6. Coordination of the group in interaction with other groups.

The activity of the leader is manifested in the style of leadership. Style is a characteristic of the interaction between the leader and subordinates, these are the most frequent and stable ways of influencing the manager on the managed.

2. Motivation of personnel activity

The management of a work collective (organization) is unthinkable without the motivation of its members. To make an organization dynamic, people must want it. Business relations are not built only on the basis of sympathy and antipathy, although they do not exclude this. People work for money. And money with them correct distribution are a strong motive. But, as an organizational resource, the amount of money that the manager has is limited. Accordingly, the possibilities of using their motivating potential are also limited, however, as organizational psychology shows, each manager also has such unlimited resources for motivating employees as praise, timely Feedback about the results of activities, recognition in another of a unique and inimitable personality, etc.

As practice shows, any form of labor behavior of a person depends on internal and external factors. Internal factors are determined by the psychological properties of a person, i.e., his motives. External factors- external conditions and circumstances, called incentives.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are not independent, they are interchangeable and mutually determined. Internal motives can be actualized under the influence certain situation and, on the contrary, the activation of certain dispositions (motives, needs) leads to a change in the situation, i.e. to its perception by the subject. Thus, the labor behavior of employees should not be considered as a reaction to certain internal or external incentives, but as a result of their continuous interaction.

This suggests considering motivation as a process of continuous mutual influence and transformation, in which the subject of action and the situation mutually influence each other and the result of this is really observable behavior.

Summarizing the above, we can conclude that the formation external conditions, i.e., the system of incentives will also determine the system of internal motives of the members of the labor collective of the enterprise.

And vice versa, influencing the formation of internal motivation of employees, the manager will also change the system of external motivation, i.e., their perception of a particular situation, and, consequently, their attitude to work, innovation and changes in the organization.

Thus, there are two main types of employee motivation. The first is that through external influences on the members of the team, certain motives are called into action that encourage people to carry out certain actions leading to the desired result for the leader.

The second type of motivation is based on the formation of a certain motivational structure of employees. In this case, the focus is on developing and strengthening the motives for the actions of employees desirable for the leader or weakening those motives that hinder the effectiveness of the individual and the organization as a whole. This type of motivation is in the nature of educational and educational work, and its results do not appear immediately, but after a certain period of time.

The formation of an internal motivational system requires great efforts, knowledge and abilities of the leader for its implementation, however, its results significantly exceed the results of the first type of motivation. But the use of this type of motivation imposes requirements on the leader himself in terms of the self-management process.

3. Relationships in the organization

Any organization is a social system consisting of formal and informal groups, each of which is a community of people who influence other members of the group and are influenced by others, so the issues of mutual influence of the individual and the group in the organization are quite relevant and significant today.

Enough important problem management activities - the relationship between groups in an organization, which can develop in different ways - from direct interaction to conflicts and even hostility. It should be taken into account that the functioning of intergroup phenomena has two directions.

The first direction is connected with the study of negative, destructive, socially undesirable phenomena. Scientists call them intergroup phenomena of a differentiating nature. These include any form of group-centrism, hostility, bias, discrimination, conflict, in-group favoritism.

The second direction is connected with the study of intergroup phenomena of an integrative nature: “group openness”, “intergroup referentiality”.

It should be noted that integrative and differential processes in intergroup interaction exist simultaneously and in normal conditions balance each other. But it must be emphasized that objective conditions directly affect intra-group structures and processes (cohesion, status-positional and value-normative structure of the group, leadership and decision-making processes, composition, type and nature of group development), and they, in turn, determine the type and the nature of intergroup relations, which affects the functioning of the organization as a whole.

Conclusion

Completing the work, we can come to the conclusion that in today's constantly changing environment, the only stable competitive advantage any organization is the staff. This calls for a new vision of managerial relations, the basis of which should be the organizational psychology of management, focused on disclosure. human resources. The study of the socio-psychological foundations of management, the formation of knowledge and skills in the field of human management, as practice shows, has a great influence on improving the efficiency of organization management.

However, despite the fact that management as a science has existed for more than 100 years, it is only in the last 50 years that management began to pay more attention to the human factor, to study such concepts as leadership, power, informal organizations, to take into account elements of organizational behavior of people, and accordingly, aspects of the management process associated with them.

Bibliography

1. Kalyugina S.N. Socio-psychological aspects of managerial activity. Collection scientific papers SevKavGTU. // Series "Economics". - 2007. - No. 5.

2. Meskon M., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of management. - M. Delo, 1998.

3. Parkinson S. et al. The art of management. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 1992.

4. Polyakov, V.G. Man in the world of management. - M.: Nauka, 1996.

5. Shipunov V.G., Kishkel E.N. Fundamentals of management activities. - M.: Higher. school, 2000.

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From the point of view of psychology interaction- this is a process of direct or indirect influence of people on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditioning and connection. It is causality that constitutes the main feature of interaction, when each of the interacting parties acts as the cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite side, which determines the development of objects and their structures. If the interaction reveals a contradiction, then it acts as a source of self-movement and self-development of phenomena and processes.

Interaction in psychology, in addition, is usually understood not only as the influence of people on each other, but also as the direct organization of their joint actions,

Content Style

Productive Unproductive

relationships and communication.

establish contacts, connections, influence each other, carry out joint actions and experience mutual experiences.

In interaction, the relation of a person to another person as to a subject who has his own world is realized. The interaction of man with man in society is the interaction of their inner worlds: exchange of thoughts, ideas, images, influence on goals and needs, influence on the assessments of another individual, his emotional condition. 1

Interpersonal interaction- these are accidental or intentional, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and connections between two or more people, causing mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and attitudes.

Main features

allowing the group to realize common activities for its members.

Interaction is always present in the form of two components: content and style. Content interaction determines around what or about what this or that interaction is deployed. Style interaction indicates how a person interacts with others.

We can talk about productive and unproductive styles of interaction. Productive style is a fruitful way of contact between partners, contributing to the establishment and extension of relationships of mutual trust, the disclosure of personal potentials and the achievement of effective results in joint activities. Unproductive the style of interaction is an unproductive way of contact between partners, blocking the realization of personal potentials and the achievement of optimal results of joint activities.

Usually there are five main criteria that allow you to correctly understand the style of interaction.

1. The nature of activity in the position of partners (in a productive style - "next to a partner", in an unproductive style - "above a partner").

2. The nature of the goals put forward (in a productive style, partners jointly develop both close and distant goals; in an unproductive style, the dominant partner puts forward only close goals without discussing them with a partner).

3. The nature of responsibility (in a productive style, all participants in the interaction are responsible for the results of activities; in an unproductive style, all responsibility is assigned to the dominant partner).

4. The nature of the relationship that arises between partners (in a productive style - benevolence and trust; in an unproductive style - aggression, resentment, irritation).

5. The nature of the functioning of the mechanism of identification-isolation between partners.

The psyche of people is known and manifested in their relationships and communication. Relationships and communication are the most important forms of human existence. In their process, people

establish contacts, connections, influence each other, carry out joint actions and experience mutual experiences.

In interaction, the relation of a person to another person as to a subject who has his own world is realized. The interaction of a person with a person in society is also the interaction of their inner worlds: the exchange of thoughts, ideas, images, the impact on goals and needs, the impact on the assessments of another individual, his emotional state. ,

Interaction, moreover, can be thought of as a systematic, continuous implementation of actions aimed at eliciting a corresponding reaction from other people. Living together and activity, unlike individual activity, at the same time has more severe restrictions on any manifestations of activity-passivity of individuals. This forces people to build and coordinate the images of "I - he", "we - they", to coordinate efforts between them. In the course of real interaction, adequate ideas of a person about himself, other people, and their groups are also formed. The interaction of people is the leading factor in the regulation of their self-assessments and behavior in society.

Interaction is interpersonal and intergroup.

Interpersonal interaction - these are accidental or intentional, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and connections between two or more people, causing mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and attitudes.

Main features such interactions are:

The presence of an external goal (object) in relation to the interacting individuals, the achievement of which involves mutual efforts;

Explicitness (accessibility) for observation from outside and registration by other people;

Reflexive ambiguity - the dependence of its perception on the conditions of implementation and the assessments of its participants.

Intergroup interaction - the process of direct or indirect influence of multiple subjects (objects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditionality and the peculiar nature of relations. Usually it takes place between whole groups (as well as their parts) and acts as an integrating (or destabilizing) factor in the development of society.

In addition to species, there are usually several types of interaction. The most common is their division according to the effective orientation: into cooperation and competition. Cooperation - is an interaction in which its subjects reach mutual agreement about the goals pursued and strive not to violate it as long as their interests coincide.

Competition- this is an interaction characterized by the achievement of individual or group goals and interests in the conditions of confrontation between people.

In both cases, both the type of interaction (cooperation or rivalry) and the degree of expression of this interaction (successful or less successful cooperation) determine the nature of interpersonal relationships between people.

During the implementation of these types of interaction, as a rule, the following leading strategies interaction behavior.

1. Cooperation aimed at the complete satisfaction of the needs of the participants in the interaction (the motive of either cooperation or competition is realized).

2. Opposition, which involves focusing on one's goals without taking into account the goals of communication partners (individualism).

3. Compromise, realized in the private achievement of the goals of partners for the sake of conditional equality.

4. Compliance, involving the sacrifice of one's own interests in order to achieve the goals of a partner (altruism).

5. Avoidance, which is a withdrawal from contact, the loss of one's own goals to exclude the gain of another.

The division into types can also be based on people's intentions and actions which reflect their understanding of the situation of communication. Then three types of interactions are distinguished: additional, intersecting and covert.

» Additional is called such an interaction in which the partners adequately perceive each other's position. intersecting - this is such an interaction in the course of which the partners, on the one hand, demonstrate the inadequacy of understanding the positions and actions of the other participant in the interaction, and on the other hand, clearly show their own intentions and actions. Hidden interaction includes two levels at the same time: explicit, verbally expressed, and hidden, implied. It implies either a deep knowledge of the partner, or greater sensitivity to non-verbal means of communication - tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, since they convey the hidden content.

In its development, interaction goes through several stages (levels).

At its initial (lowest) level, interaction represents the simplest primary contacts of people, when between them there is only a primary and very simplified - mutual or one-sided "physical" influence on each other for the purpose of exchanging information and communication, which, for specific reasons, can not achieve their goal, and therefore not receive comprehensive development.

The main thing in the success of initial contacts lies in the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by the partners in the interaction. At the same time, they do not constitute a simple sum of individuals, but are some completely new and specific formation of connections and relationships, which is regulated by a real or imaginary (imagined) difference - similarity, similarity - contrast of people involved in joint activity (practical or mental). Any contact usually begins with a concrete sensory perception of the external appearance, features of the activity and behavior of other people.

The effect of congruence also plays an important role in the interaction at its initial stage. Congruence - confirmation of mutual role expectations, complete mutual understanding, a single resonant rhythm, consonance of the experiences of the participants in the contact. Congruence implies a minimum of mismatches in the key moments of the lines of behavior of the participants in the contact, which results in stress relief, the emergence of trust and sympathy at a subconscious level.

At its average level of development, the process of interaction between people is called productive joint activity. Here, the gradually developing active cooperation between them finds more and more expression in the effective solution of the problem of combining the mutual efforts of partners.

Three forms or models of organizing joint activities are usually distinguished:

1) each participant does his part of the overall work independently of the other;

2) the common task is performed sequentially by each participant;

3) there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others.

The common aspirations of people, however, can lead to clashes in the process of coordinating positions. As a result, people enter into a relationship of “agreement-disagreement” with each other. In case of agreement, partners are involved in joint activities. In this case, the distribution of roles and functions between the participants in the interaction takes place. These relations cause a special orientation of volitional efforts in the subjects of interaction. It is associated either with a concession or with the conquest of certain positions. Therefore, partners are required to show mutual tolerance, composure, perseverance, psychological mobility and other volitional qualities personality, based on the intellect and a high level of consciousness and self-awareness of the individual.

At this time, there is a constant coordination of thoughts, feelings, relationships of partners in a joint life.

activities. It is clothed in various forms of influence of people on each other. Regulators of mutual influences are the mechanisms of suggestion, conformity and persuasion, when under the influence of opinions, relations of one partner, opinions, relations of another partner change.

The highest level of interaction is always exceptionally effective joint activity of people, accompanied by mutual understanding.

Mutual understanding of people is such a level of their interaction at which they are aware of the content and structure of the present and possible next actions of the partner, and also mutually contribute to the achievement of a common goal. An essential characteristic of mutual understanding is always its adequacy. It depends on a number of factors: on the type of relationship between partners (relationships of acquaintance and friendship, friendship, love and marital relations), comradely (essentially business relations), on the sign or valency of relations (likes, dislikes, indifferent relations); on the degree of possible objectification, the manifestation of personality traits in the behavior and activities of people (sociability, for example, is most easily observed in the process of interaction, communication).

For mutual understanding, joint activity is not enough, mutual assistance is needed. It excludes its antipode - mutual opposition, with the appearance of which misunderstanding arises, and then misunderstanding of man by man.

The phenomenon of social perception. In the course of interaction, people always initially perceive and evaluate each other. social perception(social perception) - the process of perception and evaluation by people of each other.

Features of social perception are:

The activity of the subject of social perception, which means that he (an individual, group, etc.) is not passive and indifferent in relation to the perceived, as is the case with the perception of inanimate objects. Both the object and the subject of social perception

act on each other, strive to transform ideas about themselves in a favorable direction;

The integrity of the perceived, showing that the attention of the subject of social perception is focused primarily not on the moments of the generation of the image as a result of the reflection of the perceived reality, but on the semantic and evaluative interpretations of the object of perception;

The motivation of the subject of social perception, which indicates that the perception of social objects is characterized by a great fusion of his cognitive interests with emotional attitudes towards the perceived, a clear dependence of social perception on the motivational and semantic orientation of the perceiver.

Social perception usually manifests itself as:

Perception by group members of each other, members of another group;

A person's perception of himself, his group, another group;

The group's perception of one's own person, members of another group;

A group's perception of another group (or groups).

Process of social perception is the activity of its subject (observer) in assessing the appearance, psychological characteristics, actions and deeds of the observed person or object, as a result of which the subject of social perception develops a specific relationship to the observed and certain ideas about possible behavior are formed specific people and groups.

Depending on these representations, the subject of social perception predicts his attitudes and behavior in various situations of interaction and communication with other people.

The most significant factors in how people perceive each other are:

Psychological sensitivity, which is an increased susceptibility to psychological

some manifestations of the inner world of other people, attention to it, a steady desire and desire to understand it; ,

Knowledge of the possibilities, difficulties of perceiving another person and ways to prevent the most probable errors of perception, which is based on personal qualities interaction partners, their relationship experience;

Perception and observation skills and abilities that allow people to quickly adapt to their conditions, make it possible to avoid difficulties in joint activities, and prevent possible conflicts in interaction and communication.

The quality of perception is also due to such an important factor, how conditions (situation), in which social perception takes place. Among them: the distance that separates those who communicate; time during which contacts last; the size of the room, illumination, air temperature in it, as well as the social background of communication (the presence or absence of other persons in addition to actively interacting partners). There are also group conditions. A person belonging to a certain group, small or large, perceives other people under the influence of the characteristics of his group.

Exist certain functions social perception. These include: self-knowledge, knowledge of partners in interaction, the functions of establishing emotional relationships, organizing joint activities. Usually they are realized through the mechanisms of stereotyping, identification, empathy, attraction, reflection and causal attribution.

The perception of other people is greatly influenced by the process of stereotyping. Under social stereotype is understood as a stable image or idea of ​​any phenomena or people, characteristic of representatives of a particular social group. For a person who has mastered the stereotypes of his group, they perform the function of simplifying and reducing the process of perceiving another person.

Stereotypes are a "rough adjustment" tool that allows a person to "save" psychological resources. They have their "allowed" scope social application. For example, stereotypes are actively used in assessing a person's national or professional group affiliation.

Identification - this is a socio-psychological process of cognition by a person or a group of other people in the course of direct or indirect contacts with them, in which a comparison or comparison of the internal states or positions of partners, as well as role models with their psychological and other characteristics, is carried out.

Identification, as opposed to narcissism, plays a huge role in the behavior and spiritual life of a person. Its psychological meaning is to expand the range of experiences, to enrich the inner experience. She is known as the most early appearance emotional attachment to another person. On the other hand, identification is often an element psychological protection people from objects and situations that cause fear, generating anxiety and stress.

Empathy It is emotional empathy for another person. Through emotional response, people know the inner state of others. Empathy is based on the ability to correctly imagine what is happening inside another person, what he experiences, how he evaluates the world around him. It is almost always interpreted not only as an active assessment by the subject of the experiences and feelings of the cognizing person, but also, of course, as a positive attitude towards the partner.

attraction is a form of knowing another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling for him. In this case, the understanding of the interaction partner arises due to the appearance of attachment to him, a friendly or deeper intimate-personal relationship.

Other things being equal, people more easily accept the position of the person to whom they experience an emotionally positive attitude.

Reflection - this is a mechanism of self-knowledge in the process of interaction, which is based on the ability of a person to imagine how he is perceived by a communication partner. This is not just knowing or understanding a partner, but knowing how a partner understands me, a kind of doubled process of mirror relationships with each other.

Causal attribution - the mechanism of HHTepinpefation of actions and feelings of another person (causal attribution - the desire to clarify the causes of the subject's behavior).

Research shows that each person has their own "favorite" schemes of causality, i.e. habitual explanations for other people's behavior:

People with personal attribution in any situation tend to find the culprit of what happened, to attribute the cause of what happened to a particular person;

In the case of an addiction to circumstantial attribution, people tend to blame circumstances first of all, without bothering to look for a specific culprit;

With stimulus attribution, a person sees the cause of what happened in the object on which the action was directed (the vase fell because it did not stand well) or in the victim himself (it is his own fault that he was hit by a car).

When studying the process of causal attribution, various patterns were revealed. For example, people most often attribute the cause of success to themselves, and failure to circumstances. The nature of attribution also depends on the degree of participation of a person in the event under discussion. The assessment will be different in cases where he was a participant (accomplice) or an observer. General pattern consists in the fact that as the significance of what happened increases, the subjects tend to move from circumstantial and stimulus attribution to personal attribution (i.e., look for the cause of what happened in the conscious actions of the individual).

General characteristics of human relationships

In the process of production and consumption of material goods, people enter into various kinds of relations, which, as already mentioned, are based on their interaction with each other. In the course of such interaction, social relations arise. The nature and content of the latter are largely determined by the specifics and circumstances of the interaction itself, the goals pursued by specific people, as well as the place and role they occupy in society.

Public relations can be classified based on different criteria:

According to the form of manifestation, social relations are divided into economic (production), legal, ideological, political, moral, religious, aesthetic, etc.;

From the point of view of belonging to various subjects, national (interethnic), class and confessional, etc. relations are distinguished;

Based on the analysis of the functioning of relationships between people in society, we can talk about vertical and horizontal relationships;

According to the nature of regulation, public relations are official and unofficial.

All types of social relations, in turn, permeate the psychological relations of people (relationships), that is, subjective connections that arise as a result of their actual interaction and are already accompanied by various emotional and other experiences (likes and dislikes) of the individuals participating in them. Psychological relations are the living human tissue of any social relations.

The difference between social and psychological relations lies in the fact that the former are by their nature, so to speak, "material", are the result of a certain property, social and other

distribution of roles in society and in most cases are taken for granted, are in a sense impersonal. In social relations, first of all, the essential features of social ties between the spheres of people's life, types of labor and communities are revealed.

Psychological relations are the result of direct contacts between specific people endowed with certain characteristics, able to express their likes and dislikes, to realize and experience them. They are saturated with emotions and feelings, i.e., the experience and expression by individuals or groups of their attitude to interaction with other specific people and groups.

Psychological relations are completely personified, as they are purely personal in nature. Their content and specificity are filled, determined and depend on the specific people between whom they arise.

attitude, thus, it is a socialized connection between the internal and external content of the human psyche, its connection with the surrounding reality and consciousness.

Relationships within "subject-object" and "subject-subject" are not identical. So, the common for one and the other connection is, for example, the activity (or severity) of the relationship, modality (positive, negative, neutral), breadth, stability, etc.

At the same time, a significant difference between relations within the framework of subject-object and subject-subject relations is the unidirectionality and reciprocity of relations. Only under the condition of the presence of reciprocity of relations is it possible to form a "cumulative fund" of a general and new intersubjective formation (thoughts, feelings, actions). When it is difficult to say where is ours and where is someone else's, both become ours.

Subject-subject relations are characterized by both constant reciprocity and variability, which

V. G. Krysko

is caught by the activity of not only one of the parties, as is the case with subject-object relations, where stability depends more on the subject than on the object.

Subject-subject relations, in addition, include not only the relationship of a person with another person, but also the relationship to oneself, that is, self-relationship. In turn, subject-object relations are all relations of a person to reality, excluding relations between people and self-relationship.

The general criterion for dividing interpersonal relationships (relationships) into types is attractiveness. The constituent elements of mutual attractiveness-unattractiveness include: sympathy-antipathy and attraction-repulsion.

Like-dislike represents the experienced satisfaction-dissatisfaction from real or mental contact with another person.

Attraction-repulsion there is a practical component to these experiences. Attraction-repulsion is mainly associated with a person's need to be together, next to each other. Attraction-repulsion is often, but not always, associated with the experience of likes and dislikes (an emotional component of interpersonal relationships). Such a contradiction arises in the case of the popularity of a person: "For some reason, she is drawn to her, without visible satisfaction to be together and near."

You can also talk about the following types of interpersonal relationships: relationships of acquaintance, friendly, comradely, friendly, love, marital kinship, destructive relationships. This classification is based on several criteria: the depth of the relationship, selectivity in the choice of partners, the function of the relationship.

The main criterion is measure, the depth of the involvement of the individual in the relationship. Different types of interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion of certain levels of personality characteristics in communication. The greatest inclusion of personality, up to individual characteristics, occurs in friendly, marital relations. Relations

I acquaintances, friendships are limited to the inclusion in the "interaction of predominantly species and socio-cultural features of the individual.

The second criterion is the degree of selectivity in the choice of "partners for relationships. Selectivity can be defined as the number of features that are significant for establishing AND reproducing a relationship. The greatest selectivity is found in the relations of friendship, marriage, love, the least - the relationship of acquaintance.

The third criterion is difference in relationship functions. Functions are understood as a range of tasks, issues that are resolved in interpersonal relationships. The functions of relationships are manifested in the difference in their content, psychological meaning for partners.

In addition, each interpersonal relationship is characterized by a certain distance between partners, implies a certain degree of participation of role-playing clichés. The general pattern is as follows: as relationships deepen (for example, friendship, marriage versus acquaintance), the distance decreases, the frequency of contacts increases, and role clichés are eliminated.

There is a certain dynamics in the development of human relationships. Having begun to form and develop correctly, they largely depend on a number of factors: on the individuals themselves, on the conditions of the surrounding reality and the social system, on the subsequent formation of contacts and the results of joint activities.

Initially knotted contacts between people, representing the initial stage of the implementation of social relations between them, the primary act of social interaction. How they occur depends on how people perceive and evaluate each other. Based on primary contacts, perception and evaluation each other's people is a direct prerequisite for the emergence of communication and the development of relationships between them. In its turn communication represents the exchange of information and is the basis for the development of relationships between people. It allows reaching mutual understanding between individuals or reduces the latter to nothing.

This is how birth happens relationship content between people, which strengthens the socialized ties between them, contributes to the development of their productive joint activities. The effectiveness of joint activities and mutual understanding depends on how this process takes place. Ultimately, on this basis, stable relationship between people - highest form their social interaction. They give stability to social life in society, contribute to its development, facilitate the joint activities of individuals, give it stability and productivity,

The concept of communicationin psychology

Communication - a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts and connections between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information and the development of a unified interaction strategy. Communication is usually included in the practical interaction of people (joint work, teaching, collective play, etc.) and ensures the planning, implementation and control of their activities.

If relationships are defined through the concepts of "connection", then communication is understood as a process of interaction between a person and a person, carried out with the help of means of speech and non-verbal influence and pursuing the goal of achieving changes in the cognitive, motivational, emotional and behavioral spheres of the persons participating in communication. In the course of communication, its participants exchange not only their physical actions or products, the results of labor, but also thoughts, intentions, ideas, experiences, etc.

IN Everyday life a person learns to communicate from childhood and masters its different types, depending on the environment in which he lives, on the people with whom he interacts, and this happens spontaneously, on everyday experience. In most cases, this experience is not enough, for example, to master special professions (teacher,

but kter, announcer, investigator), and sometimes just for productive and civilized communication. For this reason, it is necessary to improve in the knowledge of its laws, the accumulation of skills and abilities, their accounting and use.

Each community of people has its own means of influence, which are used in various forms of collective life. They concentrate the socio-psychological content of the lifestyle. All this is manifested in customs, traditions, ceremonies, rituals, holidays, dances, songs, legends, myths, in the visual, theatrical and musical arts, in fiction, film, radio and television. These peculiar mass forms of communication have a powerful potential for mutual influence of people. In the history of mankind, they have always served as a means of education, including a person through communication in the spiritual atmosphere of life.

The human problem is at the center of attention of all aspects of communication. Passion for only the instrumental side of communication can level its spiritual (human) essence and lead to a simplified interpretation of communication as an information and communication activity. With the inevitable scientific and analytical dissection of communication into constituent elements, it is important not to lose a person in them as a spiritual and active force that transforms oneself and others in this process.

Communication is usually manifested in the unity of its five aspects: interpersonal, cognitive, communicative-informational, emotive and conative.

Interpersonal side communication reflects the interaction of a person with the immediate environment: with other people and those communities with which he is associated with his life.

Cognitive side communication allows you to answer questions about who the interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what can be expected from him, and many others related to the personality of the partner.

Communication and information side represents the exchange between people of different ideas,

ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc.

Emotive side communication is associated with the functioning of emotions and feelings, moods in personal contacts of partners.

Conative (behavioral) side communication serves the purpose of reconciling internal and external contradictions in the positions of partners.

Communication performs certain functions.

1. The pragmatic function of communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is realized in the interaction of people in the process of joint activities. At the same time, communication itself is very often the most important need.

2. The function of formation and development reflects the ability of communication to have an impact on partners, developing and improving them in all respects. Communicating with other people, a person learns universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person. In general terms, communication can be defined as a universal reality in which relationships are born, exist and manifest themselves throughout life. mental processes, human condition and behavior.

3. Confirmation function provides people with the opportunity to know, approve and confirm themselves.

4. The function of uniting-separating people, on the one hand, through the establishment of contacts between them, it contributes to the transfer of necessary information to each other and sets them up for the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby connecting them into a single Whole, and on the other hand, it can be the cause of differentiation and isolation of individuals as a result communication.

5. The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships serves the interests of establishing and maintaining sufficiently stable and productive ties, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities.

6. intrapersonal function communication is realized in the communication of a person with himself (through internal or external speech, constructed according to the type of dialogue).

Communication is extremely versatile. It can be presented in its diversity by species.

Distinguish between interpersonal and mass communication. interpersonal communication associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs, constant in the composition of the participants. Mass communication- a lot of direct contacts strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of media.

Allocate also interpersonal And role communication. In the first case, the participants in communication are specific individuals with specific individual qualities that are revealed in the course of communication and organization of joint actions. In the case of role-playing communication, its participants act as carriers of certain roles (buyer-seller, teacher-student, boss-subordinate). In role-playing communication, a person loses a certain spontaneity of his behavior, since one or another of his steps, actions are dictated by the role being played. In the process of such communication, a person no longer manifests himself as an individual, but as a certain social unit [performing certain functions.

Communication can also be fiduciary And conflict. The first is different in that during its course particularly significant information is transmitted. Confidence is an essential feature of all types of communication, without which it is impossible to negotiate and resolve intimate issues. Conflict communication is characterized by mutual opposition of people, expressions of displeasure and distrust.

Communication can be personal and business. personal communication is the exchange of informal information. Business conversation - the process of interaction between people performing joint duties or included in the same activity.

Finally, communication can be direct and indirect. Direct (immediate) communication is historically

howling form of communication between people with each other. On its basis, in the later periods of the development of civilization, various types of mediated communication arise. Mediated communication - This interaction is through additional funds(letters, audio and video equipment).

Communication is possible only with the help of sign systems. There are verbal means of communication (when oral and written speech is used as sign systems) and non-verbal means communication when nonverbal means of communication are used.

IN verbal Communication usually uses two types of speech: oral and written. Written speech is that which is taught in school and which is accustomed to be considered a sign of a person's education. Oral speech, which differs in a number of parameters from written language, is not illiterate writing, but independent speech with its own rules and even grammar.

non-verbal means of communication are needed in order to regulate the course of the communication process, to create psychological contact between partners; enrich the meanings conveyed by words, guide the interpretation of a verbal text; express emotions and reflect the interpretation of the situation. These include the following means of communication.

1. Visual:

Kinesics - movement of arms, legs, head, torso;

Direction of gaze and eye contact;

Eye expression;

Facial expression;

Pose (in particular, localization, changes in postures relative to the verbal text;

Skin reactions (redness, sweating);

Distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation to him, personal space);

Auxiliaries communication, including body features (sex, age) and means of their transformation (clothing, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoos, mustaches, beards, cigarettes, etc.).

2. Acoustic (sound):

Paralinguistic, that is, associated with speech (intonation, loudness, timbre, tone, rhythm, pitch, speech pauses and their localization in the text);

Extralinguistic, i.e., not related to speech (laughter, crying, coughing, sighing, gnashing of teeth, sniffing, etc.).

3. Tactile-kinesthetic (associated with touch):

Physical impact (leading the blind by the hand, contact dance, etc.);

Takeshika (shaking hands, clapping on the shoulder).

4. Olfactory:

Pleasant and unpleasant environmental odors;

Natural and artificial smells of a person, etc. Communication has its own structure and includes motivation

vation-target, communication, interactive and perceptual components.

Motivational-target component of communication. It is a system of motives and goals of communication. The motives for communication between members can be: a) the needs, interests of one person who takes the initiative in communication; b) the needs and interests of both communication partners that encourage them to engage in communication; c) needs arising from jointly solved tasks. The ratio of communication motives ranges from complete coincidence to conflict. In accordance with this, communication can be friendly or conflicting.

The main purposes of communication can be: receiving or transmitting useful information, activation of partners, removal of tension and management of joint actions, providing assistance and influencing other people. The goals of the participants in communication may coincide or contradict, exclude each other. It also depends on the nature of the communication.

Communication component of communication. In the narrow sense of the word, it is the exchange of information between communicating individuals. In the course of joint activities, as already noted above, they exchange various opinions, interests, feelings, etc. All this and

poses a process of information exchange, which has the following features:

If information is only transmitted in cybernetic devices, then in the conditions of human communication it is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, developed;

In contrast to the simple "exchange of information" between two devices in human communication, it is combined with the attitude towards each other;

The nature of the exchange of information between people is determined by the fact that through the system signs used in this case, partners can influence each other, influence the behavior of a partner;

Communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when the person sending the information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a single or similar system of codification or decodification. In ordinary language, this means that people "speak the same language."

Interactive communication component. It consists in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also influences, mutual motivations, actions. Interaction can act in the form of cooperation or competition, agreement or conflict, adaptation or opposition, association or dissociation.

Perceptual component of communication. It manifests itself in the perception of each other by partners in communication, mutual study and evaluation of each other. This is due to the perception of the appearance, actions, actions of a person and their interpretation. Mutual social perception during communication is very subjective, which is also manifested in the not always correct understanding of the goals of the communication partner, his motives, relationships, attitudes towards interaction, etc.

An important role in communication is played by its communicative component, which needs special attention. Communication - is a connection in which

is the exchange of information between people in the course of interpersonal relationships. It has a number of specific features.

1. Cash relations of two individuals, each of which is an active subject. At the same time, their mutual informing implies the establishment of joint activities. The specificity of human information exchange lies in the special role for each participant in the communication of this or that information, its significance.

2. The possibility of mutual influence of partners on each other through a system of signs.

3. Communicative influence only if the communicator and the recipient have a single or similar system of codification and decodification.

4. Possibility of emergence of communication barriers. In this case, the connection that exists between communication and attitude clearly stands out.

Information as such can be of two types: incentive and ascertaining. Incentive Information manifests itself in the form of an order, advice or request. It is meant to stimulate some kind of action. Stimulation, in turn, is divided into activation (incitement to action in a given direction), interdiction (prohibition of unwanted activities) and destabilization (mismatch or violation of some autonomous forms of behavior or activity). Ascertaining information manifests itself in the form of a message and does not imply a direct change in behavior.

The dissemination of information in society passes through a kind of filter of trust-distrust. Such a filter operates in such a way that true information may not be accepted, and false information may be accepted. In addition, there are tools that facilitate the acceptance of information. and weakening the effect of filters. The combination of these means is called fascination ^ An example of fascination can be musical, spatial or color accompaniment of speech.

The communication process model usually includes five elements: communicator - message (text) - channel - audience (recipient) - feedback.

the main goal information exchange in communication - the development of a common meaning, a common point of view and agreement on various situations or problems. It is typical for him feedback mechanism. The content of this mechanism lies in the fact that in interpersonal communication the process of information exchange doubles, as it were, and, in addition to the content aspects, the information coming from the recipient to the communicator contains information about how the recipient perceives and evaluates the behavior of the communicator.

In the process of communication, the participants in communication are faced with the task of not only exchanging information, but also achieving its adequate understanding by partners. That is, in interpersonal communication, the interpretation of the message coming from the communicator to the recipient stands out as a special problem. There may be barriers to communication. Communication barrier - this is a psychological obstacle to the adequate transfer of information between communication partners.

Forms of social interactions

The concept of social ties, their types

Obviously, in order to satisfy his needs, a person must interact with other individuals, join social groups, and participate in joint activities.

The central idea of ​​the sociological realism of E. Durkheim, to which, in essence, all his scientific work was devoted, is the idea public solidarity- the question of what is the nature of those ties that unite, attract people to each other. The desire of any person to contact with other people is due to basic human needs. These include: sexual (reproduction); group self-defense; communication with their own kind; intellectual activity; sensory-emotional experiences. Without contacts, the satisfaction of these needs is impossible.

Throughout life, a person is connected with other people through social ties that manifest themselves in various forms and forms.

Social relationships between members of a society or social group are extremely diverse. In the process of communicating with other people, a person constantly selects from a large number of various connections exactly those that he considers necessary to strengthen and develop. In this regard, each individual goes through several stages in the development of social relations before reaching the state of social relations.

In addition, it is social ties that are the basis group-forming processes, the first step in the formation of social groups (Fig. 1).

Fig.1. Types of social connections

So, consider the main types of social connections:

Social contacts. by the most simple view ties should recognize social contacts. These contacts are the most simple, elementary connections between separate individuals.

The first step in building social connections is spatial contacts. They reflect the orientation of people in social space, in which individuals imagine where other people are and how many there are. They may assume the presence of other people or see them. The very assumption of the presence of a certain number of other people can change the behavior of individuals in society. Note that in spatial contact, the individual cannot single out any separate isolated objects from the total number of people around him. He evaluates the people around him as a whole.

Separation from the spatial environment of some special objects can occur only with the contact of interest. With such contact, the individual singles out from his social environment a certain individual or social group to which he pays his attention, which he can use to deepen social ties.

Last view contacts are exchange contacts. In the course of such contacts, there is a short-term exchange of values ​​between individual individuals. J. Schepansky, describing exchange contacts, notes that they represent a specific type of social relationships in which individuals exchange values ​​without having the desire to change the behavior of other individuals. This means that in the course of such sporadic and short-term exchanges, the attention of the individual is concentrated on the object of exchange, and not on the other individual entering into the exchange. An example of such contact is the purchase of a newspaper, when the buyer, ignoring the seller, gives money and receives a newspaper.

Every time an individual begins to communicate with other people, he must necessarily go through all these three types of contacts in order to move on to more complex social connections.

More complex view social connections are social action. Its significance is due to the fact that it is the simplest unit, the simplest element of any kind of social activity of people. For the first time in sociology, the concept of "social action" was introduced and scientifically substantiated by Max Weber.

In the understanding of M. Weber, social action has at least two features: firstly, it must be rational, conscious, and secondly, it must necessarily be oriented towards the behavior of other people.

Social Actions - it is a certain system of actions, means and methods, using which an individual or a social group seeks to change the behavior, views or opinions of other individuals or groups.

Any social action is a system in which the following elements can be distinguished:

ü subject of action influencing individual or community of people;

ü action object, the individual or community on which the action is directed;

ü means (instruments of action) and methods of action, by means of which the necessary change is carried out;

ü action result- the response of the individual or community on which the action was directed.

Two following concepts should be distinguished: "behavior" and "action". If behavior is the body's response to internal or external stimuli (it can be reflex, unconscious or intentional, conscious), then action is only some types of behavior.

When performing social actions, each person experiences the actions of others. There is an exchange of actions or social interaction.

social interaction- this is a systematically stable performance of some actions that are aimed at the partner in order to cause a certain (expected) response from his side, which, in turn, causes a new reaction of the influencer.

P. Sorokin studied social interaction in the most detail. In his opinion, a single individual cannot be considered as an elementary "social cell" or the simplest social phenomenon.

In his work "Systems of Sociology", he noted: "... an individual as an individual - can in no way be considered a microcosm of the social macrocosm. It cannot, because from an individual one can get only an individual and one cannot get what is called “society”, nor what is called “social phenomena” ... For the latter, not one, but many individuals, at least two, are required. However, in order for two or more individuals to be considered as an element of society, it is necessary that they interact with each other.

Sorokin calls the conditions for the emergence of any social interactions:

ü having two or more individuals that determine the behavior and experiences of each other;

ü doing something by them, influencing mutual experiences and actions;

ü presence of conductors, transmitting these influences and the impact of individuals on each other (for example, speech signals or various material carriers).

Human social connections are a set of interactions consisting of actions and responses. A complex network of interactions is formed, covering a different number of individuals. In the process of these interactions, social relations can develop.

Social Relations - this is a system of normalized interactions between partners about something that binds them (subject, interest, etc.). Unlike social interaction, social relations are a stable system limited by certain norms(formal and informal).

Social relations are divided into unilateral and mutual. Unilateral social relations are characterized by the fact that their participants put different meanings into them. For example, love on the part of an individual may stumble upon contempt or hatred on the part of the object of his love.

The reason that sometimes similar interactions differ from each other in content is values. Value in this context can be defined as a desired desired event. The content and meaning of social relations depends on how the need for values ​​and possession of them are combined in interactions. If one individual has resources in the form of wealth, and the other is not interested in acquiring them, then in this case only one type of relationship is possible - the independence of each of the individuals, disinterest and indifference.

For example, the case when Alexander the Great, who had power, wealth and prestige, offered to use these values ​​to the philosopher Diogenes of Sinop. The king asked the philosopher to name a desire, to present any requirement that he would immediately fulfill. But Diogenes had no need for the values ​​offered and expressed his only desire: that the king would move away and not block the sun. The relationship of respect and gratitude, which Macedonsky counted on, did not arise, Diogenes remained independent, as, indeed, the king.

The following elements can be distinguished in the system of relations:

ü subjects of communication- two individuals, two social groups, or an individual and a social group;

ü their link, which may be some object, interest, common value, creating the basis of the relationship;

ü a certain system of duties and obligations or established functions that must be performed by partners in relation to each other.

Among the variety of social relations, there are those that are present in all other relations and are their basis. These are, first of all, relations of social dependence and power.

For example, if we consider the relationship of love, it is obvious that the love of two people for each other implies mutual obligations and the dependence of one person on the motives and actions of the other. The same can be said about friendship, respect, management and leadership, where the relationship of dependence and power is most obvious.

Forms of social interactions

Social interactions in society can be viewed from the point of view of ways to achieve desired values. Here we are dealing with such categories as cooperation, competition and conflict. The first two concepts were developed in detail by American sociologists Robert Park and Ernst Burges.

Word cooperation comes from two Latin words: co"- "together" and " operari"- work. Cooperation can take place in dyads (groups of two individuals), small groups, as well as in large groups (in organizations, social stratum or society).

Cooperation is primarily associated with the desire of people to cooperate, and many sociologists consider this phenomenon based on selflessness (social altruism). However, studies and just experience show that selfish goals serve the cooperation of people to a greater extent than their likes and dislikes, desires or unwillingnesses. Thus, the main meaning of cooperation is, as a rule, in mutual benefit.

Competition(from lat. concurrere- run together) is a struggle between individuals, groups or societies for the acquisition of values, the reserves of which are limited and unequally distributed among individuals or groups (this can be money, power, status, love, appreciation and other values). It can be defined as an attempt to achieve rewards by sidelining or outperforming rivals seeking identical goals.

Competition can be personal (for example, when two leaders compete for influence in an organization) or be impersonal (an entrepreneur competes for markets without knowing his competitors personally).

Experiments conducted in groups show that if the situation develops in such a way that individuals or groups cooperate to pursue common goals, then friendly relations and attitudes are maintained. But as soon as the conditions are created under which there are unshared values ​​that give rise to competition, unfriendly attitudes and unflattering stereotypes immediately arise.

Conflict. Conflict analysis (from lat. conflictus- clash) it is useful to start from an elementary, simplest level, from the origins of conflict relations. Traditionally, it starts with needs structures, a set of which is specific to each individual and social group. All these needs Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970) divides into five main types: 1) physical needs(food, sex, material well-being etc.); 2) security needs; 3) social needs(needs for communication, social contacts, interaction); 4) needs to achieve prestige, knowledge, respect, a certain level of competence; 5) higher needs for self-expression, self-affirmation(for example, the need for creativity).

All desires, aspirations of individuals and social groups can be attributed to any type of these needs. Consciously or unconsciously, individuals dream of achieving their goal in accordance with their needs. Consequently, all social interactions of a person can be simplified as a series of elementary acts, each of which begins with an imbalance in connection with an emerging need and the appearance of a goal significant for the individual, and ends with the restoration of balance and the achievement of the goal.

The Sociology of Conflict was developed by Randall Collins as a general theory. Unlike K. Marx and R. Dahrendorf, who focused on the macro theory of conflict, Collins focused on everyday interactions. From his point of view, conflict is the only central process of social life. Collins extended his analysis of stratification (as a phenomenon that generates conflict) to relationships between sexes and age groups.

He took the position that the family is an arena of gender conflict, in which men come out victorious, and women are suppressed by men and subjected to various types unfair treatment. Collins turned to considering the resources that different age groups have.

Thus, the older generation has a variety of resources, including experience, influence, power and the ability to meet the physical needs of the young. In contrast, one of the few resources of youth is physical attractiveness. This means that adults tend to dominate the young. However, as a person grows older, he acquires more resources and is more able to resist, resulting in increased generational conflict.

From the point of view of conflict, Collins also considered formal organizations. He saw them as networks of interpersonal influences and arenas of conflicting interests.

Lecture 4. General characteristics of interaction

The essence of interaction. Society does not consist of separate individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relations in which these individuals are with each other. The basis of these connections and relationships is the interaction of people.

Interaction- this is the process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, generating their mutual conditioning and connection.

It is causality that constitutes the main feature of interaction, when each of the interacting parties acts as the cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite side, which determines the development of objects and their structures. If the interaction reveals a contradiction, then it acts as a source of self-movement and self-development of phenomena and processes.

In interaction, the relation of a person to another person as to a subject who has his own world is realized. The interaction of a person with a person in society is also the interaction of their inner worlds: the exchange of thoughts, ideas, images, the impact on goals and needs, the impact on the assessments of another individual, his emotional state.

Interaction in domestic social psychology, in addition, is usually understood not only as the influence of people on each other, but also as the direct organization of their joint actions, which allows the group to realize common activities for its members. The interaction itself in this case acts as a systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate reaction from other people. Joint life and activity, in contrast to the individual, at the same time has more severe restrictions on any manifestations of activity-passivity of individuals. This forces people to build and coordinate

create images of "I - He", "We - They", coordinate efforts among themselves. In the course of real interaction, adequate ideas of a person about himself, other people, and their groups are also formed. The interaction of people is the leading factor in the regulation of their self-assessments and behavior in society.

Features of interaction. Usually distinguish between interpersonal and intergroup interaction.

Interpersonal interaction- these are accidental or intentional, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and connections between two or more people, causing mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and attitudes.

The main features of such interaction are:

The presence of an external goal (object) in relation to the interacting individuals, the achievement of which involves mutual efforts;

Explicitness (accessibility) for observation from outside and registration by other people;

Situation - a rather rigid regulation by specific conditions of activity, norms, rules and intensity of relations, due to which interaction becomes a rather changeable phenomenon;

Reflexive ambiguity - the dependence of its perception on the conditions of implementation and the assessments of its participants.

Intergroup interaction- the process of direct or indirect influence of multiple subjects (objects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditionality and the peculiar nature of the relationship. Usually it takes place between whole groups (as well as their parts) and acts as an integrating (or destabilizing) factor in the development of society.

The basis of intergroup interaction is the functioning of the phenomena "we" and "they". Any community of people, any relationship between them arise, strengthen and function only as long as the awareness of the feeling of “we”, i.e. while all people (or most of them) consider themselves to belong to this group, identify themselves with it. "We" is nothing but a reflection in the consciousness of a particular social community the fact of objective Conditions of coexistence of its representatives.

But for the stability of the “we” phenomenon, the “they” phenomenon must inevitably exist, i.e. another group, not similar, different from us. It is the realization that there are "they", in turn, gives rise to the desire to self-determine in relation to "them", to separate from "them" as "we". Analyzing the idea of ​​L. Feuerbach about replacing the category of “I” as a subject of knowledge with the category “I and you”, one of the most famous scientists of our country B.F. Porshnev concluded: social Psychology becomes a science only when the place of the original psychological phenomenon is not “I and you”, but “we and them”, but instead of the relationship of two personalities - the relationship of two communities (Porshnev B.F., 1967).

The “they” phenomenon, just like the “we” phenomenon, has its own real basis: if the objective conditions of life and activity of people, the psychological reflection of which are the “we” and “they” phenomena, coincide, turn out to be the same, then the opposition of one community the other one will fade away sooner or later.

Nevertheless, "we" have always endowed ourselves with more merit than "they." People tend to overestimate the merits of "their" nation and, conversely, downplay strengths others. As for the shortcomings, the opposite is true here. The well-known proverb that “a mote is visible in someone else’s eye, but you won’t notice a log in your own” just clearly characterizes this pattern.

"Our" ideas, views, feelings, behavior are more correct, more just than "theirs". In this case, we are not talking about a real comparison, i.e. not about what is better, based on common sense and worldly logic. A simple person usually does not make such a comparison. “Alien” seems “bad” not because for some reason it is worse than “ours”, but because it is “foreign”.

Lecture 5. The content and dynamics of human interaction

At present, in Western science there are many points of view explaining the reasons for the interaction of people (Table 1). In our country, its study by psychologists is given

very little attention. For a better understanding of its essence, it is necessary to represent, first of all, the epistemology of the emergence and development of interaction, understanding it as a complex multi-stage process of transformation (transformation) of some social-psychological phenomena into others.

It is possible to divide the process of human interaction into three stages (levels): initial, intermediate and final (Scheme 1).

Beginning of interaction. On the first stage(initial level) interaction is the simplest primary contacts of people, when between them there is only a certain primary and very simplified mutual or one-sided "physical" influence on each other for the purpose of exchanging information and communication, which, for specific reasons, may not reach its goals, and therefore not receive all-round development 1 .

The main thing in the success of initial contacts lies in the acceptance or rejection of each other by the partners in the interaction. At the same time, they do not constitute a simple sum of individuals, but are some completely new and specific formation of connections and relationships, which is regulated by a real or imaginary (imagined) difference - similarity, similarity-contrast of people involved in joint activity (practical or mental). Differences between individuals are one of the main conditions for the development of their interactions (communication, relationships, compatibility, workability), as well as themselves as individuals.

Any contact usually begins with a concrete sensory perception of the external appearance, features of the activity and behavior of other people. At this moment, as a rule, emotional-behavioral reactions of individuals dominate. Acceptance-rejection relations are manifested in facial expressions,

The concept of "contact" is used in several meanings. "Contact" can mean touch (from lat. contactus, contingo- touch, touch, grab, get, reach, have a relationship with someone). In psychology, contact is the convergence of subjects in time and space, as well as a certain measure of closeness in a relationship. In this regard, in some cases they speak of "good" and "close", "direct" or, conversely, of "weak", "unstable", unstable, "mediated" contact; in other cases, about contact as a necessary condition for correct interaction. The presence of contact, i.e. known stage of intimacy, is always regarded as a desirable basis for effective interaction.

Interaction - these are the actions of individuals directed towards each other. Such an action can be considered as a set of methods used by a person to achieve certain goals - solving practical problems or realizing values.

There are two main levels of social interaction research: the micro level and the macro level.

The interaction of people with each other, in pairs, in small groups or interpersonal interaction is studied on micro level.

The macro level of social interactions includes large social structures, the main institutions of society: religion, family, economy.

Social life arises and develops due to the presence of dependencies between people, which creates the prerequisites for the interaction of people with each other. People interact because they depend on each other.social connection- this is the dependence of people, realized through social action, carried out with a focus on other people, with the expectation of an appropriate response from the partner. IN social connection can be distinguished:

subjects of communication(two people or thousands of people);

subject of communication(about what the connection is being made);

relationship management mechanism.

Termination of communication may occur when the subject of communication is changed or lost, or when the participants in communication do not agree with the principles of its regulation. Social bonding can take the form social contact(communication between people is superficial, fleeting, a contact partner can be easily replaced by another person) and in the form interactions(systematic, regular actions of partners directed at each other, with the goal of evoking a well-defined response from the partner, and the response generates a new reaction of the influencer).

social relations is a stable system of interaction between partners, which has a self-renewable character.

contact situation two or more people can take various forms: 1) simple co-presence; 2) exchange of information; 3) joint activities; 4) equal mutual or asymmetric activity, and the activity can be of different types: social influence, cooperation, rivalry, manipulation, conflict and others

Interpersonal relationships and interactions

People have the strongest need for affiliation: to enter with other peoplein prolonged closerelationships that guaranteepositive experiences and results.

This need, being due to biological and social reasons, contributes to human survival: in our ancestors were bound by a mutual guarantee that ensured group survival (both in hunting and in the construction of dwellings, ten hands are better than one);

The social bonding of children and adults raising them mutually enhances their vitality;

Having found a soul mate - a person who supports us and whom we can trust, we feel happy, protected, resilient;

Having lost a soul mate, adults feel jealousy, loneliness, despair, pain, anger, isolation. in yourself, deprivation.

Man is indeed a social, social being, living in conditions of interaction and communication with people.

Various forms of interpersonal interaction can be distinguished: attachment, friendship, love, competition, care, pastime, operation, game, social influence, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc.

Different forms of human interaction are characterized by specific positions.

ritual interaction- one of the most common forms of interaction, which is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the statue of a person in a group and society. Victor Turner, considering rituals and ceremonies, understands them as prescribed formal behavior, as "a system of beliefs and actions performed by a particular cult association." ritual actions

are important for the implementation of continuity between different generations in an organization, for maintaining traditions and transferring accumulated experience through symbols. Ritual interaction is both a kind of holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful means of maintaining stability, strength, continuity of social ties, a mechanism for uniting people and increasing their solidarity. Rituals, rituals, customs are able to be imprinted on the subconscious level of people, providing a deep penetration of certain values ​​into the group and individual consciousness, into tribal and personal memory.

Mankind has developed a huge variety of rituals throughout its history: religious rites, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular rites, including holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous norms of behavior: receiving guests, greeting acquaintances, addressing strangers, etc.

Competition- a form of social interaction in which there is a clearly defined goal that must be achieved, all the actions of various people are correlated with each other, taking into account this goal in such a way that they do not conflict; at the same time, the person himself does not come into conflict with himself, adhering to the attitude of another team player, but nevertheless, the desire to achieve best results than other team members.

Care - quite common and natural form interaction, but still more often resorted to by people with problems in the field of interpersonal needs. If a person does not have other forms of interaction, except care, then this is already a pathology-psychosis.

The next type of approved fixed interactions is pastime, providing at least a minimum of pleasant sensations, signs of attention, “stroking” between interacting people.

“Friendship is the strongest antidote for all misfortunes,” said Seneca.

Factors that contribute to the formation of attraction (attachment, sympathy) :

Frequency of mutual social contacts, proximity, geographical proximity

physical attractiveness

The phenomenon of "peers" (people tend to choose their friends and especially marry those who are their peers not only in terms of intellectual level, but also in terms of attractiveness).

Fromm wrote: "Love is often nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the parties to the transaction receive the maximum of what they can count on, taking into account their value in the market of personalities."

In couples where attractiveness has been different, the less attractive one usually has a compensatory quality. "Men tend to offer status and seek attraction, while women are more likely to do the opposite"

- the more attractive a person, the more likely it is to attribute positive personal qualities to him (this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness: what is beautiful is good; people unconsciously believe that other things being equal, the more beautiful are happier, sexier, more sociable, smarter and more successful, although not more honest or more caring towards other people (more attractive people have more prestigious jobs, earn more);

The “contrast effect” can negatively affect the attraction - for example, men who have just looked at magazine beauties, ordinary women, in including his own wives

- "amplification effect" - when we find features in someone that are similar to ours, this makes the person more attractive to us; the more two people love each other, the more physically attractive they find each other

The similarity of social origin, the similarity of interests, views is important for establishing relationships (“we love those who are like us and do the same as we do,” Aristotle pointed out);

And for their continuation, complementarity, competence in a field close to our interests is necessary; we like those who like us;

If a person's self-esteem was hurt by some previous situation, then he will be more pleased with a new acquaintance who kindly pays attention to him.

Reward theory of attraction: the theory that we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate events that are beneficial to us;

The principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: what you and your partner receive from your relationship should be proportional to what each of you invests in it.

If two or more people are connected by a lot, the proximity factor is formed, if their connections improve, they do something pleasant for each other - sympathy is formed ; if they see dignity in each other, recognize the right for themselves and others to be as they are, - respect is formed .

friendship And love, satisfy people's need for acceptance. Friendship and love outwardly look like a pastime, but there is always a clearly fixed partner in relation to whom sympathy is felt.

friendship = sympathy + respect.

Love = sexual attraction + sympathy + respect;

falling in love= sexual attraction + liking.

People can discuss any problems, even at a quite adult and serious level, nevertheless, in their every word and gesture, “I like you” will be visible. Some features are characteristic of all friendships and love affections: mutual understanding, self-giving, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (discovery of innermost thoughts and feelings in front of another person).

“What is a friend? This is a person with whom you dare to be yourself ”- F. Crane.

In connection with the problem of social influence, one should distinguish between conformity and suggestibility.

Conformity- a person's exposure to group pressure, a change in his behavior under the influence of other persons, a person's conscious compliance with the opinion of the majority of the group in order to avoid conflict with it.

Suggestibility, or suggestion,- involuntary susceptibility of a person to the opinion of other persons or groups (the person himself did not notice how his views, behavior have changed, this happens by itself, sincerely).

Distinguish:

a) internal personal conformity (assimilated conformal reaction) - the person’s opinion really changes under the influence of the group, the person agrees that the group is right, and changes his initial opinion in accordance with the opinion of the group, subsequently showing the learned group opinion, behavior even in the absence of the group;

b) demonstrative agreement with the group for various reasons (most often, to avoid conflicts, troubles for yourself or loved ones, while maintaining your own opinion in the depths of your soul - (external, public conformity).

If a person wants, seeks to be accepted by the group, he more often yields to the group, and vice versa, if he does not value his group, then he more boldly resists group pressure. Individuals with a higher status in the group (leaders) are able to resist the opinion of the group quite strongly, because leadership is associated with some deviations from group patterns. Individuals most susceptible to group pressure middle status, persons of polar categories are more able to resist group pressure.

What is the reason for conformity? From the point of view of the information approach (Festinger), a modern person cannot check all the information that comes to him, and therefore relies on the opinion of other people when it is shared by many. A person succumbs to group pressure because he wants to have a more accurate image of reality (the majority cannot be wrong). From the point of view of the “normative influence” hypothesis, a person succumbs to group pressure because he wants to have some of the benefits of membership in the group, wants to avoid conflicts, avoid sanctions when deviating from the accepted norm, wants to support his further interaction with the group.

Excessively pronounced conformism is a psychologically detrimental phenomenon: a person, like a "weather vane", follows group opinion, not having his own views, acting as a puppet in the hands of others; or a person realizes himself as a hypocritical opportunist, capable of repeatedly changing his behavior and outwardly expressed beliefs in accordance with “where the wind is blowing from” at the moment, in favor of “the powers that be”. According to Western psychologists, many Soviet people are shaped in the direction of such heightened conformism. The positive value of conformism lies in the fact that it acts: 1) as a mechanism for rallying human groups, human society; 2) the mechanism for the transfer of social heritage, culture, traditions, social patterns of behavior, social attitudes.

Nonconformism acts as a refutation by a person of the opinion of the majority, as a protest of submission, as a seeming independence of the individual from the opinion of the group, although in fact even here the point of view of the majority is the basis for human behavior. Conformism and non-conformism are related properties of the personality, these are the properties of positive or negative subordination to the influences of the group on the personality, but precisely subordination. Therefore, the behavior of a nonconformist is just as easy to control as the behavior of a conformist.

Social interactions act as sociocultural: Three processes are running at the same time: interaction of norms, values, standards contained in the minds of a person and a group;interaction of specific people and groups; interaction of materialized values ​​of social life.

Depending on the unifying values, we can distinguish:

"unilateral" groups built on the same set of basic values ​​(biosocial groups: racial, gender, age; sociocultural groups: gender, language group, religious group, trade union, political or scientific union);

"multilateral" groups built around a combination of several sets of values: family, community, nation, social class.

Merton defines group as a set of people who interact with each other in a certain way, are aware of their belonging to this group and are perceived by its members from the point of view of other people. The group has its own identity from the point of view of outsiders.

Primarygroups consist of a small number of people between whom stable emotional relationships are established, personal relationships based on their individual characteristics. Secondarygroups are formed from people between whom there is almost no emotional relationship, their interaction is due to the desire to achieve certain goals, their social roles, business relationships and ways of communication are clearly defined. In critical and emergency situations

In cations, people give preference to the primary group, show devotion to members of the primary group.

People join groups for a number of reasons:

The group acts as a means of biological survival;

As a means of socialization and formation of the human psyche;

As a way to perform certain work that cannot be done by one person (instrumental function of the group);

As a means of satisfying a person's need for communication, in an affectionate and benevolent attitude towards himself, in obtaining social approval, respect, recognition, trust (the expressive function of the group);

As a means of reducing unpleasant feelings of fear, anxiety;

As a means of information, material and other exchange.

There are several group types: 1) conditional and real; 2) permanent and temporary; 3) big and small.

Conditionalgroups people are united on a certain basis (sex, age, profession, etc.).

Real individuals included in such a group do not have direct interpersonal relationships, may not know anything about each other, even never meet each other.

Real groups people who really exist as communities in a certain space and time are characterized by the fact that its members are interconnected by objective relationships. Real human groups differ in size, external and internal organization, purpose and social significance. Contact group brings together people who have common goals and interests in a particular area of ​​life and activity.

Malaya Group- this is a fairly stable association of people connected by mutual contacts.

Small group - a small group of people (from 3 to 15 people) who are united by common social activities, are in direct communication, contribute to the emergence of emotional relationships, the development of group norms and the development of group processes.

With a larger number of people, the group, as a rule, is divided into subgroups. Features magroup loy: spatial and temporal co-presence of people. This co-presence of people enables contacts that include interactive, informational, perceptual aspects of communication and interaction. Perceptual aspects allow a person perceive the individuality of all other people in a group; and only in this case can we speak of a small group.

I - Interaction - the activity of everyone, it is both a stimulus and a reaction to everyone else.

II- Availability permanent goal joint activities.

III. Availability in the group organizing principle. It may or may not be personified in one of the members of the group (leader, manager), but this does not mean that there is no organizing principle. Just in In this case, the leadership function is distributed among group members and leadership is situation-specific (in a certain situation, a person who is more advanced in this area than others assumes the functions of a leader).

IV. Separation and differentiation of personal roles(division and cooperation of labor, power division, i.e., the activity of group members is not homogeneous, they make their own, different contribution to joint activities, play different roles).

v. Emotional relationships between group members, which affect group activity, can lead to the division of the group into subgroups, form the internal structure of interpersonal relations in the group.

VI. Working out specific group culture- norms, rules, standards of life, behavior that determine the expectations of group members in relation to each other And causing group dynamics.

These norms are the most important sign of group integrity.

Deviation from group standards, norms, as a rule, is allowed only to the leader.

The group has the following psychological characteristics: group interests, group needs, group opinions, group values, group norms, group goals.

The group has the following general patterns: 1) the group will inevitably be structured; 2) the group develops (progress or regression, but dynamic processes occur in the group); 3) fluctuation, a change in a person's place in a group can occur repeatedly.

According to psychological characteristics, there are: 1) groups membership; 2) reference groups(reference), the norms and rules of which serve as a model for the individual.

Reference groups can be real or imaginary, positive or negative, may or may not coincide with membership, but they perform the following functions: 1) social comparison, since the reference group is a source of positive and negative samples; 2) a normative function, since the reference group is a source of norms, rules, to which a person seeks to join.

According to the nature and forms of organization of activities, the following levels of development of contact groups are distinguished.

Unorganized (nominal groups, conglomerates) or by chance organized groups(viewers at the cinema, random members of excursion groups, etc.) are characterized by a voluntary temporary association of people based on the similarity of interests or common space.

Association- a group in which relationships are mediated only by personally significant goals (a group of friends, acquaintances).

Cooperation- a group that has a real operating organizational structure; interpersonal relationships are of a business nature, subject to the achievement of the required result in the performance of a specific task in certain form activities.

Corporation- this is a group united only by internal goals that do not go beyond its framework, striving to achieve its group goals at any cost, including at the expense of other groups. Sometimes a corporate spirit can take place in work or study groups, when the group acquires the features of group egoism.

Team- a time-stable organizational group of interacting people with specific governing bodies, united by the goals of joint socially useful activities and the complex dynamics of formal (business) and informal relationships between members of the group.

The team leader (manager) needs to know these roles well. These are: 1) a coordinator who is respected and knows how to work with people;

2) idea's generator, striving to get to the bottom of the truth, but most often he is not able to put his ideas into practice;

3) enthusiast, taking on a new business himself and inspiring others;

4) analyst controller, able to soberly assess the idea put forward. He is dutiful, but more often avoids people;

5) profit seeker, interested in the outside world. Executive and can be a good intermediary between people, since he is usually the most popular member of the team;

6) performer, who knows how to bring an idea to life, is capable of painstaking work, but often “drowns” in trifles;

7) hard worker, not seeking to take anyone's place;

8) grinder- it is necessary not to cross the last line.

Dynamic processes take place in groups:

Pressure on members of the group, contributing to their conformity and suggestibility;

Formation of social roles, distribution of group roles;

Changing Member Activity: Phenomena Possible facilitations- strengthening of human energy in the presence of other people; phenomena inhibition- inhibition of behavior and activities under the influence of other people, deterioration of well-being and results of a person's activities in a situation where other people are watching him;

Changing opinions, assessments, norms of behavior of group members: a phenomenon "group normalization" - the formation of an average group standard-norm;

Phenomenon "group polarization", "extreyashzation"- the approach of the general group opinion to some pole of the continuum of all group opinions, often a “shift to risk”, when a group decision is more risky than an individual decision;

Competition as a kind of social interaction- a vivid example of social facilitation, improving the performance of people in the presence and comparison with each other. But social facilitation manifests itself when the personal efforts of each person can be evaluated individually.

The strength of any team is its cohesion.

Largelythe cohesion of the team depends on the stage of its development, from maturity stage. Psychologists distinguish five such stages.

The first stage is called "lapping". At this stage, people are still looking at each other, deciding whether they are on the same path with the rest, trying to show their "I". Interaction occurs in familiar forms in the absence of collective creativity. The leader plays a decisive role in uniting the group at this stage.

Second stage team development - "conflict" - is characterized by the fact that clans and groups are openly formed within its framework, disagreements are openly expressed, the strengths and weaknesses of individuals come out, personal relationships become important. A power struggle for leadership and a search for compromises between the warring parties begins. At this stage, there may be opposition between the leader and individual subordinates.

At the third stage - experimentation stages - the potential of the team increases, but it often works in jerks, so there is a desire and interest to work better, by other methods and means.

At the fourth stage, the team gains experience in successfully solving problems, to which they fit from on the one hand, realistically, and on the other hand, creatively. Depending on the situation, the functions of a leader in such a team are transferred from one of its members to another, each of which is proud of its belonging to it.

On the last - fifth - stages within the team formedstrong ties people are accepted and appreciated, and personal differences between them are quickly eliminated. Relationships are formed mostly informally, which allows demonstrating high performance and standards of behavior. Not all teams reach the highest (4, 5) levels.