The very beginning of the 19th century was characterized by liberal undertakings in the field of education. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created - a special government agency, which has become not so much a body contributing to the development of public education, "how much a supervisory body." Under the ministry, the Main Directorate of Schools was created, which included Yankovich F.I.
In 1804, the “Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire” and the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities” were published. In accordance with them, a new system of public education and management of educational institutions was introduced.
The system was based on three principles:
free,
Bessoslovnost (except for serfs),
Continuity of educational institutions.
The system of public education, subordinate to the ministry, included:
1) Parish schools - 1 year of study;
2) County schools - 2 years:
3) Gymnasiums in the provinces - 4 years;
4) Universities - 5-7 years.
At the same time, children of serfs and girls were not allowed to enter the gymnasium and universities.
Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, each headed by a university. They were led by school district trustees.
The duties of the trustee are the opening of the university or the transformation on new foundations of the existing management of the educational institutions of the district through the rector of the university.
The rector of the university was elected by the professors at the general meeting and reported to the trustee. The rector headed the university and, in addition, managed the educational institutions of his district.
Directors of gymnasiums (in each provincial city), in addition to their direct management, managed all the schools in a given province. They were subordinate to the superintendent of district schools, who led all the parish schools.
Thus, the head of the higher school was the administrator of the lower schools. As a result, an educational administration was created from specialists who knew the matter.
The following universities were opened in Russia: Moscow, Vilna (Vilnius), Derpt (Tartu), Kharkov and Kazan were opened in 1804, in 1816 - the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. University), in 1834 - Kiev University. All universities in Russia existed predominantly as secular schools. The Orthodox Church had its own theological academies: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev and Kazan.
The gymnasium provided a completed secondary education and prepared for admission to the university. The content of the training was encyclopedic: it was supposed to study foreign new and Latin, mathematics, geography and history of general and Russian, natural history, philosophy, political economy, fine arts, technology and commerce. At the same time, they did not teach their native language, domestic literature and the Law of God in the gymnasium.
District schools prepared students for continuing education in gymnasiums, as well as for practical activities. There were many subjects in the curriculum - from the Law of God to drawing (Sacred history, reading a book about the positions of a person and a citizen, geography, history, etc.). The heavy workload of the curriculum led to a heavy workload of teachers and students: 6-7 hours of classes at school every day. Teachers were required to use only textbooks recommended by the ministry.
Parish schools could be opened in provincial, county towns and in the village at each church parish. They also had two goals: to prepare for education in the district school and to give children general education knowledge (boys and girls could study together). Subjects of study: the Law of God and moral teachings, reading, writing, the first steps of arithmetic.
Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. In the "classic" students were prepared for admission to universities and other educational institutions, most of the time was devoted to the study of ancient languages, Russian literature, new foreign languages and history. In the "real" ones, they prepared for military and civil service, instead of ancient languages, the teaching of practical mathematics was strengthened, jurisprudence was introduced.
The network of private educational institutions also expanded, but the government deliberately restrained their growth. In 1883, it was forbidden to open them in Moscow and St. Petersburg, although later they were allowed again. Private schools were also under strict government control.
Start of the second half of XIX century in Russia was characterized by a great reform movement that stirred up society. Following the reform of 1861 on the liberation of peasants from serfdom, other reforms were outlined: judicial, zemstvo, educational, educational. By this time, the issues of upbringing and education began to be understood as "the most important issues of life."
During these years, many outstanding people turned to pedagogical theory and activity: Pirogov N.I. (famous surgeon, public figure, teacher), Ushinsky K.D., Tolstoy L.N. and others. For them, this was the time of the most intensive innovative work. Many interesting figures joined the problems of pedagogy and pedagogical work in various provinces of Russia. WITH light hand N.I. Pirogov, a lively discussion began in the press of the problem of human education and other pedagogical issues: “What should a school be like? What should be its program? Class or non-class school? What to teach at school? How to prepare a teacher?”, and many others.
The main attention of society at this time was drawn to public school, which in the empire, one might say, did not exist. The parish schools were obliged to support the peasants and landowners themselves, so they developed very poorly. The villagers were still taught to read and write by deacons, pilgrims and similar people.
Public schools were subordinated to different departments:
the Ministry of State Property;
the Ministry of the Court;
the Ministry of the Interior;
Holy Synod (more than half of all schools);
Ministry of Public Education (it accounted for about 20% of schools).
The abolition of serfdom necessitated the opening of schools for all segments of the population: peasants and landowners, urban residents. The injustice of the class policy in the field of education, restrictions in the field of women's education became obvious. The insufficiency of secondary education based on classicism was revealed. The need for the development of domestic pedagogical science began to be acutely realized, a need arose for pedagogical periodicals, new educational books, and the development of new teaching methods. The training of teachers for various types of schools, the creation of the schools themselves - all these were urgent problems of the middle of the 19th century.
In 1864, the "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" was developed. According to him, public schools could be opened by various government departments, societies, individuals, who themselves decided whether they were paid or free. The purpose of public schools is "to establish religious and moral concepts among the people and to disseminate initial useful knowledge." Teaching subjects: the Law of God, reading (civil and church books), writing, four steps of arithmetic, church singing. Public schools were run by county and provincial school councils.
In 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums" was introduced. Two types of gymnasiums were established: classical and real. The goal of "classic" is to give general education required for admission to the university and other higher specialized educational institutions. "Real gymnasiums" did not give the right to enter universities. There were also "pro-gymnasiums" - the initial stage of the gymnasium. Pedagogical advice received greater rights: they could approve teaching programs, choose textbooks.
In 1860, the "Regulations on Women's Schools of the Department of the Ministry of Public Education" was published. Two types of classless women's schools were established:
I category - 6 years of study;
II category - 3 years of study.
Their goal is "to inform the students of the religious, moral and mental education that should be required of every woman, especially from the future wife and mother of the family." Individuals and societies could open them. The curriculum of women's schools of the first category included: the Law of God, the Russian language, grammar and literature, arithmetic and the concepts of measurements, general and Russian geography, history, the beginnings of natural knowledge and physics, calligraphy and needlework.
In 1863, the "University Charter" was introduced, providing some autonomy to the universities - the University Council was created, which supervised all educational work, and on which the rector was chosen. Severe restrictions on the activities of universities, established under Nicholas I, were partially lifted, but the university remained subordinate to the trustee of the educational district and the Ministry of Public Education. Women were not allowed in the university. The universities had 4 faculties: historical and philological, physical and mathematical (with a natural department), law and medicine. Many new departments have been opened.
"Zemstvos", created in the 60s, received the right to open educational institutions; they also had to deal with their material support. Zemstvos developed plans for universal education, opened schools, held courses and congresses for teachers, developed new programs and textbooks, created teachers' seminaries (before 1917, about 1/3 of primary rural schools were zemstvo). Manners cultured person on the site pages.
School in Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
The development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century took place in contradictory conditions.
On the one side, economic development caused the need for literate people, stimulated the development of science and technology, on the other hand, the reactionary policy of the autocracy in the field of culture. In the activities of the tsarist Ministry of Education, the class character of the autocracy's policy in the field of education is especially manifested.
Many discoveries and inventions were not used in feudal-serf Russia.
Thus, the development of culture in Russia in the first half of the 19th century is a rather complex and contradictory process. Nevertheless, despite the backward serf relations, Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century reached brilliant heights, and it is no coincidence that this period in the development of culture is called the golden age of Russian culture.
transformations of Alexander I touched on public education. The Ministry of Public Education was created. In 1803, a reform of public education began, which made education more accessible to the "lower" strata of the population. Universities gained considerable independence from the authorities, and their number increased.
Derptsky - 1802 Kazan - 1804 Kharkov - 1804 Vilensky - 1804 Petersburg - 1819
Gymnasiums were opened in every provincial town; in each county town - county schools; in rural areas, parochial schools were created. Children of “any condition”, without distinction of “gender and age”. But for the children of serfs, only parochial schools were available.
In 1811, the Alexander (Tsarskoye Selo) lyceum was opened for representatives of the highest noble society. Then - Demidov Lyceum in Yaroslavl; 1815 - opening of the Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages in Moscow.
secondary school: gymnasium (7 years). county schools (3 years), parish schools (1 year). higher education: universities, academies.
Children were admitted to the gymnasium after graduating from the district school, regardless of class. The one-year parish schools accepted children of “every class” without distinction of “gender and age”. They were created both in the city and in the countryside. However, money for their maintenance was not allocated from the state treasury. These educational institutions were maintained either at the expense of city government, or on the initiative of landlords, parish priests and state peasants.
In the first half of the 19th century, the problem of teaching staff was acute. As a rule, 2 teachers worked in the district school, teaching 7-8 subjects, in the gymnasium - 8 teachers.
Therefore, since 1804 pedagogical institutes were opened at the universities. Under Nicholas I in the 20s. The Committee for the Arrangement of Educational Institutions was created. In particular, he had to determine the list of academic disciplines and the set of books according to which these subjects were to be taught. "The subjects of learning and the very methods of teaching" should be "consistent with the future destiny of the students." It is necessary that in the future the student “does not strive to rise above that state through measure. As a result of the transformations of Nicholas I, 3 steps were still preserved secondary school, but each of them became class-isolated.
In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of teaching the children of serfs in gymnasiums and universities. At the same time, the Ministry of Public Education took care of increasing the number of educational institutions: at the beginning of the century, there were only 158 schools in the country
middle of the century - about 130 primary schools in every province.
Parish school: literacy, arithmetic, the Law of God
County schools: Russian language, arithmetic, beginnings of geometry, history, geography
The gymnasium provided the most versatile and profound education, preparing students for entering the university.
Russia v first half 19 century (3)
Test work >> HistoryPatriotic History Theme: Russia v first half 19 century Performer: student ... institutions. Nicholas I tried to make school class, and teaching, in ... etc. The children of the "schismatics" were forcibly enrolled in schools cantonists. Such "protection" of interests ...
Education and enlightenment in Russia v first half 19 century
Abstract >> HistoryStories on the topic: Education and enlightenment in Russia v first half 19 century Completed by: Andrey Obolensky 8b grade ... . It was the most numerous rural school in the pre-reform Russia. TO first half 19th century include attempts to participate...
Russia v first half 19 century (2)
Abstract >> HistoryOption number 10 Russia v first half XIX century Contents Introduction ………………………………………………………………………. 3 1. Socio-economic development Russia...…………………………... 5 schools and two-class county schools, ...
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SCIENCE IN THE 19TH CENTURY
The development of science in the period under review was characterized by the following features: there was an intensive assimilation of European experience, new scientific centers arose in the country, specialization intensified scientific knowledge applied research received priority development.
The creation of new universities in the country significantly changed the form of organization of science. Until the beginning of XIX a concentration scientific life Empire was the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. After the end of the XVIII century. the academic university was closed, and after it the academic gymnasium, the academy specialized exclusively in the field of science and its popularization.
However, Russian universities very soon began to announce their scientific research. Moreover, in the first half of the XIX century. was designated
a trend towards the creation of university scientific schools. Academics did not recognize extra-academic science. The antagonism between academic and university corporations had a tragic effect on the fate of the discovery of the mathematician N.I. Lobachevsky.
Mathematics. N.I. Lobachevsky, a graduate of Kazan University, began teaching in 1811 by lecturing on celestial mechanics and number theory. The Kazan professor entered the history of world science as the creator of a new system, the so-called "non-Euclidean geometry", which revolutionized the views on modern mathematics. However, members of the academy V.Ch. Bunyakovsky and M.V. Ostrogradsky gave unfairly harsh reviews about her. Academic mathematicians, prominent scientists (V.Ya. Bunyakovsky was known as the author of the theory of inequalities, and M.V. Ostrogradsky was considered a recognized authority in mathematical physics) could not overstep corporate interests for the sake of high science.
During Lobachevsky's lifetime, his discovery was never recognized. For almost 19 years, the scientist headed Kazan University, paid much attention to the formation of the university library.
Astronomy. Historians of Russian astronomical science divide it into two periods: before and after the establishment of the Pulkovo Observatory (1839). At the beginning of the first period, astronomical work was carried out mainly by academic astronomers. But the obsolete observatory of the Academy of Sciences no longer met the requirements for measurement accuracy.
Soon the observatory of Dorpat University took the leading position. It was in it that Academician V.Ya. Struve and his students founded a new direction in astronomy. Using the latest mathematical and physical methods, they have achieved high accuracy in determining interstellar distances. Struve's work on astrometry and the study of binary stars gained worldwide fame.
Built according to Struve's plan, the Nikolaev Pulkovo Observatory, equipped with the latest instruments, became the main center for astronomical research. It was intended for the production of constant observations and, moreover, was obliged to promote practical astronomy.
The first professor of astronomy at Kazan University was Litgrov, who built a small observatory. Better known in astronomy is his student I.M.Simonov, a participant in a trip to Antarctica. Most of his works are devoted to the study of terrestrial magnetism. For a number of years, Simonov was the rector of Kazan University.
Physics. The focus of attention of Russian physicists in the first half of the XIX century. was the study of the properties of electricity and the physical phenomena of nature.
At the beginning of the century, the best physics office in Russia was the laboratory at the Medical and Surgical Academy. Equipment for it was purchased by the government in recognized European centers. Carrying out numerous experiments in it, V.V. Petrov discovered an electric arc, which began to be used in metallurgy and lighting. Later, the scientist studied the chemical effect of current, electrical conductivity, luminescence, and electrical phenomena in gases.
After the opening of the Dorpat University, one of the oldest Russian physics schools is being formed in it. The rector of the university, professor of physics, G.F. Parrott, contributed a lot. One of his i.^o-famous students was E.H. Lenz, the creator of the laws "Lenz's Rule", "Joule-Lenz's Law".
Academician B.Syakobi made his first experiments on electromagnetism at Derpt University. In 1834, he first tested it to drive a ship. Jacobi founded a new direction in physics - electroplating. In the 1840-1850s. the scientist was engaged in the development of the telegraph apparatus and invented several of its modifications.
Chemistry. A strong school of chemistry began to take shape at Kazan University in the first half of the century. Its creation was stimulated by the government's special concern for overcoming the country's technological backwardness. Under the university reform of 1835, special subsidies were prescribed for the establishment of chemical laboratories at universities. At the end of the 1830s. professors of Kazan University P.P.Zinin and K.K.Klaus founded chemical and technological laboratories.
Already in 1842, Zinin made his famous discovery of a method for the artificial production of aniline and some other aromatic bases in them. These discoveries became the basis for the development of the production of synthetic dyes, fragrances and medicines in the country. And in 1844 Professor Klaus discovered a new chemical element- ruthenium.
A little later, in the second half of the 1840s, the second Russian center of chemical science was formed - at St. Petersburg University. He gave rise to such well-known chemists as Professor N.N. Beketov, whose discoveries in the field of metal chemistry improved Russian metallurgical production.
The formation of medical science is associated with the opening of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy (1799) and medical faculties at universities. The Academy's professor was a famous Russian; Rurg N.I. Pirogov, founder of military field surgery and anatomical and expert direction in science. He was the first to perform an operation under anesthesia on the battlefield (1847), introduced a fixed plaster cast, and proposed a number of new surgical operations. Pirogov's atlas - "Topographic Anatomy" (T. 1-4, 1851-1854) received world fame.
The medicine. Inclusion Russian Empire new territories contributed to the interest in geographical and ethnographic research. Their routes in the first half of the XIX century. ran into the expanses of the Urals, Siberia, Far East and Alaska. Another direction of Russian travel was the southern steppes and the Central Asian countries. Simultaneously with the study internal parts empire and the lands bordering it, work was underway on the inventory of the seas and inland water basins. As a result, maps were compiled, a description of the territory, ethnographic and statistical materials were collected.
Geography. During the reign of Alexander 1, Russian geographical science made a powerful statement in the world with a number of round-the-world expeditions and works in the Arctic Ocean. In 1803-1806. the first such expedition took place on two ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" under the command of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky. After that, about 40 more trips around the world were made.
Undertaken in the 1820-30s. polar expeditions proved the existence of the Northern Sea Route between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. This disproved the hypothesis of the presence of an isthmus between Asia and America.
Russian navigators F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev undertook an expedition on the military ships Vostok and Mirny, the purpose of which was to continue research "to the farthest latitude that can be reached." In January 1821 it ended with the event of the century: the discovery of a sixth part of the world of Antarctica.
Thus, the first half of the XIX century. became the time of the organizational formation of Russian science, the formation of scientific schools in it. Russian scientists made breakthroughs in many fields of knowledge that made Russia an advanced scientific country. But the delay in economic and political transformations contributed to the fact that science developed to a large extent in isolation from public needs, as if operas, that them. Scientific research rarely subsidized by Russian contractors, as in Europe
Science in Russia was a child of the government and therefore was very dependent on the authorities, on the government's attitude towards it.
By the middle of the XIX century. ended one of the major stages in the history of Russian culture. The main content of the cultural process of the period under consideration was the development of national culture.
First half of the 19th century - the formation and development of Russian literature, and with it the theater. During the period under review, the formation of the Russian language took place, the close connection of Russian literature with the development of social thought was determined. There is a further development of the genres of domestic professional music, the emergence of new techniques and means of musical expression, the development of the musical heritage of the people. During this period, musical classics appeared, a national school in Russian music was created.
For the artistic culture of the first half of the XIX century. there were larak-terns quick change artistic directions, the simultaneous coexistence of different artistic styles. In the visual arts, great success has been achieved in mastering new genres, new means of expression, and in the search for new themes.
Continuity in development (the basis for the formation of the cultural heritage of society) is one of the characteristic features of the cultural process in Russia.
Russian culture was characterized by the ability to perceive, to accumulate all that was best in European culture, while maintaining national identity.The education system in the 19th century
The very beginning of the 19th century was characterized by liberal undertakings in the field of education. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created - a special state body, which became not so much a body that promotes the development of public education, "as a supervisory body." Under the ministry, the Main Directorate of Schools was created, which included Yankovich F.I.
In 1804, the “Charter of the Universities of the Russian Empire” and the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities” were published. In accordance with them, a new system of public education and management of educational institutions was introduced.
The system was based on three principles:
free,
Bessoslovnost (except for serfs),
Continuity of educational institutions.
The system of public education, subordinate to the ministry, included:
1) Parish schools - 1 year of study;
2) County schools - 2 years:
3) Gymnasiums in the provinces - 4 years;
4) Universities - 5-7 years.
At the same time, children of serfs and girls were not allowed to enter the gymnasium and universities.
Russia was divided into 6 educational districts, each headed by a university. They were led by school district trustees.
The duties of the trustee are the opening of the university or the transformation on a new basis of the existing management of the educational institutions of the district through the rector of the university.
The rector of the university was elected by the professors at the general meeting and reported to the trustee. The rector headed the university and, in addition, managed the educational institutions of his district.
Directors of gymnasiums (in each provincial city), in addition to direct management of them, managed all the schools in a given province. Supervisors of county schools were subordinate to them, who led all parish schools.
Thus, the leader of the higher school was the administrator of the lower schools. As a result, an educational administration was created from specialists who knew the matter.
The following universities were opened in Russia: Moscow, Vilna (Vilnius), Derpt (Tartu), Kharkov and Kazan were opened in 1804, in 1816 - the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. 1834 - Kiev University. All universities in Russia existed primarily as secular educational institutions. The Orthodox Church had its own theological academies: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev and Kazan.
The gymnasium provided a completed secondary education and prepared for admission to the university. The content of the training was encyclopedic: it was supposed to study foreign new and Latin languages, mathematics, geography and history of general and Russian, natural history, philosophy, political economy, fine arts, technology and commerce. At the same time, they did not teach their native language, domestic literature and the Law of God in the gymnasium.
District schools prepared students for continuing education in gymnasiums, as well as for practical activities. There were many subjects in the curriculum - from the Law of God to drawing (Sacred history, reading a book about the positions of a person and a citizen, geography, history, etc.). The heavy workload of the curriculum led to a heavy workload of teachers and students: 6-7 hours of classes at school every day. Teachers were required to use only textbooks recommended by the ministry.
Parish schools could be opened in provincial, county towns and in the village at each church parish. They also had two goals: to prepare for education in the district school and to give children general education knowledge (boys and girls could study together). Subjects of study: the Law of God and moral teachings, reading, writing, the first steps of arithmetic.
Boarding houses were opened at the gymnasiums, their pupils studied French, dancing, music, fencing, and horseback riding in addition to the gymnasium course. By 1850 there were 47 such pensions in Russia.
Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real. In the "classic" students were prepared for admission to universities and other educational institutions, most of the time was devoted to the study of ancient languages, Russian literature, new foreign languages and history. In the "real" ones, they prepared for military and civil service, instead of ancient languages, the teaching of practical mathematics was strengthened, jurisprudence was introduced.
The network of private educational institutions also expanded, but the government deliberately restrained their growth. In 1883, it was forbidden to open them in Moscow and St. Petersburg, although later they were allowed again. Private schools were also under strict government control.
The beginning of the second half of the 19th century in Russia was characterized by a great reform movement that stirred up society. Following the reform of 1861 on the liberation of peasants from serfdom, other reforms were outlined: judicial, zemstvo, educational, and educational. By this time, the issues of upbringing and education began to be understood as "the most important issues of life."
During these years, many outstanding people turned to pedagogical theory and activity: Pirogov N.I. (famous surgeon, public figure, teacher), Ushinsky K.D., Tolstoy L.N. and others. For them, this was the time of the most intensive innovative work. Many interesting figures joined the problems of pedagogy and pedagogical work in various provinces of Russia. With a light hand N.I. Pirogov, a lively discussion began in the press of the problem of educating a person and other pedagogical issues: “What should a school be like? What should be its program? Class or non-class school? What to teach at school? How to prepare a teacher?”, and many others.
The main attention of society at that time was drawn to the public school, which, one might say, did not exist in the empire. The parish schools were obliged to support the peasants and landowners themselves, so they developed very poorly. Villagers were still taught to read and write by deacons, pilgrims and similar people.
Public schools were subordinated to different departments:
the Ministry of State Property;
the Ministry of the Court;
the Ministry of the Interior;
Holy Synod (more than half of all schools);
Ministry of Public Education (it accounted for about 20% of schools).
The abolition of serfdom necessitated the opening of schools for all segments of the population: peasants and landowners, urban residents. The injustice of the class policy in the field of education, restrictions in the field of women's education became obvious. The insufficiency of secondary education based on classicism was revealed. The need for the development of domestic pedagogical science began to be acutely realized, a need arose for pedagogical periodicals, new educational books, and the development of new teaching methods. The training of teachers for various types of schools, the creation of the schools themselves - all these were urgent problems of the middle of the 19th century.
In 1864, the "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" was developed. According to him, public schools could be opened by various government departments, societies, individuals, who themselves decided whether they were paid or free. The purpose of public schools is "to affirm religious and moral concepts among the people and to disseminate initial useful knowledge." Teaching subjects: the Law of God, reading (civil and church books), writing, four steps of arithmetic, church singing. Public schools were run by county and provincial school councils.
In 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums" was introduced. Two types of gymnasiums were established: classical and real. The purpose of the "classical" ones is to provide the general education necessary for entering the university and other higher specialized educational institutions. "Real gymnasiums" did not give the right to enter universities. There were also "pro-gymnasiums" - the initial stage of the gymnasium. Pedagogical councils received great rights: they could approve teaching programs and choose textbooks.
In 1860, the "Regulations on Women's Schools of the Department of the Ministry of Public Education" was published. Two types of classless women's schools were established:
I category - 6 years of study;
II category - 3 years of study.
Their goal is "to inform the students of the religious, moral and mental education that should be required from every woman, especially from the future wife and mother of the family." Individuals and societies could open them. The curriculum of women's schools of the first category included: the Law of God, the Russian language, grammar and literature, arithmetic and the concepts of measurements, general and Russian geography, history, the beginnings of natural science and physics, calligraphy and needlework.
In 1863, the "University Charter" was introduced, giving some autonomy to the universities - the University Council was created, which supervised all academic work, and on which the rector was chosen. Severe restrictions on the activities of universities, established under Nicholas I, were partially lifted, but the university remained subordinate to the trustee of the educational district and the Ministry of Public Education. Women were not allowed in the university. The universities had 4 faculties: history and philology, physics and mathematics (with a natural department), law and medicine. Many new departments have been opened.
"Zemstvos", created in the 60s, received the right to open educational institutions; they also had to deal with their material support. Zemstvos developed plans for universal education, opened schools, held courses and congresses for teachers, developed new programs and textbooks, created teachers' seminaries (before 1917, about 1/3 of primary rural schools were zemstvo).
Literature in the 19th century
Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated with the rapid flowering of culture. Spiritual uplift and important historical processes are reflected in the immortal works of writers and poets. This article is dedicated to the representatives of the Golden Age of Russian literature and the main trends of this period. Historical events Literature in the 19th century in Russia gave rise to such great names as Baratynsky, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Fet, Yazykov, Tyutchev. And above all Pushkin. Near historical events marked this period. The development of Russian prose and poetry was influenced by Patriotic War 1812, and the death of the great Napoleon, and the departure from the life of Byron. An English poet, like a French general, for a long time owned the minds of revolutionary-minded people in Russia. Decembrist uprising and Russian-Turkish war, as well as echoes french revolution resounded in all corners of Europe - all these events turned into a powerful catalyst for advanced creative thought. While revolutionary movements were being carried out in Western countries and the spirit of freedom and equality began to emerge, Russia strengthened its monarchical power by executing the Decembrists and suppressing uprisings. This could not go unnoticed by artists, writers and poets. The literature of the early 19th century in Russia is a reflection of the thoughts and experiences of the advanced strata of society. Classicism Underneath aesthetic direction understand the artistic style that originated in the culture of Europe in the second half of the 18th century. Its main features are rationalism and observance of strict canons. Classicism of the 19th century in Russia was also distinguished by its appeal to ancient forms and the principle of three unities. Literature, however, in this artistic style already at the beginning of the century began to lose ground. Classicism was gradually supplanted by such trends as sentimentalism, romanticism. Masters of the artistic word began to create their works in new genres. Works in the style of a historical novel, romantic story, ballad, ode, poem, landscape, philosophical and love lyrics gained popularity. Realism Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated primarily with the name of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Closer to the thirties, realistic prose took a strong position in his work. It should be said that Pushkin is the ancestor of this literary movement in Russia. Journalism and satire Some features European culture The 18th century was inherited by the literature of the 19th century in Russia. Briefly, we can outline the main features of the poetry and prose of this period - the satirical nature and publicism. The tendency to depict human vices and shortcomings of society is observed in the work of writers who created their works in the forties. In literary criticism, a literary trend was later defined, which united the authors of satirical and journalistic prose. "Natural School" - this was the name of this artistic style, which, however, is also called the "Gogol School". Other representatives of this literary trend are Nekrasov, Dal, Herzen, Turgenev. Criticism The ideology of the "natural school" was substantiated by the critic Belinsky. The principles of the representatives of this literary movement became the denunciation and eradication of vices. characteristic feature in their work was a social problem. The main genres are essay, socio-psychological novel and social story. Literature in the 19th century in Russia developed under the influence of the activities of various associations. It was in the first quarter of this century that there was a significant rise in the journalistic field. Belinsky had a huge influence on literary processes. This man possessed an extraordinary ability to feel the poetic gift. It was he who first recognized the talent of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky. Pushkin and Gogol Literature of the 19th and 20th centuries in Russia would have been completely different and, of course, not so bright without these two authors. They had a huge impact on the development of prose. And many of the elements they introduced into literature have become classical norms. Pushkin and Gogol not only developed realism, but also created completely new artistic types. One of them is the image of the “little man”, which later developed not only in the work of Russian authors, but also in foreign literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Lermontov This poet also had a considerable influence on the development of Russian literature. After all, it is to him that the creation of such a concept as the “hero of time” belongs. With his light hand, it entered not only literary criticism, but also public life. Lermontov also took part in the development of the psychological novel genre. The entire period of the nineteenth century is famous for the names of talented great personalities who worked in the field of literature (both prose and poetry). Russian authors at the end of the eighteenth century adopted some of the merits of Western colleagues. But due to a sharp leap in the development of culture and art, Russian classical literature eventually became an order of magnitude higher than the Western European literature that existed at that time. The works of Pushkin, Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Gogol have become the property of world culture. The works of Russian writers became a model on which German, English and American authors later relied.
MUSIC OF THE 19TH CENTURY
Music occupied a special place in the life of Russian society in the first half of the 19th century. Musical education was a necessary component of the upbringing and enlightenment of a young man. The musical life of Russia was quite eventful. In 1802 the Russian Philharmonic Society was founded. Sheet music is made available to the general public.
Interest in chamber and public concerts increased in society. Particularly attracted the attention of many composers, writers, artists, musical evenings at A. A. Delvig, V. F. Odoevsky, in the literary salon of Z. A. Volkonskaya. great success The public used the summer concert seasons in Pavlovsk, which began to take place in 1838, when a railway from St. Petersburg was built here. The Austrian composer and conductor J. Strauss performed repeatedly in these concerts.
In the first decades of the XIX century. widespread received chamber vocal music. The romances of A.A. Alyabyev (“The Nightingale”), A.E. Varlamov (“Red Sundress”, “Along the street a snowstorm mete g ...”, etc.) enjoyed special love of the audience, (romances, songs in folk style - “The bell”, “The gray-winged swallow is winding ...” A.L. Gurilev).
The operatic repertoire of Russian theaters at the beginning of the century consisted mainly of works by French and Italian composers. Russian opera developed mainly in the genre of the epic character. best representative This direction was A.N. Verstovsky, the author of the opera "Askold's Grave" (1835), as well as several musical ballads and romances ("Black Shawl", etc.). In the operas and ballads of A.N. Verstovsky, the influence of romanticism affected. The opera "Askold's Grave" reflected the appeal to historical plots and epic, characteristic of romantic art, which fixed the idea of the people about their past.
It was possible to approach the level of the great works of Western European composers - Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, etc. only on the basis of a deep mastery of folk-national melody with its simultaneous transformation in line with the main achievements of European musical culture. This work began in the 18th century. (E.Formin,
F. Dubyansky, M. Sokolovsky) and continued successfully in the first decades of the 19th century. A.Alyabiev, A.Gurilev, A.Varlamov, A.Verstovsky. However, the beginning of a new (classical) period in the development of Russian music is associated with the name of M.I. Glinka.
M.I. Glinka (1804-1857) belonged to a noble family from the Smolensk province. Glinka received his first musical impressions from his uncle's serf orchestra. Russian folk songs heard in childhood had a great influence on the character musical works Glinka. In the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century. Glinka created a number of outstanding vocal works, including such romances as "Night Zephyr" (poetry by A.S. Pushkin, 1834), "Doubt" (1838), "I remember a wonderful moment ..." (1840). Outstanding event in musical life Russia was staging in 1836 the opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin). In the face of the Kostroma peasant Ivan Susanin, the composer showed the greatness of the common people, their courage and steadfastness. Glinka's innovation was that the representative of the Russian people, the Russian peasant, became the central figure of the musical narrative. Folk-heroic pathos was vividly embodied on the basis of virtuoso technique and a wide variety of vocal and instrumental parts. The opera "Life for the Tsar" was the first classical Russian opera, which marked the beginning of the world recognition of Russian music. High-society society met the opera rather dryly, but true connoisseurs of art enthusiastically welcomed the performance. The admirers of the opera were A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, V.G. Belinsky, V.F. Odoevsky and others.
Following the first opera, Glinka wrote the second - "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (1842) based on the fairy tale by A.S. Pushkin. Based on Pushkin's poems, Glinka wrote a number of wonderful romances, which are still widely known today. The romance "I remember a wonderful moment" convinces how close Glinka's musical style was close to Pushkin's lyrics. Glinka was the author of instrumental pieces, the symphonic poem "Kamarinskaya".
It is difficult to overestimate Glinka's contribution to the development of Russian national music. Glinka is the founder of the genres of domestic professional music. He created the national Russian opera, the Russian romance. Glinka was the first Russian musical classic. He was the founder of the national school in music.
Another remarkable composer was A.S.Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869) - a student of M.I.Glinka. His work is characterized by great dramatic tension (opera "Mermaid", 1856). Dargomyzhsky took stories from everyday life and chose his heroes ordinary people. Russian intelligentsia welcomed Dargomyzhsky's opera
"Mermaid", which depicted the bitter fate of a peasant girl deceived by the prince. This work was in tune with the public mood of the pre-reform era. Dargomyzhsky was an innovator in music. He introduced new techniques and means of musical expression into it. It was in Dargomyzhsky's opera "The Stone Guest" that an impressive melodic recitative appeared. The declamatory form of singing had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian opera.
History of music in the first half of the 19th century. indicates that there is a further development of genres, the emergence of new techniques and means of musical expression, the development of the musical heritage of the people. The main result of this period is the emergence of musical classics, the creation of the Russian national school in music:19th century architecture
The architecture of the 19th century is a rich heritage of the entire world society. What great significance are such buildings as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in the capital or the General Staff in St. Petersburg! Without these structures, we can no longer imagine the architectural ensemble of these cities. Russian architecture of the 19th century is characterized by such trends as classicism, empire - the last stage in the development of classicism, as well as the Russian-Byzantine style. What belongs to each of these directions? Now let's figure it out. Classicism is an appeal to antiquity, which means that these are majestic buildings, most often with columns. The architecture of the 19th century in this direction was represented by the following buildings. St. Petersburg: The Smolny Institute and the building of the Academy of Sciences were built by Quarenghi. Perhaps these are the only buildings of the 19th century in this style. Moscow: the Triumphal Gates, the building of the Bolshoi Theatre, the Manege and the Alexander Garden cannot be ignored here - these are the buildings without which our capital will not be the same. Classical architecture of Moscow in the 19th century was represented by such prominent architects as Beauvais and Gilardi. The Bolshoi Theater is a symbol of Russian art and the cultural life of the people to this day, and the Triumphal Gates, erected in honor of the victory over Napoleon, create an image of the greatness and power of our Motherland. The work of Gilardi should include the Board of Trustees and the Kuzminki estate. Empire style is the next trend in 19th century architecture. This is the last stage in the development of classicism. The style is presented in large numbers on the streets of the cultural capital of Russia: Zakharov rebuilt the Admiralty, whose spire is one of the symbols of the city; The Kazan Cathedral of Voronikhin is a symbol of Nevsky Prospekt, and the Mining Institute is the pinnacle of development in this direction. C. Rossi is one of the greatest architects of Old Palmyra, his Mikhailovsky Palace became the Russian Museum - the repository of all the artistic traditions of our country. The building of the General Staff, the building of the Senate and the Synod - all this is not just an architectural ensemble of the city, but is also an integral part of history. The great brainchild of Montferrand is St. Isaac's Cathedral. It is simply impossible not to fall in love with this large, majestic building: all the details and decorations of the cathedral make you freeze with delight. Another work of art of this architect was the Alexander Column. The architecture of the 19th century was also represented by the Russian-Byzantine style, which was widespread mainly in Moscow. The most famous are the following buildings: the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace and the famous Armory Chamber completed the Kremlin (architect Ton). The Sherwood Historical Museum made Red Square an even more significant place. Thus, the architecture of the 19th century in Russia is more than buildings. These buildings left a mark in history, great things were done in their premises and important issues were resolved. We cannot imagine our country without these monuments of architecture.
The 19th century was a turning point for Russia, when at the beginning of the century power passed to Alexander I after the regicide of Paul I, when science and education began to develop rapidly, which required great changes. All these changes of the 19th century can be divided into the first and second halves.
Russia on the threshold of the 19th century
The young emperor inherited a state that has undergone significant changes compared to previous periods. There are several important factors that speak of the majesty of the country:
- The territory increased due to the annexation of the Crimea, Kazakhstan, the Baltic States, the Right-Bank Ukraine and Western Belarus. As a result, the population also increased, about 40 million people, of which 90% were peasants. The urban population also increased, especially in St. Petersburg and Moscow, which, of course, influenced the development of science in the 19th century in Russia.
- The Romanovs became large proprietors and had a certain independence from other estates of the country.
- The budget has more than tripled since the 18th century.
However, at the time of the coming to power of Alexander I, Russia was a country where all the modernization according to the catch-up plan took place at the expense of its own people, and very little time was devoted to science, education and culture.
The development of science in the first half of the 19th century
It is possible to tell about the development of science in the first half of the century by the results obtained by famous scientists for that period, thanks to which such outstanding achievements can be seen today.
Science in the 19th century in Russia is, first of all, mathematics, physics and chemistry.
At Kazan University, mathematics professor Nikolai Lobachevsky was able to develop a new theory in geometry, which was called "non-Euclidean". The doctor Nikolai Pirogov was able to take a long step in medicine, while studying surgery for a long time. He was able to apply it in the war, for the first time using ether anesthesia and a plaster cast.
In physics, the main direction of study at that time was electricity, and it was here that discoveries were made. Boris Jacobi discovered the electroforming method, and then created several electric motors and telegraphs. And physicist Vasily Petrov was able to show how electricity can be used to light and melt metal by examining the electric arc and charge in a rarefied gas.
During this period, such a science as astronomy also developed, therefore, in 1839, the astronomer Vasily Struve, who discovered the concentration of stars in the plane of the Milky Way, was discovered where he worked.
Schools, gymnasiums and universities
At the very beginning, science and education in the 19th century in Russia underwent changes, and already in 1803 a decree was issued to divide the whole country into 6 educational districts, in each of which a university was to be built. However, in 20 years, only three higher educational institutions were opened, including Moscow, Kazan and St. Petersburg universities. did not support the idea of education, and under his rule not a single university was opened. In addition, he believed that the children of serfs should not be trained on an equal basis with everyone else.
A good education could be obtained, but only for nobles, in lyceums such as Tsarskoye Selo near St. Petersburg and Demidov, which was located in Yaroslavl.
The situation was better with educational institutions of a technical profile. At the beginning of the century, only the Mining Institute was opened, a little later the Forest Institute appeared. Nicholas I had a good attitude towards engineering and military education, therefore, under him, technological institutions were opened in St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the Artillery and Engineering Academies.
Education for women
It was considered a good trend to continue the education of women, which was laid down under Catherine II, in order to bring up good and kind wives and mothers. Therefore, institutes were opened in many cities for girls of noble origin: Nizhny Novgorod, Astrakhan, Saratov, Irkutsk, of course, Moscow and St. Petersburg.
Humanitarian knowledge
The humanities of the 19th century in Russia, in the first half, with a high public interest, began to develop in history, and the Moscow Society of History and Antiquities was established. Also, interest was shown in general history and linguistics, including Slavic studies, Sinology, which served to launch the production of books and periodicals.
The publishing business became very popular, and in 1809 68 magazines of various subjects and 9 newspapers were printed. As a result of the opening and development of printing houses, translation activities appeared, and citizens began to get acquainted with foreign literature.
Separately, it is worth noting Russian literature, when the country learned about Pushkin, Nekrasov and Turgenev. During this period, issues such as the plight of the little man from the bottom were raised, but at the same time folk traditions were sung orally and in writing.
Science, education (19th century, second half, Russia)
The second half, when feudalism was replaced by capitalism, assumed more high level development not only among literate people, but also among ordinary workers, and education in the first place should have touched on those industries that are connected with ordinary life.
However, development took place in difficult conditions, when feudalism still survived in places, there were persecutions from the autocracy, and Russian scientists, writers and artists had a very difficult time.
It is worth noting that revolutionary movement helped science to move far ahead, when Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov and Herzen fought for the time to free people from serfdom. All this spurred scientists to make great discoveries for the benefit of the people.
Notable scientists
The second half of the 19th century is characterized from the point of view of science as the development of natural sciences such as physics, mathematics, chemistry, zoology and geography. Such demand was determined by the needs of life, the modernization of production, and the desire of scientists to glorify the state with achievements and discoveries, so that this would be the history of Russian science. The 19th century, first of all, "gave" such scientists as Pafnuty Chebyshev, who tried to link the problems of mathematics with natural sciences and made discoveries on the theory of machines and mechanisms.
A bright representative of the scientific world was a woman who could not get a proper education in Russia and went abroad, where she received a doctorate mathematical sciences. However, she represented Russia, and her work was recognized throughout the world.
Science in the 19th century in Russia also achieved brilliant success in physics, thanks to scientists such as Alexander Stoletov, who studied magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, and was also a teacher for thirty years, heading a department at Moscow University.
Separately, it is worth noting Dmitry Mendeleev, who discovered the chemical elements.
Reforms in education
After many factories and plants appeared in the country, which required literate people who could write, read, understand machines, changes in education were required.
A series of reforms were introduced that helped establish two- and four-grade elementary schools in church schools. Zemstvo elementary schools were also opened, where there was a more extensive curriculum, and Sunday schools for adults, who studied literacy after work.
The science of the second half of the 19th century in Russia required the expansion of the network of education in secondary and higher institutions. In the cities (Tomsk, Odessa, Riga, Kharkov, Kiev) universities, technical institutions and several agricultural academies were opened.
But tsarism hindered education, and too few even primary schools were opened, so Russia was in one of the last places in terms of literacy of the population. By the end of the century, the literate population was only 28%, and among women it was only 17%.
Schools for women
As mentioned above, only representatives of the nobility in the first half of the century received at least some kind of education, where they were taught languages, proper manners and housekeeping. Science in the 19th century in Russia for women was something unrealistic and incomprehensible, the main thing for them was to learn to read, write and express themselves beautifully.
Primary and secondary schools for ordinary women practically did not exist until the 60s. Educational institutions began to appear in the 70s, but very slowly, and admission to universities was completely closed to women of any class.
Thanks to social movement, several women's gymnasiums, medical courses were opened, but before the revolution of the 20th century, women were not in an equal position.
The development of the humanities in the 19th century in Russia
A peculiar feature for the country was that, against the background of illiteracy of the majority of the population, there was a high rate of development of science, where outstanding discoveries were made for the whole world as a whole.
The main thing that has been done in the humanities is the creation of a collection of essays on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present (the second half of the 19th century), which was created by academician Sergei Solovyov, in 29 volumes. and today remains the most complete about the history of the country.
During this period, the well-known Dictionary Vladimir Dahl, where more than 200 thousand words were collected. In addition to words, proverbs and sayings, as well as special terminology, were included in the book.
The writer A.N. Afanasiev, the works of the Russian philosopher, who also studied ancient Russian literature and folklore, academician Buslaev.
Humanities in the 19th century in Russia came under the influence of complex socialist processes, when there was political instability, a change of power was brewing, and people were looking for ways to further develop the country, which was also reflected in literature, which was divided into three areas: critical realism, proletarian literature and modernism .
Results of the 19th century
For Russia, the 19th century was rich in events, very diverse, heterogeneous and contradictory in all spheres of life, starting with the life of the peasants, who became free only towards the end of the century, and ending with the reign of four kings, where everyone succeeded in something, and in something that was a complete failure. However, the science of the first half of the 19th century in Russia, like the second, is characterized by the desire of scientists to reach unprecedented heights, despite all the difficulties that hindered development. Throughout the century, discoveries have been made, thanks to which today technologies in all areas are at the highest level.
Throughout the policy of education in tsarist Russia there was a distinct stamp of the class essence of the Russian autocracy. The masses of the people sank in the darkness. Tsarism took all measures to ensure that education did not spread among the common people, and freedom-loving ideas that called for a fight against the autocratic-feudal system of tsarist Russia would be suppressed. Only the privileged classes of tsarist Russia had easy access to education. However, the development of capitalist relations and the disintegration of the feudal-serf system presented its own demands in the field of culture. Extremely afraid (especially after the uprising of the Decembrists) of all educational activities arising from public initiative, tsarism strove not to let go of the “enlightenment” required by the time, to direct it along the channel it needed. However, contrary to the autocracy and against its will, the new educational institutions, replenished with advanced youth and attracted representatives of the advanced scientific world, did not act quite the way tsarism wanted it to: the educational institutions of tsarist Russia often turned out to be a living element of the Russian liberation movement. Moscow University attracted freethinkers, brought up many Decembrists, Herzen, Ogaryov, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov studied in theological seminaries, Belinsky left the Penza secondary school; masses of raznochintsy, who received a poor religious and protective education in the lower or secondary tsarist school, developed further independently, eagerly engaged in self-education and reading advanced literature. Thus, in the field of education, too, we see a struggle of contradictions, a clash of two cultures - a backward, tsarist-feudal, clerical culture, and an advanced one that lived in the true interests of the people.
The development of cities, industry and trade required everything more educated, qualified people. Tsarism was compelled to create in 1802 a special ministry of public education to organize the most necessary educational measures in the country; at the same time, the ministry was also created to supervise education in order to adapt education to the needs of tsarism and the ruling classes. Over 125,000 people studied in various educational institutions in Russia in the middle of the century. The number of gymnasiums has increased almost 2.5 times over half a century. By the beginning of the XIX century. in all of Russia there was only one higher educational institution - Moscow University, in the first half of the century, in addition to the oldest Russian university - Moscow - universities opened and operated in St. Petersburg, Derpt (Tartu), Vilna (Vilnius) \ Kazan, Kharkov, Kiev; privileged educational institutions were opened - lyceums in Tsarskoye Selo, Yaroslavl, Nezhin. But even by the middle of the century, only a little more than 4 thousand students studied in all higher educational institutions. The percentage of students among the entire population of the country was very low, although it greatly increased in comparison with the end of the 18th century.
Some of the higher educational institutions by the middle of the XIX century. became prominent scientific centers. Such was, first of all, Moscow University, as well as Kazan and Kharkov. At Moscow University, which was the center of Russian university science, young people communicated with prominent Russian scientists - professors T.N. Granovsky, M.G. Pavlov, K.F. sciences in the south-east of European Russia and in Siberia. For about 20 years, the great Russian scientist N. I. Lobachevsky was the rector of Kazan University, and the outstanding Russian chemists N. N. Zinin and A. M. Butlerov worked at the same university.
However, new secondary and especially lower educational institutions arose extremely slowly, and their total number was clearly not enough. District schools and parochial schools were a rarity in pre-reform Russia. In 1830 there were only 62 gymnasiums throughout the country, by 1855 there were 78; county schools respectively were 416, became 439; the number of parish schools over the same 25 years increased by only 288. Education was available only for children of the propertied classes (landlords, bourgeoisie) or privileged classes. The entire education system was designed to serve the interests of the ruling classes. By the middle of the century, the revolutionary democrat V. G. Belinsky and the outstanding Russian teacher and scientist K. D. Ushinsky came out with advanced and democratic ideas in the field of pedagogy against this system by the middle of the century.
By the middle of the century, the social composition of educated people had noticeably changed: the raznoshchinny, democratic element in the composition of the intelligentsia had significantly increased.