenomena of extralinguistic reality. There are also intermediate varieties of dictionaries. In addition, any dictionary can be classified as either "general" or "special".
Examples of general linguistic dictionaries are ordinary explanatory and translation dictionaries, covering, with varying degrees of completeness, all the vocabulary that is in common use. A special linguistic dictionary develops one area of vocabulary, sometimes quite wide (for example, phraseological dictionary, dictionary foreign words), sometimes rather narrow (for example, a dictionary of personal names given to newborns). A general non-linguistic dictionary is a general encyclopedia (for example, TSB-Great Soviet Encyclopedia). A special non-linguistic dictionary is a special (industry) encyclopedia (medical, legal, etc.) or a brief dictionary of a particular (usually narrower) field of knowledge, or a biographical dictionary of figures in a particular industry (writers, artists, etc.) . d.), or one or another country (dictionary-reference type "Who is who").
Explanatory dictionaries. An explanatory dictionary is such a dictionary, the main task of which is the interpretation of the meanings of words (and phraseological units) of any language by means of this language itself. The interpretation is given using a logical definition of the conceptual meaning (for example, to heat up - to heat up to a very high temperature; a record holder is an athlete who has set a record), through the selection of synonyms (annoying - annoying, intrusive) or in the form of indicating a grammatical relationship to another word (covering - action according to the meaning of the verbs to cover up and cover up). In some explanatory dictionaries, the meanings of words are revealed, if necessary, with the help of drawings. Emotional, expressive and stylistic connotations are indicated by means of special labels (“disapproved”, “contempt”, “joking”, “ironic”, “bookish”, “colloquial”, etc.). Separate meanings, as needed and possible (depending on the volume of the dictionary), are illustrated with examples - typical combinations in which the given word is involved (for example, the iron is hot, the atmosphere is hot - where the verb already acts in a figurative sense: “it has become tense”), or (especially in larger dictionaries) with quotations from authoritative writers. As a rule, explanatory dictionaries also give a grammatical description of the word, indicating with the help of special marks the part of speech, the grammatical gender of the noun, the type of the verb, etc. grammatical forms of the given word. To some extent, the pronunciation of the word is also indicated (for example, in Russian explanatory dictionaries - stress), sometimes various other, additional information is reported.
Usually explanatory dictionaries are dictionaries of modern literary language. Some of them are strictly normative in nature, i.e., they select only facts that are fully consistent with literary norm, recommend these facts as the only "correct" ones and cut off everything that even slightly deviates towards the vernacular. A typical example is the academic dictionary of the French language (Dictionnaire de I "Academie Francaise). Many other explanatory dictionaries are characterized by a broader understanding of the literary language and, accordingly, the inclusion of colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary in the dictionary (except for narrow regional, dialect, highly professional and purely argotic elements).This type includes academic dictionaries of the Russian language - the 17-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1950-1965) and the 4-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language (1957-1961), as well as the one-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov (9th revision and additional edition, edited by N. Yu. Shvedova 1972), which is very useful for practical purposes, and the earlier “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” group of authors under the editorship of D. N. Ushakov (4 volumes, 1935-1940).Of course, the 17-volume academic Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language is of particular importance for Russian lexicography. speaks more than 120 thousand words. In 1970 he was awarded the Lenin Prize.
Of a different nature is the famous, reprinted more than once "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. vocabulary and abundance of folk expressions is still unsurpassed. It includes about 200 thousand words of the literary language and dialects. Since 1965, the Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects began to be published under the editorship of F.P. Filin, which presents the dialect vocabulary and phraseology of all Russian dialects of the 19th-20th centuries.
The main task of the explanatory dictionary is to interpret the meaning of words and their use in speech, to distinguish between right and wrong, to show the connection of words with language styles, to give the reader information about the features of case, generic, pledge, aspect and other grammatical forms the words; along the way, it indicates how words are written and pronounced.
Explanatory dictionaries, as a rule (but not always), turn out to be normative, i.e., explaining words in accordance with the requirements of literary and linguistic norms (a norm in relation to a language is a rule developed with the participation of literature and accepted by society as a mandatory rule that regulates the use of words in speech, its spelling, pronunciation and stress). So, all the listed explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language are normative, with the exception of V.I. Dahl.
Translation dictionaries. Explanatory dictionaries are opposed by translation dictionaries, most often bilingual (say, Russian-English and English-Russian), and sometimes multilingual. In translation dictionaries, instead of interpreting the meanings in the same language, translations of these meanings into another language are given, for example, get hot - become heated, importunate - importunate, troublesome. Depending on whether the dictionary is intended as a guide when reading (listening) to a text in a foreign language, or as a guide when translating from one's native language into a foreign one, it is desirable to build it in different ways. So, Russian-English dictionary for the English, it may give less information in the “right” (i.e., English) part than a Russian-English dictionary intended for Russians gives them. For example, when translating a Russian appeal, an English dictionary can simply list all possible English equivalents (address, appeal; conversion; treatment, circulation, etc.), since the Englishman knows the semantic differences between these English words; in the dictionary for Russians, it will be necessary to indicate that address and appeal are ‘appeal to ...’, and appeal is ‘appeal’ in the sense of ‘call’; that conversion is 'conversion', etc., that treatment is 'treatment with...', 'treatment with someone', a circulation 'circulation of goods, money, etc.'; in addition, you will have to indicate with what prepositions these English nouns are used, even indicate the place of stress, that is, provide the English equivalents with many explanations that will help to use them correctly when translating the text with the word address from native Russian into foreign English. It is clear that in the English-Russian dictionary the picture will change accordingly. In a dictionary designed for Russians, the Russian part will be less detailed, but in a dictionary intended for English, you will have to indicate in detail the differences in the meanings and use of Russian equivalents, provide them with grammatical marks, indicate stress, etc. A good translation dictionary should contain also stylistic marks and highlight cases where the translating equivalent is stylistically inaccurate. Translation of words is always a great difficulty, because the scope of the word's meaning in different languages often does not coincide, figurative meanings in each language develop in their own way. So, in Russian, sleep means both “sleep” (a state of sleep) and “dream”, and in Czech the first corresponds to spanek, and the second to sen, similarly in English they distinguish between sleep and dream, slumber; in German Schlaf and Traum. On the contrary, the difference between the verbs go and go, which is important for the Russian language, will not be reflected in the translation into Bulgarian language, where will common verb ida, idwam, and French, where arriver - and go, and go, etc.
Translation dictionaries can be bilingual (Russian-French, English-Russian, etc.) and multilingual. The latter include the Dictionary in Seven Languages (French-German-English-Italian-Spanish-Portuguese-Dutch-Russian) compiled by A. and V. Popov, published in 1902. Theoretical and practical value there are very few such dictionaries. Much more important are multilingual special dictionaries that translate any industry terminology into a number of languages, for example, the “Pocket Russian-English-French-Italian-Danish and Norwegian-Latvian Marine Dictionary” published in Russia in 1881. AT recent times short multilingual dictionaries with a selection of the most common words and expressions have become quite widespread. An example would be the “Slavic Phrasebook”, published in Sofia in 1961. It contains greetings (“Hello!”, etc.), warnings (“Beware!”, etc.), words for conversation in everyday topics at a party, in a store, at the post office, etc. in Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian, Polish and Czech. Multilingual dictionaries may have different targets. So, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, “language catalogs” were distributed, where all known translations into any languages were selected for a given word; later this type became narrower and more practical, combining translations either into a group of related languages, or into a group of languages of one geographic area to help tourism and travel.
To general dictionaries, we also include dictionaries that consider (in principle) the entire vocabulary, but from a specific point of view. Such, in particular, are word-formation (derivational) dictionaries that indicate the division of words into their constituent elements, i.e., they provide information about the morphological composition of the word. An example is the “School word-formation dictionary” by Z.A. Quiet (1964). Further etymological dictionaries (of one language or a group of related languages) containing information about the origin and initial motivation of words. Brief etymological dictionaries are usually limited to giving for each word one etymology, which seems to the author of the dictionary the most probable. In larger and more reputable dictionaries, as a rule, correspondences are given in related languages and “controversies” are stated, that is, disputes of scientists regarding the etymology of certain words are given brief summaries proposed hypotheses and their critical evaluation. It is customary to include in etymological dictionaries words whose etymology remains unclear (in these cases they indicate “unclear”). Derivatives and compound words, the motivation of which is obvious, are either not included in the etymological dictionary at all, or the main ones are listed to illustrate the word-formation activity of the generating word, or in cases where the derivatives reflect connections with some older meanings lost by the generating word . An example of etymological dictionaries is the "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by A. Preobrazhensky, "Russisches etymologisches Worterbuch" by M. Fasmer, which since 1966 began to appear in Russian translation. For practical purposes, the “Concise Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanova and T.V. Shanskaya.
Etymological dictionaries should be distinguished from historical dictionaries, which, in turn, are represented by two varieties. Some of them aim to trace the evolution of each word and its individual meanings throughout the written history of the corresponding language, usually up to the present (or some segment of this history, also up to the present). Examples of dictionaries of this type are the "Great Oxford Dictionary" of English language, German dictionaries - started by the brothers Grimm and G. Paul's dictionary, a large dictionary of the Swedish Academy and some others. The second type of historical dictionaries should include dictionaries of ancient periods of the history of the corresponding language, for example, “Materials for a Dictionary of the Old Russian Language” (in three volumes) by the philologist and ethnographer Izm. Iv. Sreznevsky, published in 1893-1903, and additions to it in 1912, as well as dictionaries of individual writers of the past (including the recent past) or even individual monuments.
The forerunners of historical dictionaries were alphabet books, lexicons and so-called near-text dictionaries: they were placed right next to the texts and they explained the words of only a particular given text. Essence historical dictionary L. V. Shcherba at one time characterized it as follows: “A historical dictionary in the full sense of this term would be such a dictionary that would give the history of all words over a certain period of time, and not only the emergence of new words and new meanings would be indicated, but also their extinction, as well as their modification.
Acquaintance with historical (as well as with etymological) dictionaries allows you to find out the history of words and expressions modern language, look into their "biography". So, for example, by opening the dictionary of I. I. Sreznevsky, you can find out that such modern words with the same root and similar in meaning as worker, worker, worker (about a person) go back to the word slave, having undergone a long evolution in their meanings. Now, the former connection with the word slave of these and other single-root words is not directly realized by anyone, for example: work - slavery, captivity ... (vol. 3, p. 2 of the specified dictionary); work, work - be in slavery, in captivity ... (vol. 3, p. 4); worker - slave, slave ... (vol. 3, p. 5); worker - servant, slave ...; worker - related to slavery ...; slave - servant, slave ... (vol. 3, p. 5), etc. These and other words with the same root are provided with examples from ancient written monuments.
Another kind of historical dictionary is the writer's dictionary. The dictionary of a writer or a separate monument must be exhaustive, i.e., it must a) include absolutely all the words used in the writings (also in surviving letters, etc.) of this writer and b) indicate all the forms of these words encountered. Typically, such a dictionary not only illustrates with quotes from the text all the highlighted meanings and shades of meanings, but also gives the "addresses" of all uses of the word (for example, volume, page, line for each use case). If a dictionary is built in this way not by one writer, but by a whole period in the history of a language, such a dictionary turns out to be exhaustive for this period, or the so-called "thesaurus". good example Dictionary of the language of Pushkin (vols. 1-4, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, M, 1956-1961) can serve as a writer's dictionary; dictionaries of Shakespeare, Goethe and other great writers have been created abroad. Such dictionaries are needed by science in order to be able to more fully and correctly understand how the so-called language develops. fiction, i.e. the style of the common literary language that serves artistic creativity, word art. First of all, dictionaries are compiled based on the works of the most prominent writers and poets of national importance in the development of culture.
A special place is occupied by dialectological, or dialect dictionaries. A dialect dictionary can be differential, that is, containing only dialect vocabulary that differs from the common language, or complete, covering in principle all the vocabulary that exists in dialect speech - both specific to a given dialect and coinciding with the vocabulary of a common language. In addition, it can be either a dictionary of one dialect (even the dialect of one village), or a dictionary of a whole group of related dialects, considered as one dialect, or, finally, a comparative dictionary of many or even all territorial dialects of a language. The dialectological (in the broad sense) dictionaries include slang and slang dictionaries. Examples of dictionaries that include the vocabulary of one dialect can be some old dialect dictionaries, such as “Materials for an explanatory regional dictionary of the Vyatka dialect” by N. Vasnetsov (1908), “Smolensk regional dictionary” by V. Dobrovolsky (1914), and new ones: Dictionary of Modern Russian Folk Dialect, ed. I.A. Ossovetsky, which gives the lexical system of one of the dialects (village Deulino) of the Ryazan region, "The Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data", which began to appear in 1967; “Dictionary of Russian old-timer dialects of the middle part of the river basin. Ob" and the like. Dictionaries that include different dialects of the language are represented by the “Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” of the Academy of Sciences (1852), “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V. Dahl, “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects” and the like.
An interesting and relatively new type of dictionaries is frequency dictionaries. Their task is to show the comparative frequency of the use of language words in speech, which practically means in a certain array of texts. Examples of frequency dictionaries are "The Russian Word Count" (Detroit, 1953) by Josselson, compiled on the basis of statistical analysis of the use of about one million words, and "The Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language", compiled by E. A. Steinfeldt and published in Tallinn in 1963 Dictionary contains 2500 most common words selected from contemporary texts(fiction literature for children and adults, plays, radio programs, newspapers) with a total volume of 400 thousand word usages. The most important parts of the dictionary are: 1) common list words arranged in descending order of frequency, indicating for each word the absolute number of occurrences of its use; 2) a list by parts of speech indicating (though not for all parts of speech) the frequency of individual grammatical forms (for example, the word year was encountered 810 times, including 684 times in singular and 126 times in plural, 111 times in eminent., 244 times in give birth, p., etc.); 3) a general list of words in alphabetical order with an indication of frequency (for homonyms - separately by parts of speech; for example, the union a met 3442 times, the particle a - 578 times, the interjection a - 54 times). In addition to the dictionaries mentioned above, there are others. For example, "Counting Russian words" by H. Josselson, "Frequency Dictionary German language» F. Cading, "Comparative frequency list of the first thousand words of English, French, German and Spanish" by H. Eaton. Frequency dictionaries make it possible to draw very interesting conclusions about the functioning of words and phrases in speech. grammatical categories language. They are also of great practical importance, in particular for the rational selection of vocabulary at different stages of teaching a given language to those for whom it is not native. Thus, the development of mathematical, primarily statistical methods of learning a language has given rise to frequency dictionaries, the words in which receive a numerical, statistical indicator, that is, digital information about how often a particular word is used in the language.
Purely practical goals are pursued by spelling and spelling dictionaries that indicate the “correct” (i.e., corresponding accepted norm) spelling of words and their forms or, accordingly, their "correct" pronunciation. Most widespread received spelling dictionaries that provide information about the correct spelling of words. Orthoepic dictionaries indicate the correct pronunciation of words. For example, the reference dictionary “Russian literary pronunciation and stress” by R.I. Avanesov and S.I. Ozhegov.
Among special linguistic dictionaries big interest represent various phraseological dictionaries. They are translated (for example, the English-Russian phraseological dictionary by A. V. Kunin) and monolingual, giving an interpretation of the meanings of phraseological units by means of the same language. To this last type belongs, in particular, the Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. A. I. Molotkova (M., 1967), which includes 4000 dictionary entries, as well as an older, but not lost its value, dictionary by M. I. Mikhelson, which widely gives foreign language parallels to Russian phraseological units, as well as information about the origin of phraseological units, about their original motivation, etc. . The material of phraseological dictionaries is not words, but phraseological phrases. Such dictionaries exist in all languages. In Russian, the most common are: “Winged words” by S.V. Maksimov (a number of publications) and N.S. and M.G. Ashukins (M., 1960) and the previously mentioned Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language.
A variety of phraseological dictionaries are dictionaries of "winged words", i.e., running quotations from literary works, aphorisms famous people and other phraseological units, mainly of book use, having a literary source. Usually in dictionaries of this kind, a large place is occupied by " catchphrases”, which have entered the cultural life of many peoples, including those that are often quoted in a foreign language, in the language in which they were first formulated. The most famous dictionary of "winged words", which served to a large extent as a model for all others, was G. Buchmann's dictionary "Geflugelte Worte", published back in 1864 (reprinted dozens of times since then). The most successful of the Russian dictionaries of this type can be considered the dictionary of N. S. and M. G. Ashukins. A special kind of phraseological dictionaries are dictionaries of folk proverbs and sayings, for example, “Proverbs of the Russian people”, collected by V.I. all Slavic peoples, with separate parallels and from non-Slavic languages (1st ed.: Prague, 1851).
Of other special linguistic dictionaries, we mention dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, foreign words, dictionaries of abbreviations, various dictionaries of proper names, dictionaries of rhymes. Among the bilingual special dictionaries, we note the dictionaries of the so-called "false friends of the translator", that is, words that are similar in sound and spelling in any two languages, but differ in meaning (for example, in Bulgarian, mountain means 'forest', and not at all 'mountain', in English magazine - 'magazine', not 'shop', in Ukrainian ugly - 'beautiful', not 'ugly', or in German kalt- 'cold', and similar Italian caldo means 'hot, warm' '). Let's take a closer look at the dictionaries of synonyms. "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" 3. A. Aleksandrova (1969), containing about 9 thousand synonymic rows.
The Institute of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR published a two-volume Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language, edited by A.P. Evgeniev (1970-1971). The dictionary includes 4148 entries. Synonyms are combined into one dictionary entry based on the unity of the expressed concept. The dictionary entry contains indications of the features of the compatibility of synonyms, the shades of their meaning, the scope of use, and stylistic coloring.
For example:
Take out, get out, extract, pull out (colloquial), pull out (colloquial), fish out (colloquial).
Nesov.: take out, get, extract, pull out, pull out, fish out.
(from what, from under what, because of what to Take) what is inside, in the depths of something. Take out - take something from the inside; get - take out from somewhere; extract - a word of literary speech; pull out the in everyday speech; pull out the use when it is necessary to indicate that the action is performed slowly, gradually or with some difficulty; fish out - get what you need from the depths of something, the word has a playful, ironic character (p. 200).
The interpretation of synonyms is accompanied by numerous examples of their use taken from the language of fiction from Pushkin to the present day and from journalistic and scientific works.
Such dictionaries are of great practical importance in the study of both one's own and foreign language. Along with large special synonymous dictionaries, short ones are very useful, such as teaching aids, synonymous dictionaries like " Concise Dictionary synonyms of the Russian language” V. N. Klyuepon (1956 and 1961); "A Brief Dictionary of Synonyms of the English Language" by I. A. Potapova (1957), "A Brief Dictionary of Synonyms of the French Language" by L. S. Andreevskaya-Levenstern and O. M. Karlovich (1959) and others.
Very interesting is the "Dictionary of foreign expressions and words used in Russian without translation" by A. M. Babkin and V. V. Shendetsov (M., Nauka, 1966). In two books of the dictionary, not only are foreign words used without translation (a propos, French - by the way, for the occasion; all right, English - everything is in order; alma mater, Latin - a respectful name by students of their university), but also Numerous examples of their use are given.
A special group is made up of linguistic reference dictionaries, which do not give an explanation of the meaning of the word or the features of its use and origin, but provide various kinds of information about the word as a linguistic unit. Strictly speaking, other dictionaries also have a reference character, primarily explanatory ones, but in this case, those dictionaries are singled out for which the reference function is the main one, it is important for them not to explain the word, but to give some kind of linguistic information about it.
Such dictionaries should be distinguished from non-linguistic special reference dictionaries such as the Dictionary of Literary Terms, etc., and which explain not words, but concepts, objects, phenomena called by these words, references are not given about words (origin, composition, etc.). etc.), but about the objects themselves, concepts, phenomena. Linguistic reference dictionaries can be various types depending on the nature of the references.
Interesting material about the morphological composition of the word is also provided by the so-called reverse dictionaries, where the words are arranged not in the order of the initial letters, but in the order of the final ones, for example, in the “Reverse Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” (1958) X.X. Bielfeldt words are arranged as follows: a, ba, woman, toad, laba, etc. - according to the "reverse alphabet", that is, counting from the end of the word, and not from its beginning. Such dictionaries are very useful for calculating the vocabulary of grammatical patterns (for example, words with suffixes -ik-, -chik-, -schik-, -ar-, -nya-, -ba-, etc.), for phonetic statistics of finals , i.e. the ends of words, as well as to search for the desired rhyme, in which these reverse dictionaries intersect with rhyme dictionaries. However, limiting the presentation of the word only in the main form (nouns in the nominative singular, verbs in the infinitive, etc.) narrows the search for a rhyme that can be associated with other word forms.
The dictionary of foreign words gives a brief explanation of the meanings and origin of foreign words, indicates the source language (the latter circumstance brings dictionaries of foreign words closer to etymological ones). The foundation for the creation of such dictionaries was laid under Peter I, at the direction of which a handwritten "Lexicon of new vocabularies in alphabetical order" was compiled. This dictionary contained 503 words. The dictionary contains words from the sphere of military art, navigation, diplomacy, administration. At the words with the letters A, B, C, D, Peter's own corrections were made (1725). Famous dictionaries of the 19th century: "30,000 foreign words" by A. D. Mikhelson (M., 1866); "Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words" by N. Dubrovsky (M., 1866). It is interesting that in the first edition of A. D. Michelson's dictionary - 30,000 words, and 20 years later (in the edition of 1885) - already 115,000: the introduction of special terminology into the dictionary was too broad. Of the modern dictionaries, the most famous is the "Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by I. V. Lekhin, S. M. Lokshin, F. N. Petrov (editor-in-chief) and L. S. Shaumyan (6th ed. M., 1964, 23,000 words). Its publication began in 1939. L. P. Krysin's Dictionary (2nd ed., add. M., 2000) contains about 25,000 words and phrases that entered the Russian language mainly in the 18th-20th centuries. (some - at an earlier time), as well as those formed in Russian from foreign language foundations. It is the first philological dictionary of foreign words, i.e. one that describes the properties of the word, and not the thing it denotes: its origin, meaning in modern Russian, as well as pronunciation, stress, grammatical characteristics, semantic connections with others foreign words, stylistic features, typical examples of use in speech, the ability to form related words.
Dictionaries of neologisms describe words, meanings of words or combinations of words that appeared in a certain period of time or used only once (occasionalisms). In developed languages, the number of neologisms recorded in newspapers and magazines during one year is tens of thousands. Even in ancient times, neologisms attracted the attention of scientists. Dictionaries of neologisms were created sporadically. Only since the early 1970s. of the 20th century, when dictionaries of new words (neological) of Russian, English and French, it became possible to talk about the emergence of a new lexicographic specialization with its own theoretical base.
Sometimes there are also normative and non-normative dictionaries. The first include those that establish certain rules for the use of words, the second - those where such a task is not set. The majority of reference dictionaries (orthoepic, spelling), the bulk of explanatory dictionaries are normative. Non-normative ones include historical, etymological, etc. dictionaries. Recently, in connection with the intensification of the struggle for the culture of speech, special dictionaries have been published that show the norms of word usage in especially difficult cases. Such, for example, is the dictionary-reference book “Correctness of Russian Speech” published under the editorship of S. I. Ozhegov (Moscow, 1962).
In conclusion of our review of the most important types of dictionaries, we note the existence of numerous intermediate, transitional and mixed types. Thus, dictionaries of terms of various sciences and branches of technology are transitional from linguistic to non-linguistic dictionaries. These dictionaries are monolingual, bilingual and multilingual. Terminological dictionaries are widely used, including special terms used in any scientific field: chemistry, biology, medicine, hydraulic engineering, etc. There are also such dictionaries for linguistics. The most famous are the “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” by J. Maruso, published in Russian translation in 1960, but in many respects already outdated, and the “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” by O. S. Akhmanova (Moscow, “Soviet Encyclopedia”, 1966), reflecting the modern linguistic terminology. The dictionary reveals the content of terms and gives their foreign language equivalents, which is very important for reading specialized literature in English, German and other languages. For example,
ANTHROPONYMICS study of personal names, fr. anthroponymie, German. Anthroponymie, Spanish. anthroponimia. A section of lexicology that studies the proper names of people (p. 50).
Terminological dictionaries may contain terms used in certain areas of science, scientific schools. These are the “Dictionary of American Linguistic Terminology” by E. Hump (Moscow, Progress, 1964) or “ Linguistic Dictionary Prague School” by J. Vahek (Moscow, Progress, 1964).
Finally, there is a type of universal dictionaries, both explanatory and encyclopedic, including also etymological and historical references, sometimes essential material foreign-language quotations, and supplied with drawings in necessary cases. These are various "Larousse dictionaries" (named after the French publisher who organized the release of such dictionaries), in particular "Big Larousse", "Small Larousse", etc.; English "Webster's dictionaries" (named after the first compiler of these dictionaries), for example, Webster's Third New International Dictionary (Springfield. Mass., 1961), and other editions and revisions, including even pocket ones; adjoins this type in in a certain sense and explanatory dictionary Hornby.
I think that every person, at least once in his life, opened a dictionary. Let's find out what they are.
A dictionary is a collection of words with explanations and interpretations. The words that are given in the collection are located in alphabetical order, so it is much easier for those who know the alphabet to use the dictionary.
Many people know that there are many dictionaries. There are dictionaries for specialists, for a wide range of readers, for schoolchildren. Depending on the tasks of the dictionary, the composition of words will be different, they will be located and explained differently.
- If you are interested in what this or that word means, in what cases it is appropriate to use it, please contact explanatory dictionary. One can guess that since it is named INTELLIGENT, means, explain everything about the word that interests you, including information about the stress in the word, its spelling, the most typical phrases.
The most famous "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegov.
- If you have difficulty with stress and pronunciation, contact orthoepic dictionary.
The most famous orthoepic dictionary "Russian literary pronunciation and stress" ed. R. I. Avanesova and S. I. Ozhegov.
- To understand the meaning of a particular phraseological expression will help phrasebook.
The most famous "School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by V.P. Zhukov in collaboration with A.V. Zhukov (under the editorship of G.V. Karpyuk).
- An explanation of proverbs and sayings, winged words and figurative expressions will give dictionaries of proverbs, sayings and winged words.
Known dictionaries:
1) V. P. Zhukov. Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings.
2)C. N. Zigunenko, A. F. Istomin. "A unique illustrated explanatory dictionary of aphorisms and winged words for children".
- The choice of a suitable synonym from the synonymic series will prompt synonym dictionary.
The most famous "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" 3. E. Alexandrova.
- You can learn how to spell words correctly from spelling dictionary.
The most famous "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language" by D.N. Ushakov, S.E. Kryuchkov.
A dictionary is a reference tool that contains all the known words of a language. For the convenience of users, words or concepts, with the exception of some dictionaries, are arranged in alphabetical order. Depending on the purpose, the dictionaries provide information about the meaning, use, origin of words, their translation into another language.
Dictionary classification
There are over a dozen types of dictionaries. Some of them are well-known and often used by us, others are a real rarity. All dictionaries are divided into monolingual and translation.
Monolingual dictionaries
Monolingual dictionaries, in turn, are divided into linguistic and encyclopedic. Linguistic should include: spelling, explanatory, word-formation, etymological, orthoepic, dictionaries of homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, epithets, comparisons, metaphors and others.
Spelling dictionaries
AT spelling dictionary you can see the correct spelling of a word in all its word forms. So, for example, in the dictionary edited by A.N. Tikhonov, the normative spelling of 70 thousand words is given. In the spelling dictionary of V.V. Lopatin - about 160 thousand words. Spelling dictionaries are also divided into: general, industry, school and reference dictionaries intended for press workers.
Dictionary
AT explanatory dictionary the meaning of words is explained by means of the same language. In Russian, speaking of explanatory dictionaries, one cannot fail to mention V. Dahl. The dictionary he published included about 200 thousand words. At a later date, the explanatory dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov.
Etymological dictionary
To find out the origin of a word, use etymological dictionary. To find out how a word is formed - derivational.
Synonym dictionary
AT synonym dictionary words are collected that are close in meaning, which reflects the richness of a particular language. In Russian, for the first time such a dictionary was created by D.I. Fonvizin. It included 32 groups of synonyms. The most famous synonymic dictionaries of A.I. Galich, N. Abramova, V.N. Klyueva, A.P. Evgenieva. In 1994, a dictionary was published, which describes about 2800 synonyms. A group consisting of V.I. worked on its creation. Zimina, L.P. Alektorova, O.M. Kim and others.
Antonym Dictionary
Antonym dictionaries include words with opposite meanings.
Homonym dictionaries include words that match in sound and differ in meaning. In the Russian Federation, the most famous dictionary of homonyms was published under the editorship of N.M. Shansky.
Compatibility dictionaries
Compatibility dictionaries teach us how to choose words correctly to ensure the best sounding speech.
Orthoepic dictionaries
AT spelling dictionaries reflects the rules of literary pronunciation.
Dictionaries of neologisms
With the development of science and technology, new words appear in the everyday life of every nation. The meaning of new words can be found in the dictionaries of neologisms. In Russia, one of the latest publications, which included new terms and concepts, is a dictionary of neologisms edited by G.N. Sklyarevskaya.
Encyclopedic dictionaries
Encyclopedic dictionaries also subdivided into general and industry. In general encyclopedic dictionaries you can find information about various natural phenomena, outstanding figures of science, culture, political leaders and parties, about discoveries and significant events. Industry encyclopedic dictionaries contain comprehensive information about a particular industry (shipbuilding, metallurgy, etc.).
Non-standard dictionaries
Among the rarely used backword dictionaries. In them, the words are arranged alphabetically not by initial, but by final letters, and are aligned to the right. Such manuals are intended for specialists, poets, because in fact it is a dictionary of rhymes.