Open Library - an open library of educational information. The first events of the Soviet government

1.
II All-Russian Congress of Soviets: the first decrees of the Soviet power.

- "peace decree"- the announcement of Russia's withdrawal from the war, an appeal to all the belligerent powers to begin peace negotiations "without annexations and indemnities."

- "Land Decree"”- the Socialist-Revolutionary program for the socialization of land, popular among peasants, was actually adopted (the abolition of private ownership of land, the free confiscation of landlord lands and its division among peasants according to labor and consumer norms) - the demands of the peasants are fully satisfied.

- "decree on power» - the proclamation of the transfer of power to the Soviets; the creation of a new power structure, the elimination of the principle of separation of powers as a bourgeois one.

^ New power system:

Initially, the Bolsheviks turned to all socialist parties with a proposal to join the Council of People's Commissars and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, but only the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries agreed (they received about 1/3 of the seats). Thus, until July 1918, the government was bipartisan.

^ Reasons for the "triumphal march of Soviet power", those. relatively peaceful (except Moscow) and quick establishment throughout the country: the almost instant implementation by the Bolsheviks (albeit in a declarative form) of their promises, which at first ensured the support of the population, especially the peasants.

2.
Socio-economic activities:

October-November 1917. - Decrees on the introduction of an 8-hour working day and workers' control in enterprises; nationalization of banks and large enterprises;

March 1918- after the loss of grain regions (Ukraine and others), the introduction of a food monopoly and fixed food prices.

3.
Activities in the field of national policy:

November 2, 1917. – "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia": the abolition of national privileges and restrictions; the right of nations to self-determination and the creation of their own states (Poland, Finland and the Baltic peoples immediately took advantage of this right).

Outcome: growing sympathy for Soviet Russia from the colonial and semi-colonial countries, as well as the national outskirts of Russia itself.

4.
Activities in the field of education and culture:

January 1918- a decree on the separation of the church from the state and the school from the church, the decree on the abolition of the class-lesson education system, the introduction of a new calendar.

5.
Political activities:

January 3, 1918. – « Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People"(united all previous decrees on rights; considered as an introduction to the Constitution).

January 5-6, 1918. - the opening and dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks (for refusing to recognize the October Revolution and subsequent decrees of Soviet power as legal).

January 10, 1918. - III Congress of Soviets; approved the "Declaration" on January 3, 1918, proclaimed Russia a federation (RSFSR), confirmed the decree of the II Congress on the socialization of the land.

July 1918. - Adoption the first Constitution of the RSFSR(fixed the new power structure of the Soviets), its characteristic feature is a pronounced ideologization (a course towards a world revolution, etc.), deprivation of voting rights of the exploiting classes.

After the conclusion of the Brest peace in March 1918, the Bolsheviks found themselves in an extremely difficult situation and, in order to avoid starvation in the cities, they were forced to start requisitioning bread from the peasants (through the committees of the poor, created in June 1918). Outcome: the growth of discontent among the peasants, which was used by all the counter-revolutionary forces from the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks to the monarchists.

July 1918- an unsuccessful rebellion of the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries (opposed the new peasant policy of the Bolsheviks and peace with Germany).

Outcome: the formation of a one-party, only Bolshevik government and a one-party political system in the country.

^ The Civil War in Russia 1918 - 1920: Causes, Participants, Stages, Results. The policy of "war communism".

1.
Causes of the Civil War:

o
a nationwide crisis in the country, which gave rise to irreconcilable contradictions between the main social strata (classes) of society;

o
features of the socio-economic and anti-religious policy of the Bolsheviks, aimed at inciting class hostility;

o
the desire of the overthrown classes (the nobility, the bourgeoisie) to regain their lost position;

o
the fall in the value of human life during the First World War (psychological factor).

2.
The question of the chronological framework of the Civil War.

There are four main options:

May 1918 . (mutiny of the Czechoslovak corps) - November 1920 (the defeat of Wrangel's troops in the Crimea).
May 1918 - December 1922 (liquidation of the last centers of the white movement and intervention in Far East).
October 1917 (Bolshevik coup) – December 1922
February 1917 - November 1920

The most common and more logical is the first option, based on the criteria for conducting active hostilities on the territory of Russia. With the fall of the Crimea, the last serious center of the white movement in the European part of the country disappeared.

3.
^ Question about the initiators of the Civil War. There are three points of view on the issue of initiators:

Initiators - "red"(At the same time, they refer to Lenin's words about the development of the world war into a civil one as the main task of the Bolsheviks).
Initiators - "white"(indicates that active fighting It was the counter-revolutionary forces that began).
Initiators - both "white" and "red" equally (this point of view seems to be the most convincing).

4. Specific features of the Civil War:

It was accompanied by the intervention of foreign powers, seeking to weaken Russia as much as possible.
It was conducted with extreme bitterness ("red" and "white" terror).

Generally Civil War is a fierce active and armed struggle of various social, national and political forces for power within one country.

Decisions of the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets and their significance. The first activities of the Soviet government in the political, economic, social, national and cultural spheres. Causes of the "triumphal procession" of Soviet power.

When preparing this topic, it is necessary to analyze the first decrees of the Soviet government, to identify the reasons for the so-called "triumphal procession" of the Soviet government in November-December 1917. It is also necessary to characterize the new structure of the authorities; the main activities in the socio-economic, political and cultural spheres, their results and consequences.

Sample response plan:

1. II All-Russian Congress of Soviets: the first decrees of the Soviet power.

- peace decree"- the announcement of Russia's withdrawal from the war, an appeal to all the belligerent powers to begin peace negotiations "without annexations and indemnities."

- Decree on land”- the Socialist-Revolutionary program for the socialization of land, popular among peasants, was actually adopted (the abolition of private ownership of land, the free confiscation of landlord lands and its division among peasants according to labor and consumer norms) - the demands of the peasants are fully satisfied.

- Decree on power» - the proclamation of the transfer of power to the Soviets; the creation of a new power structure, the elimination of the principle of separation of powers as a bourgeois one.

New power system:

It should be noted that initially the Bolsheviks turned to all socialist parties with a proposal to join the Council of People's Commissars and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, but only the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries agreed (they received about 1/3 of the seats). Thus, until July 1918, the government was bipartisan.

The reasons for the "triumphant procession of Soviet power", those. relatively peaceful (except Moscow) and quick establishment throughout the country: the almost instant implementation by the Bolsheviks (albeit in a declarative form) of their promises, which at first ensured the support of the population, especially the peasants.

2. Socio-economic activities:

October-November 1917. - Decrees on the introduction of an 8-hour working day and workers' control in enterprises; nationalization of banks and large enterprises;

1918 March. - after the loss of grain regions (Ukraine and others), the introduction of a food monopoly and fixed food prices.

3. Activities in the field of national policy:

Outcome: the growth of sympathy for Soviet Russia on the part of the colonial and semi-colonial countries, as well as the national outskirts of Russia itself.

4. Activities in the field of education and culture:

5. Political activities:

January 3, 1918. – « Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People"(united all previous decrees on rights; considered as an introduction to the Constitution).

January 5-6, 1918. - the opening and dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks (for refusing to recognize the October Revolution and subsequent decrees of Soviet power as legal).

Students should note that after the conclusion of the Brest Peace in March 1918, the Bolsheviks found themselves in an extremely difficult situation and, in order to avoid starvation in the cities, they were forced to start requisitioning bread from the peasants (through the committees of the poor created in June 1918). Outcome: the growth of discontent among the peasants, which was used by all the counter-revolutionary forces from the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks to the monarchists.

July 1918- an unsuccessful rebellion of the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries (opposed the new peasant policy of the Bolsheviks and peace with Germany).

Outcome: the formation of a one-party, only Bolshevik government and a one-party political system in the country.

After the abdication of Nicholas II from the throne, the struggle for power of various political forces became one of the main features political development Russia in 1917

The populist-socialist Kerensky became the chairman of the 3rd Provisional Government.

Fearing a new explosion of popular anger, in August 1917 Kerensky made an attempt to become a dictator with the support of pro-monarchist forces led by General L.G. Kornilov. Already at the last moment, he was afraid of the consequences and declared Kornilov a rebel.

After the return of V.I. Lenin (the leader of the Bolshevik movement) from exile, his program "April Theses" was adopted, which provided for the transition from the bourgeois-democratic revolution to the socialist one.

The revolutionary situation escalated:

1) the ambiguity of dual power could not suit various political forces;

2) The interim government, having come to power, in the conditions of war could not guarantee the stable and sustainable development of the country;

3) the needs of the front absorbed the entire state budget, the solution of the fundamental issues of the revolution - the agrarian, national state system, workers - was postponed until peacetime;

4) the Provisional Government began to lose support even faster after the suppression of the Kornilov rebellion in August 1917. The positions of the left forces began to rapidly strengthen.

In the autumn of 1917, the Bolsheviks put forward the slogan "All power to the Soviets." They call on the Soviets to seize full power in the country. The question of an armed uprising became topical for the Bolsheviks.

On October 16, despite the objections of G.A. Zinoviev and L.B. Kamenev, the Bolshevik Central Committee decides to seize power. Disagreements arose among the Bolsheviks on the timing of the uprising. The main organizer of the uprising, L.D. Trotsky, timed it to the beginning of the II Congress of Soviets.

On October 24, revolutionary workers and soldiers seized vital facilities in Petrograd. On October 25, the Pre-Parliament was dispersed in the morning, Kerensky fled from Petrograd. The Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which opened on the evening of October 25, adopted Lenin's Appeal to All Citizens of Russia, which proclaimed the establishment Soviet power. From 6 p.m. the Winter Palace, in which the Provisional Government worked, was surrounded, and at about 2 a.m. it was taken. The October Revolution in Petrograd was almost bloodless. Much more bloody was the coming of the Bolsheviks to power in Moscow.

The Second Congress of Soviets approved the actions of the Bolsheviks. Bolshevik L.B. became Chairman of the Executive Committee of Soviets. Kamenev, soon replaced by Ya.M. Sverdlov. Government (Council People's Commissars) was headed by the leader of the Bolsheviks V.I. Lenin. The congress ardently supported two Bolshevik decrees: on land and peace.

The first measures of the Soviet power:

The Decree on the Press (OK 27, 1917) closed all press organs that called for open resistance and disobedience to the workers' and peasants' government. "As soon as the new order is consolidated, all administrative influences on the press will be stopped, full freedom will be restored for it within the limits of responsibility before the court, in accordance with the broadest and most progressive law in this respect." MAY 14, 1918 Gorky A.M. in the paper" New life" wrote: "The Soviet government again strangled several newspapers hostile to it. It is useless to say that such a method of fighting enemies is not honest, it is useless to remind that under the monarchy decent people unanimously considered the closing of newspapers to be a mean business, it is useless, because the concepts of honesty and dishonesty are obviously outside the competence and outside the interests of the authorities, insanely confident that it can create a new statehood on the basis of the old - arbitrariness and violence ... "

The introduction of factory (worker) control at enterprises (14 NY 1917-16 OK 1918) (another 6 MJ 1917 the law on the formation of factory committees was adopted)

Introduction of revolutionary courts and tribunals (NYA 22, 1917). After the capture of the Winter Palace, most of the ministers of the Provisional Government were released, the cadets who surrendered in the Kremlin were released, Krasnov P.N. was released under the "honest general's" word. Decrees of the Council of People's Commissars "On the elective beginning and organization of power in the army" and "On the equalization of all military personnel in rights" were issued on December 29, 1917.

The Supreme Council of the National Economy - the Supreme Economic Council (the chairman from ID 1918 - Rykov A.I.) was created (2 DC 1917), a "Red Guard attack on capital" was carried out

The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage was created under the leadership of F.E. Dzerzhinsky. (7 DK 1917). Until K.IN 1918, the Bolsheviks did not shoot a single politician. But already in 1917 the garrison Peter and Paul Fortress decided for each attempt on one of his leaders to shoot 100 prisoners. This "initiative" was supported by prisons in many other cities of the country. In a special note to Dzerzhinsky F.E. Lenin V.I. pointed out: “The bourgeoisie commits the worst crimes, bribing the dregs of society and degraded elements, soldering them for the purposes of pogroms. measures aimed at the implementation of socialist transformations. It even comes to sabotage of food work, threatening starvation of millions of people ... Urgent measures are needed to combat counter-revolutionaries and saboteurs. Describing the essence of the Cheka, Stalin I.V. pointed out that "the GPU or the Cheka is a punitive organ of Soviet power ... It punishes mainly spies, conspirators, terrorists, bandits, speculators, counterfeiters. It is something like a military-political tribunal created to protect the interests of the revolution from attempts by counter-revolutionary bourgeoisie and their agents"

Transport was nationalized (JAN 1918). At the same time, the All-Russian Congress of Railway Workers dissolved the VIKZhel and elected a new All-Russian Executive Committee of the Trade Union of Railway Workers (VIKZheldor), in which the majority of members were Bolsheviks.

All foreign loans of the tsarist and Provisional governments (FV 1918) in the amount of 16 billion rubles were cancelled.

The peasants were given landlords' land with an area of approx. 150 million hectares, as well as livestock and equipment. The debt to the Peasant Land Bank in the amount of 23 billion rubles was liquidated. Then the peasants were obliged to pay rent payments to local councils (nationalization) (NYA 1917-FV 1918). Thus, the land was put into the regime of state property without prior notice. Explaining the content of this act, Lenin V.I. made no secret of the fact that the land was actually being nationalized. But formally, until 1928, it was considered not state, but people's property.

Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on the expulsion of "kulak elements from cooperative bodies" and the forced involvement of the cooperative apparatus in the service of the state food business (AP 12, 1918)

Society is divided into two classes. In fact, this aggravated the Civil War of the "whites" and "reds"

Liquidated Senate, Synod, State Council, ministries, councils, dumas, bourgeois parties

supreme body the Congress of Soviets became the power, in breaks - the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, people's commissariats were created, local authorities acted - the Soviet bureaucratic system that used authoritarian methods of leadership

A food dictatorship was introduced (food detachments, commanders) (MJ 5, 1918). The kulaks had 50 million hectares of land out of 80; kulak farms gave 5% of marketable grain, the middle peasants - 60%, the poor - 35%

The "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia" (November 2, 1917) was adopted, promising equality, the right to sovereignty and self-determination to all the peoples of Russia. The independence of Ukraine and Finland (6 DK 1917), as well as Poland (AB 1918) was proclaimed.

45 question. Civil war in Russia: causes, stages, main forces, results. The policy of "war communism".

CONCEPT, CAUSES AND RESULTS OF THE CIVIL WAR

A civil war is the most acute form of resolving social contradictions within a country; the confrontation of various communities and groups for the realization of their fundamental interests, which is caused by attempts to seize or maintain power by illegitimate means.

The October coup of 1917 was, in fact, an illegal seizure of power that led to violence in the country. At the same time, the Bolsheviks in October 1917 declared their desire to bring the country to the convocation of the Constituent Assembly, which was supposed to legitimately adopt the basic laws of the new Russian state. Having dispersed the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, the Bolshevik government interrupted the legitimate course of the transfer of power from the tsarist regime to this popularly elected body and further spun the flywheel of civil war in society. By the way, the Bolsheviks themselves never denied their adherence to the slogan of turning the imperialist war into a civil war, and their leader V.I. Lenin in one of his public speaking explicitly stated that the civil war became a fact on October 25, 1917. The specific historical events supporting this view are the following:

1) in Petrograd, a public Committee for the Salvation of the Motherland and the Revolution was formed and armed resistance to the Council of People's Commissars was organized as a response to the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks;

3) the Bolshevik authorities declared the supporters of the Kadet Party "enemies of the people";

4) a number of regions adopted a resolution on non-recognition new government;

5) a number of national suburbs declared independence from Moscow;

6) armed detachments began to form on the Don in order to continue the fight against Germany and overthrow the power of the Bolsheviks.

The main outcome of the Civil War is that, as a result, the entire Russian society as a whole lost. Having failed to find a peaceful solution to the problems facing the country, it was even more unable to find it in an armed confrontation. The civil war claimed the lives of 9 million people, which is four times more than the losses of Russia in the First World War. Nearly 2 million people were forced to emigrate. Many wealthy and educated people left the country, thereby slowing down its cultural and technological development. Industrial production was reduced to 12% of the pre-war level. None of the warring parties in the end achieved the stated goals. The Bolsheviks formally won, but were forced to abandon most of the Marxist program, adopting the death penalty, the militarization of labor and the removal of the Soviets from real power. Finally, the territorial losses of the state amounted to 800 thousand square meters. km with a population of 30-32 million people. Thus, Russian society has gained stability, paying a very high price for it.

75. FIRST STAGE OF THE CIVIL WAR

The main events of the first stage of the Civil War in Russia (October 1917 - summer 1918) were the dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks on January 5-6, 1918, the signing of the Brest Peace Treaty on March 3, 1918 and the introduction of a food dictatorship in May - June 1918 G.

For the first time in Russia, general free elections based on one of the most advanced electoral laws in the world brought victory to the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. The Bolsheviks, who by January 5, 1918 controlled the main mechanisms of power, tried to force the Constituent Assembly to adopt the Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People drawn up by Lenin and to support all the decrees of the Soviet government. Failing to achieve what they wanted, they did not allow the continuation of the work of the Assembly on January 6 and actually dispersed it. This fact not only exacerbated the political confrontation in society, but also placed a slogan in the hands of opponents of the Bolshevik regime. The violent suppression of demonstrations in defense of the Constituent Assembly in Petrograd was, in fact, the first armed repression Soviet government. The dispersal of the Constituent Assembly was recorded in the decisions of the Third All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which actually created the prototype of a new state - the system of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies under the control of the Bolshevik Party.

By concluding a separate treaty, the Bolsheviks sought to gain time, hoping for an early start of a revolutionary war in Europe. Taking advantage of this, the German government, facing a military catastrophe, was able to make peace, which meant victory for it in the war against Russia. According to the Brest Treaty, Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and a number of other territories departed from Russia. The total losses amounted to 40% of the industrial potential of the country; in addition, Russia pledged to demobilize the army and navy and pay a huge (6 billion marks) indemnity.

The Bolsheviks went for a tightening of the grain monopoly and the introduction of a food dictatorship. Now the peasants were obliged to hand over all surplus grain at fixed prices, for which a special food army was created in the cities, and a class struggle was unleashed in the countryside.

Thus, the events of the first stage of the war led to the formation of a base of opponents of Soviet power. This included supporters of the Constituent Assembly, and patriotic citizens who did not want to give Russian lands to the enemy, and part of the persecuted peasants. About 1/3 of the officers of the Russian army fought against the Soviet regime, most of the Cossacks, representatives of the bourgeois parties oriented towards the Western path of development. The political program of the white movement was extremely controversial, but at the first stage of the Civil War it included the elimination of the power of the Bolsheviks, the restoration of a united Russia, and the convening of a nationwide people's assembly on the basis of universal suffrage.

76. SECOND STAGE OF THE CIVIL WAR

The period of the Civil War in Russia is divided into three stages.

The second stage (summer 1918 - March 1920) - the decisive period of the civil war - an organized armed conflict involving large military formations.

Among the events of the spring-summer of 1918, the murder of the German ambassador Mirbach on July 6 by the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries should be especially noted. The organizers of this crime hoped to break Brest Peace and change the policy of the Soviet state towards the countryside. The suppression of the Left Social Revolutionary rebellion and the establishment of the one-party dictatorship of the Bolsheviks finally formalized the split in society and led to the beginning of the second stage of the Civil War, characterized by fierce hostilities almost throughout the entire territory of the former Russian Empire.

By the middle of 1918, the Socialist-Revolutionary Party had become the leading and consolidating anti-Bolshevik force, while the Volga region, the Urals and Siberia were the main base of their activity. Since May 1918, predominantly Socialist-Revolutionary governments have been created in these territories under the slogan "All power to the Constituent Assembly." At the end of September, a Social Revolutionary-Cadet Directory was formed in Ufa, proclaiming itself the all-Russian authority.

However, as the Civil War unfolded, political forces polarized and part of the white officers left the socialist parties. So, the Directory was overthrown by Admiral A.V. Kolchak, who proclaimed himself the supreme ruler of Russia. In a number of regions of the country, military dictatorships by A.I. Denikin, N.N. Yudenich, P.N. Wrangel and others. Representatives of the anti-Bolshevik camp could not reach an agreement on key issues of domestic policy - agrarian, workers, national. The white movement throughout the Civil War remained heterogeneous, unable to develop clear and popular political slogans.

In this regard, the Bolsheviks had a clear advantage, having managed to rally the masses by ideological means and mobilize them to fight the enemy. In addition, occupying the central regions of Russia, they were able to use their powerful economic potential and the ability to maneuver with the help of an extensive network of railways. Thanks to the state apparatus they created, they were able to better organize their troops: thus, despite the desertion, the size of the Red Army grew from 0.3 million people in the spring of 1918 to 5.5 million people at the end of 1920, while the total number of all white armies in 1919 did not exceed 400 thousand people. All these circumstances led to the victories of the Red Army in the second stage of the Civil War.

77. THE THIRD STAGE OF THE CIVIL WAR

The period of the Civil War in Russia is divided into three stages.

The third stage of the Civil War in Russia (March 1920 - the end of 1922) is characterized by the attenuation of the struggle of the Bolsheviks against the white movement, simultaneously with the growth in the country of pockets of resistance to the Soviet government from the peasants. This is the period peasant war against the Bolshevik regime. Foreign powers gradually reduce interference in domestic Russian affairs, and then improve economic and political relations with Soviet Russia.

The need to create a huge army and the maximum mobilization of all the resources of the state required the centralization of power and the establishment of control over all spheres of society. The policy of war communism pursued under these conditions was not only a special economic model, but also its own ideological regime, a specific type of public consciousness By the beginning of 1919, War Communism was an attempt to transition to a communist society through emergency measures and was partly born out of a utopian belief in world revolution. During the period of its implementation, industry was almost completely nationalized, the development of a food dictatorship led to the introduction of surplus appropriation. In connection with the course towards the elimination of commodity-money relations, equalizing consumption norms were introduced, utility bills were canceled with the naturalization of wages. At the same time, universal labor service is being introduced in the country and labor armies are being created, militarization of all spheres of society is taking place.

The implementation of such a policy cultivated emergency measures and mass repression. From February 1918, the death penalty was introduced, in the same year concentration camps. A policy of red terror is being pursued throughout the country, which provides for the taking hostage and the destruction of persons on a class basis.

By 1920, the main threat to the power of the Bolsheviks began to pose those sections of the population that initially supported the Soviet regime. Major peasant uprisings took place in most of the territories of Soviet Russia. In February 1920, the garrison of Kronstadt rebelled - the same sailors who in many ways brought the Bolsheviks to power.

Despite the mass nature of this so-called "green" movement, it could not win for a number of reasons, since it did not put forward a serious political program, and the actions of the rebels were usually limited to a certain territory and were largely partisan in nature. The "greens" did not have a single leader, as a result of which their military forces were weak. However, the very presence of large centers of resistance within the country led the Bolsheviks to the need to curtail the policy of war communism. In March 1921, under the influence of the Kronstadt uprising and strikes in Petrograd, the 10th Congress of the RCP(b) announced the replacement of the surplus appraisal with half the tax in kind and laid the foundation for the New Economic Policy (NEP).

46 question. Socio-economic development of the USSR and the 1920s NEP. Reasons for the collapse of the NEP.

TRANSITION FROM THE POLICY OF WAR COMMUNISM TO THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY (NEP)

In the spring of 1921, the Bolshevik leadership faced a real threat of losing power. The civil war, the economic policy of the Bolsheviks in the previous period aggravated the most difficult situation in the country. As a result of seven years of war, Russia has lost more than a quarter of its national wealth. The industry suffered especially large damage - the volume of gross output decreased seven times. In 1920, the volume of railway transportation amounted to 20% of the pre-war level. The situation in agriculture was also difficult. The sown area decreased by 25% compared to 1913, and the gross output by 30%.

Prodrazverstka exhausted the peasantry. The forcible seizure of agricultural products from him during the war years provoked a political crisis after it ended. In addition, after the defeat of the Whites, the threat of the return of large landowners disappeared. Peasant uprisings broke out across the country - by the spring of 1921, the number of their participants was approaching 200 thousand people.

The enormous hardships of the inhabitants of the cities led to the fact that by the autumn of 1920, discontent among the workers began to intensify, resulting in a wave of strikes and demonstrations. The situation was complicated by the beginning of the demobilization of the Red Army.

In the context of a nationwide crisis, the Bolshevik Party and its leaders found themselves in a situation of political and ideological choice: either a change in policy or a loss of power. The situation was aggravated by the decline of the revolutionary movement in the West, which deprived the Bolsheviks of outside support, leaving them face to face with internal problems. The threat of loss of power forced the country's leadership to take the path of change.

80. ESSENCE OF THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY

The problem of relations with the peasantry was a central political issue in an agrarian country like Russia. The beginning of the implementation of an economic policy that takes into account the interests of the multi-million masses of the peasantry was initiated by the decision of the Tenth Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks to replace the surplus appropriation tax with a tax in March 1920.

The tax in kind was initially established at the level of 20% of the net product of peasant labor, that is, it was half the surplus appropriation. Peasants got the opportunity to dispose of surplus products (mainly non-monetary exchange through cooperatives). However, the disruption of product exchange due to the lack of the proper amount of industrial goods and the famine that began in the summer of 1921 forced the restrictions to be lifted and freedom of trade to be introduced throughout the country.

The measures taken contributed to the fact that by 1923 the level of sown areas of 1913 was almost reached. In 1925, the gross grain harvest exceeded the level of 1913 by 20%.

Free trade required bringing order to financial system states. Already in 1921, a number of steps were taken to improve finances. Individuals and organizations were able to keep any amount of money in savings banks and use deposits without restrictions. In 1922, the issue of a new monetary unit was launched - chervonets, which had a gold content and a rate in gold: one chervonets was equal to 10 pre-revolutionary gold rubles, or 7.74 g of gold.

Steps were taken to attract foreign capital to the country. Concessions arose, that is, the lease of Russian state-owned enterprises by foreigners. And although in general the number of such enterprises was small, in some industries they specific gravity was significant.

To form a market, it was necessary to revive the industry by increasing output. For these purposes, the denationalization of small and partially medium-sized enterprises was carried out. Introduction market relations also affected the form of state industry management. Instead of central offices, trusts were created - associations of homogeneous or interconnected enterprises that gained financial and economic independence. The state apparatus, which had swollen during the years of war communism, was sharply reduced. A wide network of commodity exchanges, fairs, and trading enterprises arose in the country. Cash wages in industry were restored, leveling was eliminated, and restrictions on wage growth were lifted.

Although in general, by the end of the 20s. Soviet economy reaches the pre-war level, the effectiveness of the NEP model was lower than the pre-revolutionary one. Last but not least, this was due to the high degree of nationalization of production. New growth could be achieved only through the reconstruction of industry, and this required huge investments.

The successes of the NEP in the first half of the 20s. created certain conditions for improving the material situation of the people. Yes, by 1926. wage workers on average was about 94% of the pre-war level.

81. REASONS FOR THE COLUMNING OF THE NEP AND ITS RESULTS

In the second half of the 20s. the development of the NEP economy began to be controversial, and sometimes even a crisis. Faced with a lack of financial resources for the development of industry, the Bolshevik leadership took the path of ever greater centralization in the distribution of resources, ousting private capital from trade with the help of a tax press, and raising rents.

Unemployment was a serious problem: if in 1923 160 thousand people were registered at the labor exchanges, then in April 1927 there were about 1.5 million unemployed people.

No less controversial was the development of agriculture. Restrictions in the development of large-scale commodity peasant farming led to an aggravation of the confrontation between the authorities and the prosperous peasantry.

The New Economic Policy did not become a policy "in earnest and for the long haul" primarily because the leaders of the state failed to combine the course of market reforms with a socialist orientation. The new economic realities increasingly contradicted communist doctrine. During these years there were no changes in the political system, terror did not disappear. The administrative-command style of the party apparatus of the CPSU(b) made the NEP a supporter of centralization, which was in conflict with its principles.

There was another reason for the rejection of the NEP: the mood of the leading cadres and a large part of society, which viewed it as a "temporary retreat", a "tactical maneuver".

In the second half of the 20s. recovery reserves in the industry were exhausted, the country was faced with the need for huge capital investments. However, it was not possible to attract private capital, as it was prohibited by law. The accelerated development of industry depended on the peasantry, who had to be forced to give up everything they produced. Therefore, re-emerged in 1927-1928. the grain procurement crisis, which led to the introduction of the rationing system, was resolved by emergency measures of the era of war communism: through the forcible seizure of grain and arrests.

The transition to repressive measures was due not least to political reasons - the growing threat to the communist Soviet power from the strengthened prosperous peasantry. Insurmountable contradictions between the economy and the political system, based on the omnipotence of administrative-command methods, led to the end of the NEP and the transition to mass collectivization of the peasantry.

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I. General fire safety measures in military units and divisionsIII. Urgent measuresPR-eventsPR-events, their types and methods of implementationVIII. Control measures VIII. CONTROL ACTIVITIESAmerican Revolution

The Great October Socialist Revolution took place on October 25-26, 1917 (November 7-8, New Style). This is one of the greatest events in the history of Russia, as a result of which there were cardinal changes in the position of all classes of society.

The October Revolution began as a result of a number of good reasons:

In 1914-1918. Russia was involved in the First World War, the situation at the front was not the best, there was no sensible leader, the army suffered heavy losses. In industry, the growth of military products prevailed over consumer products, which led to an increase in prices and caused discontent among the masses. The soldiers and peasants wanted peace, and the bourgeoisie, who profited from the supply of military equipment, longed for the continuation of hostilities.

national conflicts.

The intensity of the class struggle. The peasants, who for centuries dreamed of getting rid of the oppression of the landowners and kulaks and taking possession of the land, were ready for decisive action.

The prevalence of socialist ideas in society.

The Bolshevik Party achieved tremendous influence over the masses. In October, there were already 400,000 people on their side. On October 16, 1917, the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, which began preparations for an armed uprising. During the revolution, by October 25, 1917, all the key points in the city were occupied by the Bolsheviks, led by V.I. Lenin. They capture the Winter Palace and arrest the provisional government.

On the evening of October 25, at the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, it was announced that power was transferred to the 2nd Congress of Soviets, and in the localities - to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.

Decisions of the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets. The first decrees of the Soviet government:

Decree on Peace - the announcement of Russia's withdrawal from the war, an appeal to all the belligerent powers with a proposal to start peace negotiations without annexations and indemnities;

Decree on Land - in fact, the Socialist-Revolutionary program for the socialization of land, popular among peasants, was adopted: the abolition of private ownership of land, the gratuitous confiscation of landowners' lands and their division among peasants according to labor and consumer standards. The demands of the peasants are fully satisfied;

Decree on power - the proclamation of the transfer of power to the Soviets, the creation of a new power structure, the rejection of the principle of separation of powers as bourgeois.

As a result of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks won, and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. The class society was liquidated, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial facilities: factories, factories, mines - into the hands of the workers.

As a result of the October Revolution, the Civil War began, due to which millions of people died, and emigration to other countries began. The Great October Revolution influenced the subsequent course of world history.

36. Civil war 1918 - 1922

A civil war is a fierce armed struggle of various social, national and political forces for power within a country.

Causes of the Civil War:

A nationwide crisis in the country, which gave rise to irreconcilable contradictions between the main social strata of society;

Features of the socio-economic and anti-religious policy of the Bolsheviks, aimed at inciting hostility in society;

The desire of the nobility and the bourgeoisie to regain their lost position;

The October Revolution began as a result of a number of good reasons:

national conflicts.

The prevalence of socialist ideas in society.

Decisions of the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets. The first decrees of the Soviet government:

Peace Decree- announcement of Russia's withdrawal from the war, an appeal to all warring powers with a proposal to start peace negotiations without annexations and indemnities;

Land Decree- in fact, the Socialist-Revolutionary program of land socialization, popular among peasants, was actually adopted: the abolition of private ownership of land, the gratuitous confiscation of landowners' lands and their division among peasants according to labor and consumer standards. The demands of the peasants are fully satisfied;

Decree on power- the proclamation of the transfer of power to the Soviets, the creation of a new power structure, the rejection of the principle of separation of powers as bourgeois.

As a result of the October Revolution The Bolsheviks were victorious and the dictatorship of the proletariat was established. The class society was liquidated, the landlords' land was transferred into the hands of the peasants, and industrial facilities: factories, factories, mines - into the hands of the workers.

36. Civil war 1918 - 1922

Civil War is a fierce armed struggle of various social, national and political forces for power within the country.

Causes of the Civil War:

A nationwide crisis in the country, which gave rise to irreconcilable contradictions between the main social strata of society;

Features of the socio-economic and anti-religious policy of the Bolsheviks, aimed at inciting hostility in society;

The desire of the nobility and the bourgeoisie to regain their lost position;

The fall in the value of human life during the First World War is a psychological factor.

Specific features of the Civil War:

Accompanied by the intervention of foreign powers, seeking to weaken Russia as much as possible;

It was conducted with extreme bitterness ("red" and "white" terror).

Major events of the Civil War.

First stage(October 1917 - spring 1918): the victory of the armed uprising in Petrograd and the overthrow of the Provisional Government. Military operations were local in nature. Anti-Bolshevik forces used political methods struggle or created armed formations (Volunteer Army).

Second phase(spring - December 1918): the formation of anti-Bolshevik centers and the beginning of active hostilities.

Key dates

March - April - German occupation of Ukraine, the Baltic states and Crimea, in response, the Entente countries decide to send their troops to the territory of Russia. England lands troops in Murmansk, Japan - in Vladivostok  intervention

May - the rebellion of the Czechoslovak Corps, which consisted of captive Czechs and Slovaks who had gone over to the side of the Entente and was moving on trains to Vladivostok for transfer to France. The reason for the uprising was an attempt by the Bolsheviks to disarm the corps. Results: the simultaneous fall of Soviet power along the entire length of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

June - the creation of a number of Socialist-Revolutionary governments: the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly in Samara, the Provisional Siberian Government in Tomsk, the Ural Regional Government in Yekaterinburg.

September - the creation in Ufa of the "All-Russian government" - the Ufa directory.

November - the dispersal of the Ufa directory by Admiral A. V. Kolchak, who declared himself "the supreme ruler of Russia."

Third stage(January - December 1919) - the culmination of the Civil War: the relative equality of forces, large-scale operations on all fronts. By the beginning of 1919, three main centers of the White movement had formed in the country:

Troops of Admiral A.V. Kolchak (Urals, Siberia);

Armed forces of the South of Russia, General A. I. Denikin (Don region, North Caucasus);

The troops of General N. N. Yudenich in the Baltic.

Key dates

March - April - the general offensive of Kolchak's troops on Kazan and Moscow, the mobilization of all possible resources by the Bolsheviks.

The end of April - December - the counteroffensive of the Red Army (S. S. Kamenev, M. V. Frunze, M. N. Tukhachevsky), the expulsion of Kolchak's troops beyond the Urals and their complete defeat by the end of 1919

May - June - Yudenich's first offensive against Petrograd. Hardly beaten off. General offensive of Denikin's troops. Captured Donbass, part of Ukraine, Belgorod, Tsaritsyn.

September - October - the beginning of Denikin's offensive against Moscow (the maximum advance is up to Orel). The second offensive of the troops of General Yudenich on Petrograd. The counteroffensive of the Red Army against the forces of Denikin (A. I. His ditch, see Budyonny) and Yudenich (A. I. Kork).

November - Yudenich's troops are driven back to Estonia.

Results: by the end of 1919 there was a clear preponderance of forces in favor of the Bolsheviks, in fact, the outcome of the war was a foregone conclusion.

Fourth stage(January - November 1920): the defeat of the White movement in the European part of Russia.

Key dates

April - October - the Soviet-Polish war on. The invasion of Polish troops into Ukraine and the capture of Kyiv (May). Counteroffensive of the Red Army.

October - Riga Peace Treaty with Poland: Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were transferred to Poland. But due to this, Soviet Russia managed to free up troops for an offensive in the Crimea.

November - the offensive of the Red Army in the Crimea (M.V. Frunze) and the complete defeat of Wrangel's troops. The end of the Civil War in the European part of Russia.

Fifth stage(late 1920-1922): the defeat of the White movement in the Far East.

October 1922 - the liberation of Vladivostok from the Japanese.

Reasons for the victory of the Reds in the war:

It was possible to win over the peasantry with a promise to implement the Decree on Land after the victory in the war. The agrarian program of the whites provided for the return of the seized lands to the landlords;

The lack of a unified command and plans for waging war among the whites. The Reds, on the contrary, had a compact territory, a single leader - Lenin, single plans for conducting military operations;

unsuccessful national policy whites - the slogan "one and indivisible Russia" pushed the national outskirts away from the White movement, while the slogan of freedom of national self-determination provided the Bolsheviks with their support;

The Whites relied on the help of the Entente, i.e. interventionists, and therefore in the eyes of the population looked like their accomplices, acted as an anti-national force. For the same reason, almost half of the officers of the tsarist army went over to the side of the Reds as military experts;

The Reds managed to mobilize all resources through the policy of "war communism", which the Whites could not do. The main measures of this policy are: the introduction of surplus appropriation (essentially, the confiscation of food from the peasants for the needs of the army) and general labor conscription (i.e., the militarization of labor), the prohibition of private trade, the nationalization of medium and even small enterprises, the course towards the curtailment of commodity-money relations

Consequences of the Civil War:

hardest economic crisis, economic devastation, a 7-fold drop in industrial production, and a 2-fold drop in agricultural production;

Huge demographic loss- during the years of the First World War and the Civil War, about 10 million people died from hostilities, famine and epidemics;

The final formation of the dictatorship of the Bolsheviks, while the harsh methods of governing the country during the Civil War, began to be regarded as quite acceptable for peacetime.

37. Russia at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. Political and economic development.

The answer should begin with the disclosure of the concept of "modernization": this is a process of fundamental change in the economic, political and social development countries that began in the 1990s. 19th century In each of these areas, modernization manifested itself in different ways.

In the economic sphere modernization was expressed in the transition to industrialization - a sharp increase in the growth rate of industrial production, its predominance over agricultural production, as well as in the concentration and monopolization of production and capital.

Modernization process in the political sphere consisted in the transition from traditional, semi-feudal forms of government to bourgeois ones - a constitutional monarchy or a republic, and was accompanied by the involvement of large groups of the population in the political struggle, the creation political parties expressing their interests.

Modernization in social sphere led to urbanization - a sharp increase in the urban population and to marginalization - the loss of certain part population of their social status. As a result, until the revolution of 1905-1907. increased social tension and social conflicts in society.

Further, it should be noted that in the 1890s. Russia has entered a period monopoly capitalism. Its main features are the monopolization of industry, the merging of industrial and financial capital, the division of spheres of influence between international monopolies, the territorial division of the world, and the beginning of the struggle for the redistribution of spheres of influence.

Then we need to consider the stages of economic development of the country:

1890s - industrial rise. It should be noted its close connection with railway construction, which led to the development of related sectors of the economy, and the huge role of the state in this, to analyze the economic policy of S. Yu. Witte (budget and monetary reforms, the introduction of a system of state orders, encouraging the import of foreign capital into the country ), provide statistical data on the growth of industrial production in these years (average annual growth rates - 10-12%);

1900-1903 - economic crisis. Decline in production by 8-15%, small industry was especially affected;

1904 -1908 - depression. Its causes should be analyzed: first of all, it is the strike movement during the revolution of 1905-1907;

A) 1909-1913 - industrial rise. This stage is characterized by increased monopolization of industry, the emergence of monopolies higher forms- syndicates, trusts, concerns. It is necessary to express one's opinion on the question of the degree of influence of foreign capital in the Russian economy.

Attention should be paid to excessive social differentiation of the population(each estate was heterogeneous and was divided into several smaller social groups with their collective psychology and interests), on the special role of the intelligentsia, who considered themselves the spokesman for the interests of all sectors of society, on the weakness of the so-called middle class, which was in the process of formation, on the lack of a well-thought-out social policy, on the loss of life orientations among the marginalized strata of the population, on the presence of antagonistic social groups: the nobility - the peasantry, the bourgeoisie - the workers. All this taken together made the situation in the country even more complicated.

Conclusion: at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. modernization began in the country, significant successes were achieved in economic development. However, this was done mainly at the expense of the population, whose standard of living was extremely low. The existing disproportions extremely exacerbated social problems and led at the beginning of the 20th century. to the revolution.

38. Russo-Japanese War 1904 - 1905

The economic rise of Russia, the construction of railways, the expansive policy of developing the provinces, led to the strengthening of Russia's position in the Far East. The tsarist government had the opportunity to extend its influence to Korea and China. To this end, in 1898 the tsarist government leased the Liaodong Peninsula from China for a period of 25 years.

In 1900, Russia, together with other great powers, took part in suppressing the uprising in China and sent its troops into Manchuria under the pretext of protecting the CER. China was given a condition - the withdrawal of troops from the occupied territories in exchange for the concession of Manchuria. However, the international situation developed unfavorably, and Russia was forced to withdraw its troops without satisfaction of claims. Dissatisfied with the growth of Russian influence in the Far East, supported by Britain and the United States, Japan entered the struggle for a dominant role in South-East Asia. Both powers were preparing for a military conflict.

The balance of power in the Pacific region was not in favor of tsarist Russia. It was significantly inferior in the number of ground forces (a group of 98,000 soldiers was concentrated in the Port Arthur area against a 150,000-strong Japanese army). Japan significantly outnumbered Russia in military equipment(the Japanese Navy had twice as many cruisers and three times the Russian fleet in terms of the number of destroyers). The theater of operations was located at a considerable distance from the center of Russia, which made it difficult to supply ammunition and food. The situation was aggravated by low throughput railways. Despite this, the tsarist government continued its aggressive policy in the Far East. Wanting to distract people from social problems the government decided to raise the prestige of the autocracy with a "victorious war".

January 27, 1904. without declaring war, Japanese troops attacked the Russian squadron stationed on the roadstead of Port Arthur.

As a result, several Russian warships were damaged. In the Korean port of Chemulpo, the Russian cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreets were blocked. The crews were offered surrender. Rejecting this proposal, the Russian sailors took the ships to the outer roadstead and took the battle with the Japanese squadron.

Despite heroic resistance, they failed to break through to Port Arthur. The surviving sailors sank the ships without surrendering to the enemy.

The defense of Port Arthur developed tragically. On March 31, 1904, during the withdrawal of the squadron to the outer roadstead, the flagship cruiser "Petropavlovsk" was blown up by a mine, an outstanding military leader, the organizer of the defense of Port Arthur, Admiral S.O. Makarov, died. The command of the ground forces did not take proper action and allowed the encirclement of Port Arthur. Cut off from the rest of the army, the garrison of 50,000 from August to December 1904 repulsed six massive attacks by Japanese troops.

Port Arthur fell at the end of December 1904. The loss of the main base of Russian troops predetermined the outcome of the war. The Russian army suffered a major defeat near Mukden. In October 1904, the 2nd Pacific Squadron came to the aid of the besieged Port Arthur. Near the island of Tsushima in the Sea of Japan, she was met and defeated by the Japanese Navy.

In August 1905, Russia and Japan signed a peace treaty in Portsmund, according to which Japan ceded the southern part of Sakhalin Island and Port Arthur. The Japanese were granted the right to free fishing in Russian territorial waters. Russia and Japan pledged to withdraw their troops from Manchuria. Korea was recognized as a sphere of Japanese interests.

Russo-Japanese War placed a heavy economic burden on the shoulders of the people. The cost of the war amounted to 3 billion rubles from external loans. Russia lost 400 thousand people killed, wounded and captured. The defeat showed the weakness of tsarist Russia and increased dissatisfaction in society with the existing system of power, hastened the beginning of revolutionary events.

39. Culture in 1917 - 1927

With the victory of the October Revolution of 1917 and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, science and culture became "part of the general party cause": their development was entirely subordinated to common goals socialist construction and was carried out under the direct leadership of the party-state. As the one-party politic system, the opposition was expelled, a totalitarian state was formed, the sphere of culture was nationalized, adjusted to a single ideological standard, and lost its creative independence. There was a process of formation of a culture characteristic of a totalitarian society - a culture placed under the control of the state, seeking to lead the spiritual life of society, to educate its members in the spirit of the dominant ideology. The foregoing, of course, does not mean that science and culture in the 20-30s. did not know ups, major achievements, outstanding discoveries. The processes taking place in the spiritual sphere were complex and ambiguous.

An indisputable achievement of the 20s. became liquidation of mass illiteracy. Millions of adults were trained in schools for the elimination of illiteracy (literacy programs), a network of reading huts and libraries was created. The new education system was built on the principles of a unified labor school. Compulsory was first a four-year primary, and then a seven-year education. 20s - a bright page in the history of Russian pedagogy, the time of experiments and innovations (a lessonless system, non-evaluative learning, laboratory method, self-government, etc.). In the 30s. situation in school education changed: traditional forms of education (lessons, subjects, grades, strict discipline) were restored, the experience of the previous decade was condemned as "excess".

By the 20s. applies creation of so-called workers' schools, faculties for the training of specialists with higher education from among the workers and peasants. Special attention devoted to teacher training social sciences for higher education (Institute of Red Professors). In the late 20s - 30s. passed whole line campaigns to expel professors and teachers from universities and institutes, according to the authorities, who did not master Marxist teachings. Students were also victims of repression along with teachers (for example, in the late 1920s, an outstanding connoisseur of Russian literature, Academician D.S. Likhachev, then a student at Leningrad University, was arrested and exiled to Solovki).

The struggle for "ideological purity" predetermined the features of development humanities. The fact that the authorities would not allow scientists whose scientific views differ from Marxist ones to continue research was loudly and harshly stated: in 1922, a group of prominent philosophers, historians, economists, sociologists (P. A. Sorokin, N. A. Berdyaev , S. L. Frank, I. A. Ilyin, L. P. Karsavin, A. A. Kizevetter, etc.) was expelled from the country. With the exit short course of the history of the CPSU (b) ”a kind of“ standard ”appeared, against which everything written and expressed was checked. In the 30s. ideological pressure on humanities scholars was supplemented by direct repressions (arrests, exile, executions). Among the victims of repressions are the outstanding economists N. D. Kondratiev and A. V. Chayanov, the philosopher P. A. Florensky and others.

In the field exact and natural sciences the situation was somewhat different. Outstanding discoveries were made by V. I. Vernadsky, A. F. Ioffe, P. L. Kapitsa, N. I. Vavilov, S. V. Lebedev, N. D. Zelinsky, A. N. Tupolev, I. V. Kurchatov and others. The state, especially with the beginning of industrialization and in the face of growing military threat, invested significant funds in the development of exact and natural sciences, sought to improve the material standard of living of scientists. But the repressions of the 30s. natural scientists were not spared. The outstanding geneticist N. I. Vavilov was arrested and tortured to death in the camps, A. N. Tupolev, S. P. Korolev, V. P. Glushko and others worked in the "sharashkas" (design bureaus and laboratories created in places of detention).

By the beginning of the 20s. emigrated from the country many outstanding writers, artists, musicians (I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin, K. D. Balmont, V. F. Khodasevich, M. Chagall, I. E. Repin, S. S. Prokofiev, S. V. Rachmaninov, F. I. Chaliapin and others). Many outstanding figures of Russian culture remained in Russia (A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam, M. M. Prishvin, N. S. Gumilyov, who was shot in 1921, V. E. Meyerhold, and others). Until the mid 20s. the spirit of creative search reigned in art, attempts to find unusual, vivid artistic forms and images. There were many creative associations that professed different views on the essence and purpose of art (Proletkult, the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers, the Serapion Brothers group, the Literary Center of Constructivism, the Left Front of Arts, the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia, the Society of Moscow Painters, etc. ). Since 1925, ideological pressure on cultural figures has intensified. By the mid 30s. The method of socialist realism (representation of reality not as it is, but as it should be from the point of view of the interests of the struggle for socialism) was declared a universally obligatory artistic method for Soviet art. The decisive events in this sense were the creation in 1934 of the Union of Soviet Writers and a number of ideological campaigns that condemned, for example, the music of D. D. Shostakovich. Creative unions, in essence, have become part of the party-state apparatus. The introduction of unified artistic canons was carried out, among other things, by repressive means. Mandelstam, Klyuev, Babel, Meyerhold, Pilnyak, Vasiliev and others died in the camps. The totalitarian system destroyed the freedom of creativity, spiritual search, artistic self-expression - consistently and methodically: “The harsh era turned me like a river. They changed my life” (A. Akhmatova).

Nevertheless, talented and even outstanding works were created by writers, artists, composers, theater and cinema figures during these years: “Quiet Don” by M. A. Sholokhov, “Rout” by A. A. Fadeev, “White Guard”, “ The Master and Margarita" by M. A. Bulgakov, "Requiem" by A. A. Akhmatova, "The Life of Klim Samgin" by M. Gorky, "Country of the Ant" by A. T. Tvardovsky, symphonic and chamber music by D. D. Shostakovich and S. S. Prokofiev, songs by I. O. Dunaevsky, theatrical performances in the Moscow Art Theater, the Chamber Theater, the Theater of Revolution, films by S. M. Eisenstein, V. I. Pudovkin, G. V. Aleksandrov, etc.