The tasks make it possible to find out whether the child's thinking is set to single out the objectively basic, essential, main thing in the information with which he has to deal, or, on the contrary, the selection of objectively important properties from all the others is not yet characteristic of the child's thinking, all properties are perceived by him as equivalent and important in this or that case, any of them may seem to him, regardless of its objective significance.
Weak level. These children do not understand the main meaning of the teacher's story or the text of the textbook, if it is not somehow specially highlighted, underlined. They cannot isolate the main idea from the secondary, clarifying and supplementing information. And the more wordy the explanations, the more likely they will not understand anything at all. They can remember individual moments from what they heard or read, but, having “added up” them, they will endure something completely different from what the author wanted to say. If, in order to improve their understanding, they constantly receive texts where the main thoughts are underlined, then they will never learn to analyze them on their own. Therefore, they need to be specially taught to analyze, to distinguish the main from the secondary, to understand the essence of what is contained in the text. First, it is necessary to activate the prerequisites for conceptual intuitive thinking in a visual-effective way, so that the child can practically feel the difference between the main and secondary properties, making groupings and removing "extra" pictures. He must accompany his actions with explanations of why he does this, it is necessary to discuss with him which grouping is correct and which is not, and why. Formal graphic and geometric images cannot be used as stimulus material, since their properties are not divided into essential and non-essential. It is better to use pictures with natural objects (plants, animals, etc.). Then you can offer children plot pictures so that they come up with names for them or briefly talk about what they are talking about, sorting out what is important in the picture and what is not. And only then can one proceed to the analysis of short texts and to the work that is recommended at an average level of development of conceptual thinking.
Average level
development of speech conceptual intuitive thinking. It indicates that the child perceives the content of the text mainly figuratively and cannot clearly distinguish its meaning. He seems to feel what it is about, but he cannot say. If the child is accustomed to conscientiously prepare lessons, then the negative consequences may be imperceptible and minimal for quite a long time. Usually a child cannot formulate his thought briefly, give a clear answer, draw up a plan or outline of a story, or title a text. He memorizes oral subjects and retells close to the text, but he cannot state the content in his own words and finds it difficult to answer questions. In the upper grades, there are insurmountable difficulties in studying in all subjects that cannot be memorized, and overall academic performance falls. To avoid this, it is necessary to change the way the child prepares oral lessons. Literal retelling should be completely excluded. When reading the text, the child must learn to highlight the meaning of each paragraph and formulate it in one sentence, always in his own words. (At first, he can only find a sentence in the text that reflects the main idea.)
Good level. Conceptual intuitive thinking in terms of speech is well developed. To work out the semantic perception of the text and further develop conceptual thinking, you can follow the tactics of doing homework and answering the questions described above, any extra work not required. If the child does not understand something or finds it difficult to answer the question, then the reason for this is most likely a lack of general awareness or gaps in knowledge on some specific topics. If, in order to maintain high academic performance, a child increasingly uses literal memorization of information, then a reverse restructuring in the functioning of the intellect and some degradation of conceptual thinking may occur.
High level development of speech conceptual intuitive thinking. The child always tries to find the meaning of the perceived information and knows how to do it. Due to the high level of development of this type of thinking up to grades 7-9, almost complete compensation for the underdevelopment of the remaining components of conceptual thinking, understanding of the subjects of the school cycle and good academic performance can be provided.
Conceptual logical thinking
The tasks of the subtest are aimed at finding out whether the child can see the meaning of the rule, formula, and apply them correctly. Can he use the acquired intellectual skills, mastered methods of work in similar, similar situations, and also where their partial transformation is required. Does he see causal and other relationships between phenomena, the logic of evidence (or perceives any verbal constructions as simple descriptions and stories).
Weak level. If conceptual intuitive thinking is well developed, then academic performance may not suffer, although it may be uneven. But if it is developed moderately (or poorly), then problems will grow like an avalanche. A child may know all the rules, but write with errors. If visual thinking is not developed, then, knowing the formulas, he, nevertheless, will not be able to solve problems and examples until he is told how to act. Soon all subjects will become incomprehensible, even if he continues to teach them. In this case, it is necessary to start with the development of conceptual intuitive thinking, excluding all sorts of cramming, including the memorization of rules and formulas. Any work the child should begin not with enumeration of formulas and rules, but with an analysis of the problem, the principle that is used in the task. First, in the reasoning, reveal the essence of the connection, symbolically or verbally fixed in them, and then "repeat" it when performing the task itself or inventing examples for this rule. The child should not do anything “automatically”, without reasoning. If (as happens with MMD) it is difficult for a child to keep in memory the sequence of his own reasoning, it is necessary to teach him ways of external fixation of the algorithm of activity, using drawings, symbols, logical schemes. Similar schemes can be used to analyze the logic of the presentation of material in texts on history, biology, etc., so that the child sees the connections and steps leading to certain conclusions.
Average level indicates that the basic mechanism of thinking that makes full-fledged learning possible is already in place, but it needs to be strengthened. Now the child is able to understand the essence of the formulas and rules that he is taught to use in the classroom, as well as the meaning of the laws, the relationships between the phenomena of the world around him, which he learns about, comprehending the basics of science. The main thing is that he constantly use reasoning, comprehension, and not be limited to what is more familiar and easier for him: to memorize and retell. If a child begins to memorize everything, then the use of memory begins to significantly prevail over thinking, and the development of thinking is suppressed. The child can learn to think. Conceptual degradation logical thinking often occurs when the main attention begins to be given to learning foreign languages, and everything else is considered less important. At the same time, overall performance, including in foreign languages, is declining quite rapidly. There are no subjects that can be simply learned. When children are convinced of this from their own experience, it is already too late. To prevent this from happening, it is useful to teach children to use reference diagrams, tables to analyze the content of a lesson or paragraph, to visualize the essence of the topic under study.
Good level indicates that the child perceives any texts meaningfully, although he does not specifically tune in to such perception. Reading or listening, he follows the logic of the presentation, the sequence of ongoing changes, is able to highlight the internal structure of the text, place semantic accents. The child is happy to master the use of reference diagrams, tables, with which he must be introduced. In the generalizing classes, he must be taught to comprehend and systematize the material, to highlight its internal through logic. good development speech conceptual logical thinking can partially compensate for shortcomings in the development of abstract thinking, ensuring good academic performance not only in the natural sciences, but also in mathematics up to grades 7-9, but no further.
High level development. The child should be provided with real scientific information (not that contained in school textbooks) so that he can use his intellectual abilities to the fullest.
Conceptual categorization
The tasks are aimed at finding out whether the child's thinking unit has grown larger, whether he operates with classes or, as before, with separate objects. Whether the assignment of an object to one category or another, the definition of its genus-species affiliation, has become a special and automatically performed operation.
Weak level testifies to the inferiority of conceptual thinking even in the case when its intuitive and logical forms are well developed. However, the child may not experience any special problems in learning. Sometimes it is more difficult to achieve good writing. It may not be easy to study biology and chemistry, the child will not be able to learn two or three foreign languages (although one may know remarkably), holistic ideas about the sciences being studied will not be formed. Sometimes conceptual categorization can develop with a child's special interest in botany, zoology, as well as with the sequential study of two foreign languages using logically structuring methods. If it turns out that conceptual logical thinking is also at a weak level, then the inability to categorize puts the final limit on its development, conceptual thinking remains at the level of intuitive with all the negative consequences that follow from this (of course, if appropriate measures are not taken).
Average level development. There is an opportunity to develop a full-fledged conceptual thinking. If this does not happen, then the child may have only some difficulties in learning a second foreign language: either he will not learn, or the first language will be forgotten. Active knowledge of two foreign languages at the same time can be given only with great difficulty. There may not be a holistic view of the sciences being studied. No other negative effects on schooling were observed. If the average level of development of categorization is combined with a weak level of the conceptual logical component, then full-fledged thinking does not develop without special classes and remains predominantly intuitive.
Good level. Given the same development of the intuitive and logical components, one can state the usefulness of conceptual (or emerging natural science) thinking. With minimal effort, the development of the logical component is also possible, if it has not yet reached a good level. It is possible to develop structural and linguistic abilities that provide active knowledge of many foreign languages at the same time.
High level development of the operation of conceptual categorization. The child has the capabilities described for the previous level to a somewhat greater extent.
Abstract thinking
The initial stage in the formation of abstract thinking is measured - the ability to identify interval dependences of the patterns of decreasing, increasing, cyclical sequences and to operate in the mind with selected relationships (and not numbers!), Distracted from specific numerical values.
Weak level development of abstract thinking. It indicates that the child operates only with specific (qualitatively represented) images, objects or their properties and is not yet able to single out and operate with their relations. If conceptual or visual thinking is well developed, then learning problems over the next 3-4 years can be very minor. The child will not be able to solve problems by "estimating", highlighting the algorithm and evaluating the order of the numerical result, and problems "in general form", when the condition is given not in a numerical, but in a letter (symbolic) version (this is not required in general educational programs). the subject through which abstract thinking develops is mathematics.When children neglect mathematics, they sharply limit their opportunities in the future, in adulthood.Including the desire to speak several foreign languages \u200b\u200bmay not be feasible, despite the fact that the child will study at the gymnasium where they are taught.
Average level development of abstract thinking. In the presence of developed conceptual thinking, it indicates that the basis for the formation of abstract thinking already exists. If a child pays as much attention to mathematics in high school as in elementary grades, then full-fledged abstract thinking will gradually develop. Parents are advised only to control their studies and help in time if any problems arise. If conceptual thinking is not sufficiently developed or its logical component is at a weak level, then even with successful mastery of mathematics, only limited computing abilities are formed. They make it easy to perform various calculations, learn new computational techniques, but do not master new areas of knowledge. If the intuitive and logical components of conceptual thinking are developed, and only the operation of categorization is weakly expressed, then in the process of the formation of abstract thinking, its development can also be stimulated.
Good level development of abstract thinking. In the presence of developed conceptual thinking, it indicates the formation of a higher level of intelligence. The child should be provided with opportunities for multidirectional intellectual activity in order to ensure the further harmonious development of abilities. Higher level gymnasium education is recommended. If conceptual thinking is weak (especially its logical component), but visual intelligence is well (or highly) developed, then the formation of limited mathematical abilities is possible. At the same time, the development of conceptual thinking, abilities for the humanities and natural sciences can be finally suppressed.
High level development testifies to the outstanding intellectual potential of the child. It is recommended to study in physical and mathematical schools, study
several foreign languages.
Test of independent thinking.
Weak level A child can act only when, immediately before work, he receives detailed instructions exactly how to act. If he was told what to do, but not explained how to do it, then he will not be able to do the job. The child may not experience any difficulties if the task literally repeats the algorithm of some activity that he performed recently (for example, at home, you need to solve examples similar to those that he did at school). If some changes are made to the way of working, then the child may no longer be able to cope. If he encounters any difficulties, he usually does not try to figure it out on his own, but seeks help from adults or classmates.
Average level independence of thought. The child needs advance instructions, although he is not completely helpless. If a clear algorithm is not given, then for some time he may try to independently find a way to act. However, he often tries to remember where he came across similar tasks, rather than follow the path of logical reasoning. Usually a child can recall a limited set of algorithms that he often uses. If one of them is suitable, then the child copes with the task. If among them; there is not one suitable one, the child still uses one of these algorithms - and does the job incorrectly. If he has the opportunity to compare the received answer with the one that should turn out, then, seeing the discrepancy, he turns to adults for help, but he no longer tries to decide on his own.
Good level development of independence of thought. If the child does not immediately see how to perform this or that task, then, remembering and reasoning, he can independently find an adequate algorithm. It applies only adequate algorithms, sees when there is no complete match, and tries to find the right one. He rarely asks for help, because he usually does not need it. If the activity does not require anything fundamentally new from him, then he copes with it. If a child often asks for help, then you need to look for gaps in knowledge or in general awareness.
High level independence of thought. The child has completely mastered his intellectual operations. Usually immediately sees which course of action to use
If the basic operations of thinking have already taken shape, but the child does not know how to use them, then he must be taught in the following way. First, you should reassure the child, explaining to him that the further, the more often he will encounter situations where it will not immediately be clear what and how to do. No need to be scared and immediately run to your parents for help, but you need to learn to reason and independently find suitable methods of solutions. You have to learn how to use reference books. When a task is not solved, it is not worth convulsively recalling specific formulas, it is better to analyze what topics are viewed in it or what type it can be attributed to. After that, you should look at the relevant sections in the textbook or in a notebook, try on the methods of action described there to solve your problem. Thirdly, it must be explained that nothing fundamentally new is given in homework assignments. Something similar was always done at school in the classroom, therefore, somewhere in his notebooks or in the textbook he has everything he needs. You just need to browse and search. And if he does not know how to approach the problem, then it needs to apply not only the formulas that they used in class today (he most likely remembers them well), but something that they did before, and he just forgot about it. Parents can encourage the child in the process of searching, but do not rush to explain or prompt.
Test divergent thinking
Often this property is defined as the flexibility of thinking, "the ability to apply a variety of approaches and strategies in solving problems, the willingness and ability to consider the available information from different points of view"
Divergent thinking develops better when a child is engaged in technical creativity circles than in art studios and humanitarian circles.
Weak level. Thinking is convergent, linear. The child cannot get out of the habitual patterns of thinking, look at the situation in a new way. He is "convinced that every task has only one correct solution(one way and one answer). Always aiming for that (preset) correct result, unable to try and vary various options decisions, activity algorithms.
Average level. We can talk about the initial level of development of divergent thinking, but in this version it is still rarely used by the child in his Everyday life or when he does his homework. Divergent thinking is easy to develop, but takes time to develop.
Good level development of divergent thinking. The child is ready to experiment and can find fundamentally new solutions, but mostly only when such a task comes close to him.
High level development of divergent thinking. The child immediately sees not one, but several possible approaches to solving any problem or a specific problem. The work usually consists of evaluating and choosing the best (convenient, short, "beautiful", etc.) solution.
visual thinking
This type of thinking should not be identified with visual-figurative thinking. A person thinks visually when he deals with information that is holistically presented directly in front of his eyes, and not in his mind, when he sees patterns (perhaps without realizing them) and performs only transformations that are permissible by this perceived structure. If a child has not developed visual thinking, he, even having high verbal abilities, will begin to experience difficulties in the lessons of mathematics, physics, and drawing.
Having a strong visual intelligence often enables a child to successfully cope with the secondary school curriculum and thus maintain an impression of complete well-being. However, the compensatory possibilities are completely exhausted by grade 9, and if the missing components of conceptual and abstract thinking are not formed in advance (in grades 5-6), then it will be impossible to save the student from problems in the senior grades.
Linear Visual Thinking
Linear visual thinking characterizes the initial stage in the development of visual intelligence. It allows you to carry out in the mind (but based on direct visual perception) operations of comparing various images and their details, as well as continue, supplement and restore images from their fragments. Thus, linear visual thinking allows you to carry out operations that cannot be implemented, remaining only within the framework of visual perception.
Weak level development of linear visual thinking. Attempts to use drawings, diagrams and other graphic aids in explaining the lessons will not be successful, since they are in themselves incomprehensible to the child (misunderstanding does not apply to subject and plot images that carry figuratively perceived content). The child must be taught to understand the drawings and schematic drawings with the help of speech reasoning. The child will have difficulty analyzing simple schematic drawings where the visual information is not explicitly systematized. It will be difficult for him to single out some parts, correlate them, trace dependencies, restore a partially disturbed image, mentally supplement hidden details, independently present and depict information in the form of a drawing or a schematic drawing.
Average level development of visual linear thinking. The child can understand the meaning of a schematic drawing that explains the conditions of the problem or the presentation of textual material, but finds it difficult to translate verbal information into visual-graphic information. This is what he needs to do as much as possible, helping himself with reasoning, otherwise difficulties with the simplest types of graphical analysis will be accompanied by a delay in the formation of visual intelligence as a whole.
Good and high levels development of visual linear thinking. The child easily uses auxiliary graphic material, can consciously resort to drawings in order to better understand the information. If he has difficulty analyzing any schematic images, then the reason is not in the weakness of visual thinking, but in ignorance of the material itself.
Structural Visual Thinking
Structural visual thinking allows you to see the simplest regular relationships in the organization of image elements (“see” the structure) and operate with these patterns, transfer them within the framework of this structure, that is, think by analogy. The difference between the tasks of this series and the previous one is that it is required to “duplicate” the principle of connection between the elements, and not the elements themselves.
Weak level development of structural visual thinking. The child cannot be distracted from graphic image as such, and sees not the regularities for the explanation of which the drawing is used, but the drawing itself. If the image accurately, although schematically conveys the content of the text, then the child can understand it. If connections, relationships are graphically highlighted, then the picture becomes incomprehensible. In this case, the use of figures should be preceded by reasoning. Pay more attention to the construction of drawings for tasks. Any graphic work should be preceded and accompanied by speech reasoning.
Pelageina G.I.
Development of conceptual thinking of younger schoolchildren.
A feature of the development of the cognitive sphere of children of primary school age is the transition of cognitive mental processes child to a higher level. During this period, all spheres of the child's personality are qualitatively changed and rebuilt. This restructuring begins with the intellectual sphere, primarily with thinking. In the requirements of new educational standards, one of the urgent tasks is the formation of conceptual thinking
A child is not born with a developed conceptual thinking, it does not mature on its own as it grows up. As shown by L.S. Vygotsky, conceptual thinking is formed in the process of learning, when the child has to master scientific concepts, when he is taught this in elementary school.
From the standpoint of a system-activity approach to teaching, the indicator of a student’s possession of conceptual thinking is not only knowledge of a large number of concepts, but his ability to work with any concept (O.M. Kolomiets), the ability to activate search activity in a problem situation, to structure the acquired knowledge. The child's transition from describing the properties of an individual object to finding and identifying them in a whole class of similar objects, correlating them with distinguished features that are common to a number of phenomena leads to the mastery of a word-term, a concept. The concept is abstracted from individual traits and signs of individual perceptions and ideas and is thus the result of a generalization of perceptions and ideas of a very large number of homogeneous phenomena and objects. As a result of this activity, the student develops a psychological orientation in terms of:
How and what concept in what place of the practical task and by what aspect (attribute, combination of attributes or connection) can be updated;
What is the structure and content of a single concept;
What external backbone links unite separate concepts into a coherent system;
In what subordination are the concepts to each other, are there system-forming connections between them or not, i.e. concepts belong to different areas, etc.
The cognitive development of a schoolchild, the formation of cognitive, regulative, personal and communicative universal educational actions depends on the formation of the foundations of operational, conceptual, theoretical thinking.
However, many children of primary school age have an insufficient level of formation of conceptual thinking, vocabulary is poor. There are also migrant children and children with bilingualism among the students of schools in which this program has been tested, with an average and low rate of adaptation. All of them have a low level of intellectual development, verbal intelligence. Despite the fact that many of them grew up in an environment where there was bilingualism, the assimilation of scientific information is very difficult for them, there are difficulties in learning, serious problems in adaptation.
We believe that conceptual thinking is the main psychological characteristic, the presence of which, with other developmental deficiencies, including serious physiological and neurological defects, provides the possibility of learning, and the shortcomings of its formation, with other developmental advantages, gradually complicate learning and, as a result, make it impossible. Moreover, our practice has shown that the emotional and personal problems of schoolchildren (anxiety, low self-esteem, disruption of relationships in the family and the classroom team, unwillingness to study) in most cases are secondary formations that arise when difficulties arise in learning and are strengthened as a result of unsuccessful educational activities.
That is why correctional and developmental work with younger students who experience difficulties in learning and development is so relevant.
The developed correctional and developmental program "Development" consists of:
Part 1. Introductory.
The purpose of the introductory part of the lesson is to set up the group for joint work, to establish emotional contact between all participants. The main work procedures are greetings, exercises to improve brain activity.
Part 2. Main.
This part accounts for the main semantic load of the entire lesson. It includes tasks, exercises, games aimed at developing personal, regulatory, cognitive, communicative UUD.
Part 3. Final.
The task of the final part of the lesson is to sum up the results of the lesson, discuss the results of the students' work and the difficulties that they encountered when completing the assignments. The essential point here is the students' answers to the question of what they did and what they learned in this lesson.
The tasks presented in the classroom allow solving all three aspects of the educational goal: cognitive, developing and educating.
Cognitive aspect
the formation and development of various types of memory, attention, imagination.
the formation and development of general educational skills and abilities (the ability to independently work with a book at a given pace, the ability to control and evaluate their work).
Developmental aspect
The development of speech when working on a word, phrase, sentence.
The development of thinking during the assimilation by children of such methods of mental activity as the ability to analyze, compare, synthesize, generalize, highlight the main thing, prove and refute.
The development of the sensory sphere of children (eye, small muscles of the hands).
Development of the motor sphere.
Educational aspect
Education of the system of moral interpersonal relations (formation of "I-concept")
In order to achieve positive results in working with children with developmental disabilities, various methods, techniques and techniques are combined: tasks, games, visualization, practical work of children. The content of the classes is reflected in the thematic plan, they include tasks:
On the development of thinking (non-verbal, verbal, mathematical aspect of logical thinking)
To develop the ability to analyze, synthesize, classify
On the development of cognitive aspects: attention, memory, speech, vocabulary, etc.
Allowing to use the resources of visual and kinesthetic channels of perception of information, due to which a high level of understanding of the studied material is achieved (“Euler circles”, “arranging in the correct order”, compiling a semantic chain, logical chains, recoding information, etc.
The "Development" program became the winner of the regional competition of psychological and pedagogical programs.
Tasks of the 2nd subtest are aimed at assessing the development of conceptual thinking operations based on intuitive analysis. These operations characterize the ability to see, highlight the main, significant, main thing in descriptive, unstructured material, understand the inner meaning of statements, messages, separate essential, constant properties, characteristics of objects and phenomena from "external", minor ones. The presence of conceptual intuitive thinking is necessary in order to use scientific, theoretical knowledge in practical life. It is necessary for the development of subjects of humanitarian, social science and natural profiles (literature, history, philosophy, jurisprudence, geography, biology). This intelligent operation is based on intuitive analysis. Mental activity consists in the fact that a person gradually, as it were, clears information from everything secondary, superficial, superfluous, cuts off, discards everything unnecessary and leaves only its essence. Usually, a person is not aware of the principle on the basis of which he acts when he "cleanses" information, makes a decision or draws a conclusion. He simply feels, knows that this is the main thing, that this is how it will be right, and basically he is not mistaken.
Key to subtest 2: 5, 5, 2, 3, 5, 4, 2, 5,4,2,2.1,1, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3.
Zone 1
Weak level of development of conceptual intuitive thinking. This level is typical for teenagers who early childhood suffered from stuttering and, accordingly, had complications in speech development. It is these basic operations of conceptual thinking that turn out to be undeveloped in verbal terms, and the subsequent levels (categorization, thinking by analogy) can develop normally. Such an "anomaly" of development is also found in extreme visuals. In extreme kinesthetics, verbal conceptual thinking more often turns out to be generally poorly developed, i.e. a weak level is also characteristic of its other two components. In any case, these teenagers will not understand the main meaning from the teacher's story or from the text of the textbook, unless it is specially emphasized in some way. They will not be able to extract the main idea from the secondary, clarifying and supplementing information. And the more verbose the explanations, the more likely it is that such students will not understand anything at all. They can remember individual moments from what they heard or read, but, having “added up” them, they will endure something completely different from what the author wanted to say. If they constantly receive texts where the main ideas are specially emphasized to improve their understanding, they will never learn to single them out on their own. Therefore, they need to be taught this.
The meaning of the help is not to “train” a teenager to complete tasks with the exception of an extra word, which is what psychologists most often do, but to teach him, while reasoning, to highlight the main thing, to understand the main thoughts contained in the text. Work should begin with small texts (1-1.5 pages), consisting of 5-7 paragraphs. (It is advisable to use texts given at home on oral subjects so that the teenager does not have to do extra work). Each paragraph in the text usually represents an independent semantic unit, with a new paragraph a new thought begins. A teenager must be taught to highlight the meaning of each paragraph and formulate it in one sentence, always in your own words. (At first, he can only find a sentence in the text that reflects the main idea of \u200b\u200beach paragraph.) You can conduct additional classes using short literary texts, for which the teenager must choose the most appropriate title or come up with it himself, but it is better to use texts from history textbooks , biology, geography, chemistry, etc. It is thanks to the variety of material with which the adolescent works that the operational unity of the activity itself is more quickly distinguished, i.e. thinking develops. Otherwise, a private skill is formed, which can be used by a teenager only on the material on which it was practiced. When there is progress in highlighting the main thoughts in texts by a teenager, then one should proceed to work that is recommended for an average level of development of conceptual intuitive thinking.
Zone 2
The average level of development of speech conceptual intuitive thinking indicates that the adolescent still predominantly perceives the content of the text figuratively and is not able to accurately characterize its meaning. He seems to feel what he is talking about, but he cannot formulate clearly and briefly, but uses a description, i.e. just retelling. If the student is accustomed to conscientiously prepare lessons, then the negative consequences for a long time can be invisible and minimal. Difficulties are limited to the fact that a teenager cannot briefly formulate his thought, give a clear answer, draw up a plan or outline of a story, and title the text. He memorizes oral subjects and retells close to the text, but he cannot express the content in his own words and finds it difficult to answer questions. Usually, the development of independent thinking is also inhibited. To avoid this, it is necessary to change the way the student prepares oral lessons. Literal retellings of texts should be completely excluded. A teenager should get used to the following technology for preparing oral lessons: first read the questions to the paragraph and only then begin to get acquainted with the content. The very first acquaintance with the text should be aimed at finding answers to questions, and not memorizing it for later retelling. The student must answer the questions in his own words, substantiating and proving his understanding, and not by retelling the corresponding section of the text. It is necessary to teach a teenager to answer the question not immediately, as if “dumping out” everything that pops up in his head on this matter, but first to single out and formulate the main thing in the question and only then look for response information that reflects this. Only in this case, thinking will be involved and will develop.
Zone 3
Conceptual intuitive thinking in terms of speech is well developed. It is possible to work out the semantic perception of the text and further develop conceptual thinking to follow the tactics of doing homework and answering the questions described above (no additional work is required). If the child does not understand something or finds it difficult to answer the question, then the reason for this is most likely a lack of general awareness or gaps in knowledge on some specific topics. If a child increasingly uses literal memorization of information to maintain high academic performance, then a reverse restructuring in the functioning of the intellect and some degradation of conceptual thinking may occur.
Zone 4
High level of development of speech conceptual intuitive thinking. A teenager easily highlights the essence in the extensively presented, descriptive information. He is interested in such subjects as literature, history, philosophy. Usually he has his own opinion on various issues of a cultural and historical nature. It is possible that its level fluctuates between high and good, but degradation is extremely unlikely. It can be provided (up to grade 9) with almost complete compensation for the underdevelopment of the remaining components of conceptual thinking, understanding of the subjects of the school cycle, and good academic performance.
Subtest 3. Conceptual logical thinking
Tasks of the 3rd subtest measure the development of conceptual logical thinking operations. They characterize the ability to identify objective patterns, connections between the phenomena of the surrounding world, allow you to see the internal logic in the sequence of events, ongoing changes, and isolate activity algorithms. Thanks to these operations, abilities are formed that make it possible to understand the logic of evidence, the meaning of formulas, rules, the scope of their application; generalize and partially transform their own knowledge and experience, transfer them, use them in other, similar life or educational situations; "throw" logical bridges with a lack of information or gaps in knowledge, as a result of which the possibility of understanding the general meaning of the message remains. Conceptual logical thinking characterizes the general ability to learn, can compensate for the shortcomings in the development of any intellectual operations, provide an understanding of any tasks, problems and scientific constructions through reasoning. It is necessary for the study of natural and physical and mathematical sciences. It is fully conscious, has operational reversibility. It is used to search for cause-and-effect relationships, highlight a logical sequence in the presentation of information, prove and substantiate intuitive guesses, logically verify conclusions, link scientific constructions. To understand, explain or prove, the method of analogies is widely used.
Key to subtest 3: 5, 2, 3, 5, 1, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 3, 4, 2, 4, 3, 4, 3, 3, 3, 4
Zone 1
Weak level of development of conceptual logical thinking. Such a result is rare in gymnasium students, but often in secondary schools. (If intuitive conceptual thinking is well developed, then the academic performance of a general education school student may not suffer, although it may be uneven.) If conceptual logical thinking is not developed, then the student may know all the rules, but write with errors. If visual thinking is not developed, then, knowing the formulas, he, nevertheless, will not be able to solve problems and examples until he is told how to act. In order to develop conceptual logical thinking, it is necessary that a teenager begin any work not with enumeration of formulas and rules, but with an analysis of the problem, the principle that is used in the task. Further, in order to use formulas and rules, he must first in the reasoning reveal the essence of the connection, symbolically or verbally fixed in them, and then “repeat” it when performing the task itself, or inventing examples for this rule. That is, a teenager must transfer invisible and unconscious connections through reasoning into a conscious plane and learn to see them, apply them, and transfer them to another situation. At the same time, it is necessary to assess the degree of similarity of the situation, isolating in it internal structural dependencies, connections that remain identical, despite external changes. A teenager should not do anything “automatically”, without reasoning. If it is difficult for him to keep in his memory the sequence of his own reasoning, you need to teach him ways of external fixation of the algorithm of activity, using drawings, symbols, logical schemes. Similar schemes can be used to analyze the sequence of presentation of material in texts on history, biology, etc., so that the student identifies and sees connections and steps leading to certain conclusions.
Zone 2
The average level of development of conceptual thinking in speech terms. Indicates that the basic mechanism of thinking that makes full learning possible already exists, but it needs to be strengthened. Now the student is able to understand the essence of the formulas and rules that he is taught to use in the lessons, as well as the meaning of the laws, the relationships between the phenomena of the world around him, which he learns about, comprehending the basics of science. The main thing is that a teenager constantly use reasoning, comprehend the material, and not be limited to what is more familiar and easier for him: to memorize and retell. In grades 5-7, new subjects appeared in which, according to adults, there is nothing to understand, which only need to be taught (for example, history, geography, biology, a second foreign language). If a child, following the recommendations of elders, really begins to memorize everything, then the use of simple memory begins to significantly prevail over thinking, and the development of thinking is suppressed. The student can unlearn how to think. The degradation of conceptual logical thinking often occurs when the main attention begins to be paid to learning foreign languages, and everything else is considered less important. At the same time, overall performance, including in foreign languages, is declining quite rapidly. There are no subjects that can be simply learned. When students are convinced of this by their own experience, it is already too late. To prevent this from happening, it is useful to teach teenagers to use reference logic diagrams to analyze the content of a lesson, a paragraph. Schemes allow you to visually highlight the essence of the subject being studied, the topic. At the same time, as the operations of thinking themselves are practiced, so is the understanding of the material improved. Generalizing classes are very useful, during which a teenager learns to comprehend, connect several topics, highlighting the internal through logic inherent in science. Thus, he masters the intellectual operations of structuring and systematization.
Zone 3
Speech conceptual logical thinking is well developed. This means that the child perceives any texts meaningfully, although he does not specifically tune in to such perception. Reading or listening, he follows exactly the logic of presentation, the sequence of ongoing changes, is able to highlight the internal structure of the text, place semantic accents. The student is happy to master the use of reference logic circuits, with which he should be introduced. In generalizing classes, a teenager must be taught to comprehend and systematize the material, to highlight its internal through logic. Well-developed conceptual logical thinking can partially compensate for shortcomings in the development of abstract thinking, ensuring good academic performance not only in the natural sciences, but also in mathematics (up to grade 9, but no further).
Zone 4
High level of development of conceptual logical thinking. In this case, you should provide the teenager with real scientific information (and not the one contained in school textbooks) so that he can use his intellectual abilities to the fullest. Such a child often shows particular interest in the natural sciences. Often there may be inhibition of the development of abstract thinking. Under the condition of the development of visual intelligence, the underdevelopment of abstract thinking can be compensated, up to the 9th grade, ensuring success at the Olympiads not only in the natural sciences, but also in mathematics, as well as high academic performance. A teenager is able to study "excellent" in all
Subtest 4. Conceptual categorization.
Tasks of the 4th subtest reveal the development of the operation of conceptual categorization. These operations characterize the ability to form concepts, define specific phenomena within more general categories, systematize knowledge, generalize, structure descriptive, empirical material through the creation of objective classifications. With their help, the characteristic of a phenomenon, an object is given according to its genus and species, its position (place) in the system of objective knowledge is unambiguously determined, it becomes possible to predict in advance the entire range of its essential characteristics. If an individual has formed this operation, then the selection and assignment of an object to one category or another, the determination of its genus-specific affiliation becomes a “simple”, automatically performed action. The unit of thinking itself is also enlarged, a person begins to operate with classes, and not with individual objects. Thinking becomes multidimensional, complex (linearity and unidirectionality disappear), the ability to theoretical modeling is formed. This ability allows you to understand artificial systems (for example, programming languages), scientific constructions (for example, the periodic table of elements, determinants used in botany or archeology, etc.). It makes it easy to see and assimilate the system of "artificial" rules that operate in a certain area, characterizes the sense of the structure of the language (or structural-linguistic abilities).
Key to subtest 4: 36, 25, 46, 46, 36, 25, 24, 16, 15, 36, 26, 36, 16, 36, 24, 23, 26, 15, 14. 25.
Zone 1
The weak level of development of the operation of conceptual categorization indicates the inferiority of conceptual thinking even in the case when its intuitive and logical forms are well developed. However, a teenager may not experience any special problems in learning. Sometimes it is difficult to achieve literate writing, since it is this operation of thinking that underlies the structural-linguistic abilities that make it easy to assimilate language rules. It may not be easy to study certain sections of biology and chemistry. A teenager is not able to learn two or three foreign languages (although one may know very well), holistic ideas about the sciences being studied will not form, knowledge will be unsystematic. Sometimes conceptual categorization can develop with a child's special interest in botany, zoology, as well as with the sequential study of two foreign languages using logically structuring methods, when Special attention is given to the rules of language construction. If a foreign language is mastered mainly as a spoken language, then structural and linguistic abilities do not develop. If it turns out that the logical component of conceptual thinking is also at a weak level, then the inability to categorize puts the final limit on its development, conceptual thinking remains at the intuitive level with all its inherent limitations.
Zone 2
The average level of development of the operation of conceptual categorization. There is an opportunity to develop a full-fledged conceptual thinking. If this does not happen, then the teenager is likely to have only some difficulties in mastering two foreign languages: either the second one will not be “learned”, or the first one will be forgotten. Simultaneous active knowledge of two foreign languages can be given only with great difficulty. There may not be a holistic view of the sciences being studied. No other negative effects on schooling were observed. If combined with a weak level of the logical component, then full-fledged conceptual thinking does not develop without special studies and remains predominantly intuitive.
Zone 3
The operation of conceptual categorization is well developed. Subject to the same development of the intuitive and logical components, one can state the usefulness of conceptual thinking, which is necessary for the successful development of the natural sciences. It is also an absolutely necessary basis for the formation of a full-fledged abstract thinking. It becomes possible to develop structural and linguistic abilities that ensure the simultaneous active knowledge of many foreign languages. If only this component of conceptual thinking is developed, but the intuitive and logical ones are not developed, then specialization is possible in such activities where the main load falls on classifications (library and archiving, warehouse work, etc.)
Zone 4
High level of development of the operation of conceptual categorization. Subject to high (or good) performance in subtest 9, it is recommended to study foreign languages, with high (or good) mathematical abilities - programming. The presence of structural and linguistic abilities ensures competent writing (both in Russian and in foreign languages), knowledge of several foreign languages, as well as several programming languages, and speed of debugging programs. It ensures success in the social and natural sciences, where the operation of systematization plays a special role (history, archeology, botany, medicine, pharmacology, etc.).
Subtest 5. Mathematical intuition
Tasks of the 5th subtest are designed to assess the ability to assimilate and "automatically" use standard mathematical algorithms, or mathematical intuition. The presence of mathematical intuition allows a person to immediately see the type of problem and the method of solving it, apply adequate standard methods and operations where they are required, quickly make approximate calculations in the mind, and control the correctness of the results obtained by “estimating”. On its basis, the ability to “fold” standard mathematical algorithms is subsequently formed, the presence of which allows you to immediately see and report the result of a number of fairly complex computational operations (for example, a person can “take” an integral in his mind and immediately say the answer that is obtained as a result of transformations, occupying more than a page). This ability is a necessary component of mathematical intelligence. Required for the development of physical and mathematical sciences, as well as programming, economics and engineering professions.
The foundation of mathematical intuition begins to be laid in secondary school, for its development it requires conceptual and abstract thinking, it is formed if the student is intensively engaged in mathematics, solves a lot of problems and examples. Shortcomings in the development of conceptual and abstract thinking can be compensated for some time by visual intelligence (especially such a component as combinatorics, which is measured by the Raven D series of matrices). Mathematical intuition can also develop on the basis of visual intelligence, but its scope will not extend to algebra and higher mathematics; in the future, it is possible to master engineering and economic professions, but not programming; the physical and mathematical field of scientific knowledge will also be inaccessible.
Key to subtest 5: 35, 75, 4, 70, 30, 6, 15, 27, 23, 27, 80, 75, 128, 20, 34, 10, 39, 30, 6, 12.
Zone 1
Weak level of development of mathematical skills (lack of mathematical intuition). Usually associated with shortcomings in the development of abstract and conceptual thinking, or with a lack of practice in solving problems, and more often with both at the same time. When thinking is not sufficiently developed, the student experiences difficulties in solving problems and therefore few solve them independently. Naturally, in this case, mathematical skills are not formed, and mathematics is more and more difficult for a teenager. And here it is necessary to start with the development of thinking. If thinking is normal, then the student can solve problems within the framework of the school curriculum, but due to insufficient practice, he does not immediately see what type of problem and how to approach it. When doing homework, the lack of skills may not have a negative effect, since the speed of work is not important, and the result can almost always be checked by comparing it with the answer at the end of the problem book. But on tests or exams, when time is limited, the student may not have time to find a suitable solution, and, not having an answer to check, is unable to assess its correctness. Therefore, despite good intelligence, test scores will be significantly worse than the current ones. Such teenagers try to avoid tests in order to maintain good academic performance, but they just need to do their homework in mathematics more conscientiously. If the student independently solves many problems and examples, then he will not only master the typical methods for solving them, but he will begin to develop the very ability to instantly recognize (identify), collapse and automate standard algorithmic operations. Students in grades 7-8, intensively doing mathematics, solving problems, equations, inequalities (preferably with a tutor), can still achieve the development of mathematical intuition. If a weak level is diagnosed in students of grades 9-11, then nothing can be changed. Such teenagers should not choose further specialization of education related to mathematics, i.e. programming, economics, engineering activities.
Zone 2
The average level of development of mathematical skills, the initial stage of the formation of mathematical intuition. It is possible on the basis of good conceptual and average abstract thinking in the event that the student conscientiously performs practical tasks in mathematics, and can provide quite satisfactory, and often good, academic performance in mathematics in the general education program. Further development opportunities are associated with the formation of abstract thinking and with the intensification practical work mathematics. In this way, it is possible to activate the development of mathematical intuition not only in grades 7-8, but also in grades 9-11. High school students can study on their own, using problem books for applicants to universities, and only in particularly difficult cases, consulting a teacher. In our practice, such tactics helped achieve significant success even in the 11th grade, allowing teenagers to pass exams well and study further without problems in technical and economic universities.
Zone 3
A good level of development of mathematical skills, the formation of mathematical intuition. It is formed on the basis of well-developed conceptual and abstract thinking. Usually a student does exactly well (or excellent) in mathematics, takes part in olympiad works. Can handle advanced math programs. The possibilities of forming a full-fledged mathematical intelligence depend on the further development of abstract thinking and the preservation of the same intensity in the performance of practical tasks in mathematics.
Zone 4
High level of mathematical skills. Indicates the presence of mathematical intuition. Usually combined with a high (or good) level of development of abstract and conceptual thinking. Evidence of extraordinary mathematical abilities. Usually such teenagers have high scores in mathematics and participate in olympiad works. It is recommended to study at a school with in-depth study of mathematics.
With a good and high level of mathematical intuition (and developed abstract thinking), adolescents are recommended to choose further specialization of education related to mathematics, i.e. programming, economics, engineering activities.
Subtest 6. Abstract thinking
Tasks of the 6th subtest measure the development of formal logical thinking, the ability to operate with relationships, dependencies, regardless of the qualitative content of information, to perform various logical transformations of the operations themselves. The subtest can characterize three types of thinking, depending on what intellectual operations formal-logical thinking is built on (or what it symbolizes), what relationships a person learns to operate on.
On the basis of developed conceptual thinking, full-fledged abstract thinking can be formed, which raises the functioning of the intellect as a whole to a qualitatively higher level, a new, more perfect type of it arises. The owner of such intelligence receives significant advantages over other people. The speed and accuracy of information processing, penetration into its essence increase several times, since the very principle of its perception changes. In order to master any area of knowledge, a person with a "pre-abstract" type of intellect is forced to form a system of ideas about this area, then analyze it, generalize and thus highlight the patterns underlying it: a long period of accumulation of knowledge is always required, a lot of time is spent for its subsequent systematization. In the presence of abstract thinking, the accumulation of knowledge is not required to understand the essence, the system of patterns and relationships is captured as one becomes familiar with new information. The emerging understanding is immediately holistic and systemic, even if the information arrives chaotically. The very process of getting acquainted with the material takes place through the imposition of a natural “abstract” grid in the head of a person, which structures and systematizes any incoming information. Instead of several years of training, a few months are enough. The quality of education is also significantly improved. Thanks to abstract thinking, a person sees the incorrectness of constructions, logical inaccuracies and errors even in the process of mastering new areas of scientific or practical activity for him, which are not noticeable to specialists if they have not developed abstract thinking. (For example, schoolchildren who studied in the lower grades under the program of V.V. Davydov noticed incorrect definitions, logical errors in the evidence, contradictions in the presentation of the material contained in high school textbooks; all these defects were not visible to teachers, although they were no longer alone used these textbooks for a year). The presence of abstract thinking significantly expands the possibilities of a person in mastering any sciences and fields of activity, in solving life problems. He can simultaneously master several professions, quickly master newly emerging activities, work at the intersection of sciences, and interact productively with specialists of various profiles. So far, few people have reached such a level of development, although it is possible for everyone if, from the primary school, they are engaged in the formation of abstract thinking.
If a full-fledged conceptual thinking has not been formed, then on the basis of combinatorial thinking and mathematical intuition, specialized mathematical abilities can develop, which allow one to get a higher education in an engineering and economic profile and achieve high efficiency in the relevant fields of activity. These mathematical abilities do not expand the possibilities in mastering other sciences (social, natural, physical and mathematical, programming) or in solving life problems.
If only mathematical intuition is developed, then limited computing abilities are formed on its basis, allowing you to quickly perform various arithmetic calculations in your mind, “by estimate” to control the correctness of the final and intermediate results, to notice errors in calculations. Such abilities are sufficient for the work of an accountant, cashier, salesman, for performing engineering and technical calculations.
Whether or not abstract thinking develops largely depends on the elementary school math curriculum. When studying under the programs of V.V. Davydova and L.G. Peterson it develops. L.V. programs Zankov and N.A. Zaitsev can also sometimes stimulate its development. Abstract thinking never develops using the methods of the general educational program of elementary school (M.I. Moro and others). A limited natural arithmetic thinking may develop, allowing the child to study well until he encounters algebra that is no longer accessible to him.
The underdevelopment of abstract thinking does not allow one to master the physical and mathematical sciences and develop structural and linguistic abilities, but does not impose any more restrictions on intellectual pursuits. In the 70s of the last century, according to our data, only 10-12 percent of mathematicians, physicists, engineers and teachers of technical specialties of universities had developed abstract thinking. Now the situation has changed for the better, but, nevertheless, abstract thinking has not become the property of the entire population. It has (according to our data) about 25% of students in grades 10-11. For getting higher education in most professions and for occupation research activities in the humanities, social and natural sciences, developed abstract thinking is not required.
Key to subtest 6: 36, 19, 25, 20, 35, 13, 10, 38, 15, 39, 45, 68, 63, 12, 12, 15, 16, 90, 80, 14.
Zone 1
Weak level of development of abstract thinking. It indicates that the student operates only with specific (qualitatively represented) images, objects or their properties and is not yet able to single out relationships to such an extent as to operate with them. If conceptual or visual thinking is well developed, then learning problems in high school can be quite minor. A teenager will not be able to solve problems in a “guess”, highlighting the algorithm and evaluating the order of the numerical result, and problems “in general form”, when the condition is given in a literal (symbolic) version, and not with numbers. Under general education programs, this is not required of him. Significant difficulties can arise only when mastering algebra and solving problems in physics. If conceptual thinking is at a weak level, then it will not be possible to develop abstract thinking. If the student, despite the poor results in the 6th subtest, did the tasks of the 5th subtest well, then he has naturally formed arithmetic thinking and the simplest counting abilities. You can choose the professions of a cashier, a salesman (subject to the presence of arbitrary attention), but not a programmer, economist, engineer, since such a future student will not be able to master algebra and higher mathematics. With an average level of conceptual thinking and a good (or high) visual one, the probability of developing formal-logical (but not abstract) thinking increases significantly. If the indicators of conceptual and visual thinking are at a good (or high) level, it is imperative to develop abstract thinking. It develops with intensive studies in algebra and physics. The student must get used to solving any task first with an “estimate”, and also learn to solve problems “in a general way”. A logical solution using symbolic notation must precede numerical substitutions for which zones (or a set) are actually predefined possible solutions. It is very important in grades 7-9 to learn meaningful (that is, with a preliminary "estimate") the implementation of algebraic transformations when solving equations and inequalities. Mathematics is the school subject, thanks to which abstract thinking develops. (Not without reason the ancient Greeks said that mathematics is gymnastics for the mind.) When students (often with parental consent) neglect mathematics, deciding to specialize in the humanities, they severely limit their opportunities in the future, in adulthood. In particular, the desire to speak several foreign languages may be unrealistic, despite the fact that the teenager will study at the gymnasium where they are taught.
Zone 2
The average level of development of abstract thinking. In the presence of a well-developed conceptual thinking, it indicates that the basis for the formation of abstract thinking already exists. If a student pays as much attention to mathematics (especially algebra) in high school as before, then full-fledged abstract thinking will gradually develop. Parents are advised only to control their studies and help in time if any problems arise. If conceptual thinking is not sufficiently developed, or the logical component is at a weak level, then even with successful mastery of mathematics, only limited computing abilities are formed. They make it easy to perform various calculations, learn new computational techniques, but do not master new areas of knowledge. If the intuitive and logical components of conceptual thinking are developed, and only the operation of categorization is weakly expressed, then in the process of the formation of abstract thinking, its development can also be stimulated.
If students in grades 10-11 are diagnosed with fully developed conceptual thinking, and abstract thinking is close to the lower limit of the average level, then it is very likely that the latter is not developed at all. In this case, most often tasks of the 6th subtest, where elementary operations of abstract thinking are required, are solved with the help of substitutive, conceptual thinking. Consequently, areas of activity where abstract thinking is necessary, such students will not be able to master.
Zone 3
Good level of development of abstract thinking. In the presence of developed conceptual thinking, it indicates the formation of a higher level of intelligence. The child should be provided with opportunities for multidirectional intellectual activity in order to ensure the further harmonious development of abilities. Higher level gymnasium education is recommended. If conceptual thinking is weak (especially its logical component), but visual intelligence is well (or highly) developed, then the Formation of limited mathematical abilities is possible. At the same time, the development of conceptual thinking, abilities for the humanities and natural sciences can be finally suppressed. If only the operation of categorization turned out to be undeveloped, then, using the recommendations for its development (given above), it is easy to achieve the full value of conceptual intelligence.
Zone 4
High level of development of abstract thinking. It is usually formed on the basis of developed conceptual and visual thinking, it testifies to the outstanding intellectual potential of the child. It is recommended to study in physical and mathematical schools, study several foreign languages.
Subtest 7. Figurative synthesis
The ability to form holistic ideas based on consistently accumulated, but unsystematized, disparate, fragmentary, incomplete information. The emerging integrity is a figurative, not a logical structure, i.e. for its comprehension needs further analytical processing. If figurative synthesis functions within the framework of developed conceptual thinking, then it can be used for scientific generalizations, in systematic or empirical research. Figurative synthesis can be one of the components of practical intelligence, the presence of which allows you to quickly grasp the situation as a whole and choose the best direction for further actions. On its basis, the ability to internally transform the observed situation, present it from different angles, and figuratively evaluate the emerging meanings and impressions is formed. If practical intelligence or conceptual thinking is not developed, then figurative synthesis functions only within the framework of visual intelligence, facilitating work with visual-graphic information presented in the form of drawings. In this case, there is a high probability of fixing a holistic figurative thinking, which hinders the development of conceptual intelligence. The child gets used to using figurative "classification", the formation of groupings on the basis of a holistic impression, generalization by figurative or visual obtaining a "good" form.
The inability to figurative synthesis may not have a negative impact on learning, since it is more important that the student learns not to figuratively, but to logically generalize information. This is quite enough for schooling, which does not involve a holistic understanding of large volumes of disparate, unsystematized information. Students are required to understand the already pre-systematized, logically processed information that is given to them in textbooks.
If a teenager basically copes with the tasks of subtest 7, and his conceptual thinking and visual intelligence are well developed, and the necessary attention is paid to the graphic processing of information in school programs (children are taught to use drawings, drawings, especially drawing up generalizing diagrams when repeating material), then becoming figurative synthesis occurs without additional effort. If conceptual thinking is poorly developed (especially its logical component), then with a good figurative synthesis it may no longer develop, but figurative thinking will be finally consolidated as the main mechanism of intellectual activity. In this case, the formation of practical intelligence takes place, allowing the child to navigate life situations, but theoretical thinking does not develop, and teaching most of the disciplines of the school cycle becomes impossible. By grade 8-9, a child usually completely loses interest in learning, as he understands little in the classroom, but outside of school he can feel quite confident. The situation can be corrected only if conceptual thinking is developed.
Key to subtest 7: 2, 5, 4, 1, 4, 5, 3, 5, 1, 3, 1, 4, 5, 2, 1, 2, 1, 5, 3, 3.
Zone 1
Weak level of development of the figurative synthesis operation. The inability to figurative synthesis may be a consequence of the underdevelopment of visual thinking in general. However, a teenager is able to learn how to logically generalize information. At the same time, it should be remembered that with a weak figurative synthesis, the adolescent's intuitive generalizations will be incorrect. Such Students should summarize material using conscious reasoning. The disadvantages of figurative synthesis can complicate the understanding of drawings, diagrams, drawings and related work in the lessons of geometry, physics and drawing. The development of visual thinking as a whole makes it possible to activate the base for the formation of figurative synthesis. You need to start with tasks that are implemented with the help of manipulations, in a visual-effective plan (collect pictures according to visual samples, according to drawings; find diagrams corresponding to certain images). This may make it easier for a teenager to work with drawings in the future, but it will no longer be possible to develop a full-fledged figurative synthesis.
Zone 2
The average level of development of the operation of figurative synthesis. If the child’s conceptual thinking and visual intelligence are well developed, and graphic processing of information is sufficiently represented in the school curriculum (learning to use drawings, drawings, drawing up generalizing schemes when repeating material), then the operation of figurative synthesis can develop further to a good level without additional efforts.
Zone 3
A good level of development of the figurative synthesis operation. If conceptual thinking is also well developed, then the adolescent's first impressions of a problem or situation, as well as figurative generalizations of disparate and insufficiently mastered information, are correct. This allows him to quickly navigate, understand the general meaning of messages or ongoing events. If conceptual thinking is poorly developed (especially its logical component), then it may no longer develop, but figurative thinking will be consolidated as the main mechanism of intellectual activity. In this case, the formation of practical intelligence takes place, allowing a person to navigate in life situations, but theoretical thinking does not develop.
Zone 4
High level of development of the figurative synthesis operation. Occurs extremely rarely. It indicates a highly developed both figurative and visual thinking. In our practice, it did not occur with undeveloped conceptual thinking.
Subtest 8. Spatial thinking
Tasks of the 8th subtest measure the ability to isolate the spatial structure of objects and operate not with the images of objects and their "external", visible properties, but with internal structural dependencies and relationships. The process of visual perception is transformed in such a way that those visual parameters of an object that are directly related to its internal parameters are analytically identified and fixed (often unconsciously). structural characteristics, its internal spatial organization. Operator units are not just visually perceived properties of objects, but "abstracted" indicators of their spatial structure, as well as relationships, regular connections between these visually perceived "indicators". In spatial thinking, the basic operations are analysis, isolating internal schemes, on the basis of which operations of the next level are further developed, allowing mentally transforming the selected spatial schemes. On the basis of this type of thinking, an understanding of the objective laws of the spatial organization of objects and phenomena of the world around us is formed. The use of these laws is necessary to create an artificial human environment (architectural structures, various objects, instruments, machines, equipment).
Spatial thinking, although based on visual intelligence, is a qualitatively new stage in its development. Operator units are no longer visually perceived properties of objects (as in visual thinking), but analytically distinguished characteristics of their spatial structure, as well as relationships, regular connections between visually perceived properties. Spatial thinking is absolutely dominated by analysis operations, and therefore there is usually no correlation between subtests 7 and 8, despite the fact that they are both based on visual intelligence. Spatial thinking allows you to compare, identify objects, regardless of their appearance, the angle of view from which they are viewed, to make their mental movements, rotations, combinations, substitutions, mergers and dismemberments, to design, create artificial objects with the required internal and external properties. It is one of the main components of the thinking of a design engineer and designer.
If in grades 3-6 the child mostly copes with the tasks of the 8th subtest, then in the future both options are equally likely: full development and degradation of spatial thinking. Under conditions of an increased load on the auditory system (for example, gymnasiums with in-depth study of foreign languages), spatial thinking does not maintain the achieved level, but degrades. If a child is fond of construction or related computer games, then this level is preserved and is quite sufficient for understanding and using drawings in physics and mathematics lessons in high school. Usually, there are no fundamental problems in drawing lessons. If a child does well in mathematics in general, then engineering and design abilities are formed. If algebra is difficult, but visual imagination is well developed (for example, measured by the visual complex of the Torrens test), then designer abilities can form.
Spatial thinking can be formed in early childhood and exist relatively independently of speech conceptual intelligence, that is, without suppressing or stimulating its development. If a child from an early age plays with blocks, a children's builder, various designers, and, getting older, is fond of modeling, then his spatial thinking develops very well. At school, he is easily given drawing, as well as the implementation of drawings, diagrams, drawings for solving problems in geometry, trigonometry and physics courses. However, no elementary school program develops spatial thinking if it is not itself formed in extracurricular activities. Last years, as our research shows, training in primary school inhibits development. Increased loads on the auditory system (the phonemic method of teaching reading and writing according to Elkonin, a foreign language from the 1st grade, additional subjects of the historical and cultural cycle, a general strengthening of the humanitarian nature of education) upset the balance in intellectual development and lead to the degradation of visual thinking in general. It should also be remembered that if a child, playing with constructors, "embodies" only his manual-figurative fantasies, but does not like to build according to samples and drawings, then spatial thinking does not develop. If a child draws well, studies in art studios, this does not mean that his spatial thinking will develop, since figurative, rather than analytical, operations of visual thinking are activated in visual activity.
Key to subtest 8: 2, 4, 3, 1, 4, 1, 2, 5, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 4, 3, 2, 5, 1, 3, 5.
Zone 1
Weak level of development of spatial thinking. It indicates that figurative perception dominates over analytical and structural. The latter is missing altogether. Single correct answers are either random or obtained using verbal conceptual thinking (by reasoning), but not by visual analysis (the student does not see patterns). Without special classes, spatial thinking will not develop. The teenager will experience serious difficulties in the lessons of drawing, physics, geometry and trigonometry. If conceptual and abstract thinking is developed, then a partial replacement of the missing visual operations by logical analysis is possible. A schoolboy can learn to cope in his own way (“algebraically”) with tasks in mathematics and physics based on drawings (although there will never be any ease), but drawing for him will remain an incomprehensible and hated subject. For the development of visual thinking, it is necessary to activate its prerequisites. It should begin with the formation of motor-visual schemes, that is, offer the child the solution of visual problems with the help of manipulations. For these purposes, you can use Kos cubes and educational games proposed by B.P. Nikitin ("Unicube", "Bricks", "Cubes for Everyone"). The child must, according to the drawn sample pictures, assemble three-dimensional "constructions", i.e. to transform a holistic visual image into its motor scheme, visually controlling the adequacy of the transformations. Tasks should be completed several times, always using reasoning, periodically returning to what has already been done, until the very principle of action becomes obvious and easily reproducible for the child. The student needs to work not only with his hands, he must learn to accompany his actions with verbal explanations so that the motor patterns become conscious. Next, he needs to change the very principle of work: first, analytically determine which cubes, parts or structures and why he will need it, and then test his assumptions practically by collecting the corresponding objects. The next stage consists in mastering the three-dimensional schematic drawing of the assembled "constructions", i.e. translation of motor schemes into visually represented spatial schemes. As a result of such exercises, the child learns to “transition” from a holistically perceived visual image of an object to the identification of its internal spatial structure. For further development of spatial thinking, more complex construction games and computer games such as Tetris can be used. It should be remembered that in high school it is no longer possible to develop spatial thinking.
Zone 2
The average level of development of spatial thinking. It indicates that in the future both options are equally likely: both full development and degradation. Under conditions of increased load on the auditory system, without intensive developmental activities, spatial thinking does not maintain the achieved average level, but degrades. If the auditory loads are small, and the teenager systematically solves problems in physics and mathematics that require spatial and graphical analysis, then spatial thinking can be activated, although the construction of drawings (especially at first) will have to be given somewhat increased attention. If there are no increased auditory loads, but there is also no systematic visual practice, then the achieved average level can be maintained, not improved qualitatively. At this level, spatial thinking is characterized as passive. When the drawings are given, the teenager will be able (using reasoning, speech analysis) to understand and understand them, but he himself is not always able to build a drawing in accordance with the condition of the problem. Drafting will also be a difficult and unpleasant subject.
Zone 3
Good level of development of spatial thinking. It indicates that the teenager has developed an operation of visual isolation of the spatial structure of the object. His thinking is no longer tied to the visually perceived image, he can operate with spatial patterns. Complete degradation of spatial thinking is unlikely even with increased auditory loads (for example, in-depth study of several foreign languages), although a decrease to the average level is possible (in this case, some difficulties may arise with solving problems in geometry and physics). If a teenager is fond of construction or related computer games, then a good level of spatial thinking is maintained, even if the student pays little attention to solving the corresponding problems in the course of mathematics and physics. Having entered a technical university, he can easily fill in the missing knowledge in these areas and develop full-fledged design abilities, or specialize in architecture, industrial and computer design.
Zone 4
High level of development of spatial thinking. It is rare, only among students of mathematical classes, indicates a clear ability for engineering and design activities (a teenager usually does well in mathematics).
Subtest 9. Logic RAM
Tasks of the 9th subtest measure logical memory, which is formed as a result of memory transformation based on conceptual thinking. Its difference from more primitive forms of memory lies in the fact that memorization is preceded by comprehension, structuring information, highlighting its internal regular logic. The structure (plan, scheme) singled out in this way is subject to conscious memorization, and all the rest of the qualitative, meaningful information is stored in memory as if by itself, automatically, thanks to the “folding” operation, which is used in the formation of any concept. As a result of the use of conceptual thinking, the analysis and generalization of the information to be memorized takes place, it is structured and organized multidimensionally, according to the principle of the "conceptual pyramid", therefore, in the future it can be reproduced in the mind simultaneously and holistically, subjected to any transformations, reproduced in any order. Only to be remembered general scheme(plan, structure) or the final generalization ("top of the pyramid"), which allow you to save all the qualitative diversity of the content and reproduce it without loss. Provides full ownership of information.
Tasks of the 9th subtest allow to determine the type of student's memory, diagnosing whether he has learned to precede memorization by comprehending information, whether he uses conceptual generalizations for this, or whether his memory still functions as a simple associative one. Our practice of working at school shows that the stronger the child's simple associative memory, the less his need to use thinking for memorization. When he can easily remember everything, then that's exactly what he does. A strong primitive memory does not allow higher-level memory to form. At the same time, both the child himself and those around him are sure that his memory is good, and usually the psychologist's recommendations for the development of logical memory are not followed.
A strong associative memory has disadvantages that adversely affect learning, especially in high school, when it is required to possess large amounts of information on a variety of topics. The fact is that the associatively memorized information is connected sequentially, forming a successive series (“associative chain”), and cannot be perceived simultaneously, that is, simultaneously and holistically. It can be reproduced only as gradually and in the same sequence as it was memorized. Consequently, the main drawback is that the student does not actually own the material that he has memorized. He can only reproduce it sequentially, but is not able to present holistically or selectively any separate parts, therefore, it is difficult for him to answer questions on the text if the answers are not compiled in advance. He easily retells the text from the very beginning or continues someone's retelling, but cannot selectively present individual fragments of the material. To do this, he has to mentally “look through” the entire text in a row, up to the right place, and the child cannot immediately remember this place. If he forgot the first phrase or word, he would not be able to tell anything at all. A teenager cannot compare, analyze individual parts of the text he retold, make general conclusion. He easily speaks close to the text (almost by heart), but it turns out to be inaccessible for him to retell briefly, in his own words, to state the main content; Difficulties also arise in the preparation of notes or plans. If some piece of information is forgotten, “fell out” of memory (the associative chain is broken), then the student becomes silent and is unable to speak until this particular detail of the text is prompted to him. He can reproduce the material only literally, in the order he remembered, but not according to the meaning.
In high school, up to 12-15 academic disciplines are taught in parallel, and, accordingly, the amount of information that needs to be memorized is significant. If a teenager has not learned to comprehend, generalize and systematize it, then he can only “cram”. Diligent students "cram", and it takes more and more time. Gradually, the volume of memorization increases so much that it is no longer possible to retain all the information with the help of associative memory. Most schoolchildren in this case either pass on lessons to learn, or, continuing to learn by heart, bring themselves to the extreme stages of overwork; In both cases, performance drops sharply.
Logical memory may not be formed if conceptual thinking is poorly developed. Often the very presence of a strong primitive memory hinders the development of not only conceptual thinking, but thinking in general (its various operations). It happens that conceptual thinking is well developed, but has not yet contacted memory and raised it to a higher level of functioning.
Tasks of the 9th subtest allow you to measure the logical memory. It provides short-term retention and arbitrary use of information due to the operations of its “folding” and “expanding”. When memorizing, the operation of semantic generalization - "folding" is used; information is organized multidimensionally, according to the principle of a "conceptual pyramid", can be reproduced in the mind simultaneously and holistically, can be subjected to any transformations, and for further selective or complete reproduction, the "deployment" operation is used.
Key to subtest 9: 3, 4, 2, 5, 2, 4, 2, 2, 3, 3, 5, 4, 5, 3, 5, 5, 2, 1, 1, 1.
Zone 1
It indicates that simple associative memory dominates. Semantic processing of information during memorization is virtually absent. The student should be taught to pre-comprehend the information to be memorized. First, we must forbid him to retell the way he used to. You need to work on the text in the following way. Any text consists of paragraphs. Each paragraph is a complete thought. The student must, after reading the paragraph, in his own words, in one sentence, say what it is about, that is, highlight the meaning. You should not allow the student to retell the paragraph close to the text or in their own words. He must express his essence in one phrase. The main ideas of the read paragraphs should be written down. In this way, the semantic structure of the text, summary or plan will be highlighted. This is how you should work with any educational (history, biology, geography, etc.) and literary texts. Before proceeding to the retelling, it is necessary that the student answer the questions at the end of the paragraph (if any), and do it in his own words. It is necessary to retell the text not in a row, but broken down by the points of the plan, compiled on the basis of the analysis of the paragraphs. (For example, first a teenager tells the 5th point of the plan, then the 1st, then the 7th, then the 3rd point, and so on.) In retelling, the child must go from the meaning, learn to unfold it, detail it. If such work with texts is done within 1-2 months, then the student will form a new principle of memorization, which will then act as if automatically. When reading any text, a teenager will have its semantic structure in his head. He will always be able to holistically represent this structure and perform any operations with it in his mind: “expand” and view in more detail the content of individual parts of the text, compare some parts of the text with each other, trace the logic of the proof, highlight any place for a more detailed retelling, find answer to a question; he will be able to tell everything in a row, gradually deploying each "point of the plan." When a teenager learns to highlight the semantic structure of the text, he will not only be able to master it easily, but the load on the memory itself will be significantly reduced. He will no longer need to memorize dozens of pages of text, but only a few points of the plan. The transformation of memory turns out to be easily feasible if the student has developed conceptual thinking (at least intuitive). If conceptual thinking is poorly developed, then it is necessary to work in both directions. Comprehension of texts also contributes to the development of thinking. About 30 years ago, they tried to introduce a fairly progressive method of teaching, which consisted in the fact that the student was allowed to use a previously drawn up plan during an oral answer. Work on this method led to the fact that the vast majority of schoolchildren switched from learning to text analysis and thereby developed thinking and formed logical memory.
Quite often, high school students with well-developed conceptual thinking have a logical memory at a weak level due to the fact that the "deployment" operation is not developed. Such teenagers, reading the text, easily isolate its main thoughts, internal logic, but are not able to retell it in detail or answer questions in detail, they may experience difficulties in memorizing words and retelling in foreign language lessons. To correct the situation, they need not be lazy and practice the “deployment” operation for some time, i.e. try to break down (not consistently!) and reproduce in detail the main thoughts (points of the plan) of the text just read. Zone 2 - The average level of development of operational logical memory. It indicates that the process of memory transformation has begun, but its connection with thinking has not yet been fully established. The connection between memory and thinking can also be established “spontaneously” if the child, before reading a paragraph, looks at what questions are asked to him, and in the process of reading he immediately looks for answers to them. In this case, when reading, he comprehends the text, and not just tries to remember. This way of working needs to be supported. Consistent and verbatim retelling should also be avoided. It is necessary to teach the child to make plans and notes, to highlight the semantic structure of the text. If, on the contrary, the load on “simple” memorization increases in a teenager (increased learning of a foreign language, additional study of a second foreign language), then regression may occur, and logical memory will not be formed. If conceptual thinking is moderately developed, then memory will slow down at this level.
Zone 3
Good level of development of operational logical memory. It indicates that the memory may well function in the new mode. In a teenager, when reading a text, it is as if automatically accentuated, the main semantic points are highlighted, and as they read, an understanding of the material is formed. This form of work must be supported. If additional memory loads appear, then the student usually tries to reduce them due to logical processing, that is, regression is already extremely unlikely. However, the “relationships” between associative and logical memory have not yet been established, it is possible to suppress a more primitive way of remembering, completely replacing it with semantic analysis. If this happens, then in the future the teenager will not be able to learn information that is not amenable to logical processing and folding.
Compiled by educational psychologist Finashin S.A.
Introduction
Learning that benefits should be difficult, but manageable. This truth is indisputable as two times two - four. Centuries passed, pedagogical theories changed, and this idea was not subjected to the slightest doubt. However, this fair truth is fraught with one unresolved question: how to put it into practice? How to make learning feasible for a child? What determines the difficulty of the student's educational work?
On the one hand, the difficulty depends on the characteristics of the educational material, on the other hand, on the capabilities of the student himself, on individual and age features his memory, attention, thinking and, of course - from the skill of the teacher. This manual will discuss some of the features of a schoolchild's thinking, those that, in the conditions of schooling, can act as negative forces that hinder learning and mental development, those features due to which children "cannot", "do not understand", " are not coping." Moreover, the patterns of thinking that we will consider are inherent not only to children, but also to adults: adults, too, (and often) “can’t”, “don’t understand”, and “can’t cope”.
The better we know and take into account these patterns, both those that can be good allies of the teacher (but sometimes remain unused), and those that have an inhibitory effect on academic work, the more successfully we will help children free themselves from everything that fetters them. mental work, the more effectively we will promote the intellectual development of children.
What is the most important feature of thinking? If you try to answer this question briefly, then this is the ability to single out a few, the most common properties of objects and phenomena, the strongest and most stable connections between them. With the development of these skills, the child begins the formation of conceptual thinking. With the development of the child, conceptual thinking begins to include more complex intellectual operations. It is important to note that conceptual thinking does not appear by itself with the maturation of the child. It should be purposefully developed by school education. If the efforts of teachers are not enough, then parents should also be involved.
In the following sections, we will talk in more detail about how the lack of conceptual thinking and its individual components affects student performance and how to develop this thinking.
Conceptual thinking and knowledge acquisition
The specificity of the schoolchild's thinking lies in the fact that the child's abilities for certain forms of thinking are not sufficiently developed. The property of the child's mind to perceive everything concretely, literally, the inability to rise above the situation and understand its general, abstract or figurative sense one of the main difficulties children's thinking, which is clearly manifested in the study of such abstract school disciplines as mathematics or grammar.
If thinking in concepts is not sufficiently developed, then the child experiences difficulties in abstracting, generalizing, in isolating the essential and discarding the inessential. Moreover, these difficulties are manifested at all stages of education and in various subjects! Here are the observations of psychologists:
A preschool child finds it difficult to distinguish a figure in a drawing if this figure is masked by lines crossing it or has common borders with other figures. Among younger schoolchildren there are many who find it difficult to operate with abstract numbers: they need to imagine concrete objects.
It is difficult for fifth graders to show a river basin on a map if the tributaries of this river are interspersed with rivers from another basin. Sixth-graders find it difficult to distinguish a triangle in a drawing depicting a house. They are unaware of the angles formed gable roof and a cross beam, like the corners of a triangle, since they cannot be distracted from the details of the picture.
Among the sixth graders there are many who find it difficult to distract themselves from concrete numbers when moving on to algebraic literal expressions.
The inability to distinguish the main, essential is another consequence of insufficiently developed conceptual thinking. Helplessness in highlighting the main thing leads to the inability to divide the educational text into semantic parts, to separate the essence from the details, to briefly retell it.
The inability to distinguish between the general and the particular, the main and the secondary, often leads to erroneous conclusions related to the fact that children judge objects on the basis of secondary, non-essential features. Here are some typical examples.
Primary school students after the introduction of the subject "Subject" called the subject in the sentence "Children ran into the hut." the word "come running", assuming that the subject is the word that comes first in the sentence (this is how the sentences were built in their first exercises).
Fifth grade students considered only a small hill to be a watershed (the diagram in a geography textbook depicted a watershed as a small hill) and therefore did not consider the Greater Caucasus Range to be a watershed.
The sixth graders counted right triangle only one in which the right angle is located below, at the base of the triangle (such a drawing was given in the textbook), but they did not consider the triangle in which the right angle was at the top to be rectangular.
Isolation of the essential is one side of the process of abstraction (positive). Distraction from the non-essential is its other side. Try asking your schoolchildren you know an old joke problem: "A pound of flour costs twenty kopecks. How much do two five-kopeck buns cost?" Watch how they will solve it: whether they will divide, multiply or do something else, in most cases they will start with the cost of a pound of flour (extra information). The ability to discard the superfluous is one of the most difficult operations for a student.
Let's give some examples.
One of the most serious "areas" of manifestation of this difficulty is grammatical rules with exceptions. When it is difficult for children to single out something and consider it separately from the general rule, they either remember only the rule, forgetting the exceptions, or they remember only the exceptions, not at all correlating them with the rule.
For example, the rule that not with verbs is written separately, with the exception of verbs that are not used without not, some children remember only half: they write all verbs separately from not.
The opposite phenomenon also occurs: knowing by heart three words - "glass, tin, wooden" - some students do not remember the content of the rule at all.
Characteristic most of the writings of high school students - the inability to discard those aspects of literary material that do not correspond to a given topic. Young authors, as a rule, strive to throw out on the pages of notebooks not only and not even so much what the topic requires of them, but everything that they know about this author or about this work in general. Adults often do not know how to refuse unnecessary things. The inability to discard the unimportant, the secondary comes through especially clearly in our everyday, ordinary, everyday conversations. Therefore, if we do not want schoolchildren to write essays "not on the case", and the interlocutors bring us to such a state, to which the television lady Monika once brought the professor, it is necessary to persistently teach children not only to highlight the main thing, but also to refuse unnecessary or insignificant. These are some of the negative manifestations of shortcomings in the development of conceptual thinking in the student's educational activity.
In order to avoid the difficulties described above in the middle and senior grades, it is necessary to begin the formation of conceptual thinking already in preschool childhood. For example, at the age of 5-7, a child is already able to master at an elementary level such methods of conceptual thinking as comparison, generalization, classification, systematization and semantic correlation. Let's consider these methods in more detail.
Comparison technique
How to teach a child to compare? Comparison is a technique aimed at establishing signs of similarity and difference between objects and phenomena. By the age of 5-6, a child usually already knows how to compare various objects with each other, but he does this, as a rule, on the basis of only a few signs (for example, colors, shapes, sizes, and some others). In addition, as mentioned above, the selection of these features is often random and is not based on a comprehensive analysis of the object. In the course of learning the method of comparison (tasks 1, 2, 3), the child must master the following skills:
1. Select the features (properties) of an object based on its comparison with another object. Children under 6 years old usually distinguish only 2-3 properties in an object, while there are an infinite number of them. In order for a child to be able to see this many properties, he must learn to analyze an object from different angles, to compare this object with another object with different properties. By selecting objects for comparison in advance, you can gradually teach the child to see in them such properties that were previously hidden from him. At the same time, to master this skill well means to learn not only to distinguish the properties of an object, but also to name them.
2. Define general and features(properties) of compared objects. When a child learns to highlight properties by comparing one object with another, one should begin to form the ability to determine the general and distinctive features of objects. First of all, you need to teach the ability to conduct a comparative analysis of the selected properties and find their differences. Then you should go to the general properties. At the same time, it is first important to teach the child to see the common properties of two objects, and then of several.
3. Distinguish between essential and non-essential signs (properties) of an object, when essential properties are specified or easily found.
After the child learns to single out common and distinctive properties in objects, the next step can be taken: to teach him to distinguish essential, important properties from non-essential, secondary ones.
It is still quite difficult for preschoolers to find the essential features of an object on their own, therefore, at first, the emphasis in teaching should be on demonstrating the difference between an essential feature and an insignificant one. To do this, it is better to use tasks with visual material, in which the essential feature is predetermined or is located, as it were, on the “surface”, so that it is easy to detect. For example, two different flowers can be similar to each other or differ in many properties: color, shape, size, number of petals. But for all flowers, one property remains unchanged: to bear fruit, which allows us to call them flowers. If we take another part of the plant that does not have this property (leaves, twigs), then it can no longer be called a flower. Thus, if you change the "irrelevant" properties, the object will still refer to the same concept, and if you change the "essential" property, the object becomes different. Then you can try to show on simple examples how the concepts of "general" feature and "essential" feature are related. It is important to draw the child's attention to the fact that a "general" feature is not always "essential", but "essential" is always "general". For example, show a child two objects, where the "common" but "insignificant" feature is the color, and the "common" and "essential" feature is the shape. The ability to find the essential features of objects is one of the important prerequisites for mastering the generalization technique.
Generalization and classification techniques
Master the techniques of generalization and classification (tasks 4 - 9) in in full preschooler is not yet able. It is difficult for him at this age to master the elements of formal logic necessary for this. However, some of the skills necessary to master these techniques can be taught. For example, he can form the following skills:
"Relate a specific object to a class given by an adult and, conversely, specify a class given by an adult general concept through singular (reference action)."
Note: In order to be able to refer a specific object to a class given by an adult (for example, a plate - to the class "dishes") or to specify a general concept given by an adult through single ones (for example, "toys" are a pyramid, a typewriter, a doll), children must know generalizing words , only under this condition is it possible to carry out generalization and subsequent classification. They usually get acquainted with such words in the process of communicating with adults - in conversations, when reading children's literature, when performing various assignments, and also directly in gaming activities. At the same time, specially organized classes are more effective, in which children are given generalized names that correspond to their level of knowledge and life ideas. Please note that the most difficult for preschoolers are the following generalizing words:
insects
instruments
transport
Since the child's passive vocabulary is wider than his active vocabulary, the child may understand these words but not use them in his speech.
"Group objects on the basis of independently found common features and designate the formed group with a word (these are actions of generalization and meaning)".
The development of this skill usually goes through several stages.
Stage 1. First, the child combines objects into one group, but
cannot name an educated group, because not well aware common features these items.
Stage 2. Then the child already makes attempts to designate the grouped objects, but instead of a generic word, he uses the name of one of the objects of the group (cherries, cherries, strawberries - "cherries") or indicates an action that an object can perform or can be performed with an object (bed, chair, armchair - sit).
The main problem of this stage is the inability to identify common features and designate them with a generalizing word.
Stage 3. Now the child already uses a generalized name to refer to the group as a whole. However, as in the previous stage, naming a group with a generalizing word follows only after the actual grouping of objects.
Stage 4. This stage is the final and most important. At this stage, the child, even before the grouping of objects
can designate them as a generic concept. Mastering advanced verbal generalization contributes to the development of the ability to carry out grouping in the mind.
Reception "Semantic correlation"
When a child learns to compare, correlate objects according to their outward signs, for example, in shape, color, size, you can move on to learning and a more complex intellectual action of correlating objects by meaning.
To correlate objects by meaning means to find some kind of connection between them. It is better if these connections are based on essential features, properties of objects and phenomena. However, it is important to be able to rely on secondary, less significant
properties and signs. To find these connections, you need to compare objects with each other, paying attention to their functions, purpose, other internal properties or features.
Compared items can have relationships based on different types of relationships. For example, these can be connections based on relationships such as "part - whole": wheel - car, house - roof
1. on the similarity or opposite of the functions of objects:
pen - pencil, pencil - eraser.
2. belonging to the same genus or species:
spoon - fork, apple - pear.
Other types of relationships are possible.
Teaching "semantic correlation" is learning the ability to quickly grasp(find) such relationships.
The sequence of training at this stage should be as follows:
1. Semantic correlation of two visually presented objects
("picture - picture"). First, the baby must learn to correlate the meaning of the objects that he directly perceives. So it will be easier for him to analyze their features, determine their purpose and functions. For this, the child is offered either the objects themselves, or their images in the pictures.
2. Correlation of a visually presented object with an object indicated by a word (picture - word).
Note that matching the object shown in the picture with the object presented in the form of a word is already a more difficult task for the baby. After all, here, in order to cope with the task, the child must clearly imagine the object that is given in verbal form. This stage of learning is, as it were, a transition to the development of the ability to find semantic connections between objects and phenomena presented verbally.
3. Semantic correlation of objects and phenomena presented in the form of words (word - word).
The word can denote any object, its individual property, natural phenomenon, and much more. First, tasks should be offered in which the child needs to find a semantic connection between specific objects using two given words. Then more and more abstract concepts can be offered for comparison, denoting the properties of objects, natural phenomena, etc. It is important that these concepts are familiar to the child.
These are some theoretical ideas about the development of conceptual thinking. The proposed manual contains exercises for the development of the conceptual apparatus of preschoolers and first grade students. Each exercise is performed in parts, as it is mastered.
Games and exercises for the development of conceptual thinking
Exercise 1.
"ASSOCIATIONS" (links)
In this exercise, the child must name all the familiar words related to the given concepts.
(Parents, if possible, should try to visit all the named places with their children. This exercise is a kind of program of action.)
HOUSE
KINDERGARTEN
HOSPITAL
LIBRARY
DINING ROOM
SALON
DRY CLEANING
LAUNDRY
MILL
TELEGRAPH
FIRE PROTECTION
THE AIRPORT
PRINTING HOUSE
CEMETERY
CINEMA
EXHIBITION
PHILHARMONIC
WORKSHOP
HOTEL
ELEVATOR
TECHNICAL COLLEGE
INSTITUTE
THE PHOTO
Exercise 2.
"RESEARCHER"
This is one of the most simple games for comparison. You and your child are "explorers". Pick a subject and start studying it. Everyone must in turn highlight in it some property, sign, feature in comparison with other objects. For a sample, the following scheme for examining a subject can be used:
1. Name the subject.
2. Describe its features: shape,
what it feels like
what does it taste like
what is it made of
looks like",
different "from" (some other
items)
3.What do we need this item for?
4.What happens if you drop it on the floor from a height of 1 meter?
Throw it in the fire?
Throw it in the water?
Hit him with a hammer?
Left out on the street unattended?
Douse with water?
Put in dark place?
Leave to bask in the sun?
5.Add other questions as you see fit.
Exercise 3
"COMPARASONS"
This game is aimed at developing the ability to highlight signs of similarity and difference in compared objects.
I Find the similarity
1. What color do cucumbers look like;
dandelion?
2. What looks like a circle in shape;
rectangle;
triangle?
3. What is the size of a pencil;
4. What is the material similar to a notebook;
II. Find the differences (it is necessary to indicate as many features as possible or
difference properties).
1. What is the difference between carrots and cucumbers?
2. What is the difference between a bee and an elephant?
3. What is the difference between a book and a notebook?
4. What is the difference between water and milk?
5. What is the difference between an old person and a young one?
III. Answer the questions.
1. Who does the duck look more like: a goose or a pig? Why?
2. Who does the sprat look more like: a pike or a sparrow? Why?
3. Who does a cat look more like: a dog or a duck? Why?
4. What does a notebook look like more: a book or a pencil case? Why?
5. What does a pen look like more: a pencil or a satchel? Why?
IV.Find the general (it is necessary to indicate as many features or properties of similarity as possible).
1.Apple and pear.
2. Crow and sparrow.
3.Sofa and armchair.
4. Kefir and cottage cheese.
5. Jacket and coat.
6. Birch and maple.
7. Chamomile and bluebell.
8.Girl and boy.
9. Accordion and button accordion.
10. Dragonfly and butterfly.
Exercise 4
"FOURTH EXTRA"
Four words are given. Three of them are somewhat similar, they have something in common, they can be called in one word, and the fourth - it differs from them superfluously.
Guess
what word is missing? Why?
Wardrobe, armchair, pan, bedside table.
Wolf, bear, cow, squirrel.
Horse, hare, cat, dog.
Butterfly, dragonfly, fly. Sparrow.
Maple, oak, chamomile, birch.
Orange, tangerine, cabbage, pear.
Morning, summer, winter, autumn.
January, Wednesday, March, June.
Tuesday, winter, Wednesday, Friday.
Red, pinky, green, blue.
Petrov, Gena, Smirnov, Belov.
Doll, ball, spinning top, checkers.
Rectangle, ruler, square, oval.
A, B, one, C.
Planer, balalaika, guitar, accordion.
Russia, Japan, Moscow, Italy.
Earth, Mars, Petersburg, Venus.
Volga, Don, Neva, Volgograd.
Rain, wind, snow, hail.
Gold, silver, iron, brick.
Sausage, cottage cheese, cheese, milk.
Baton, bun, bagel, cake.
Pepper, cloves, cinnamon, banana.
Refrigerator, gun, vacuum cleaner, meat grinder.
Jumping, running, swimming, knitting.
Halva, bun, stone, apple.
Exercise 5
"CONTINUE!" (view - view)
Red, ... (yellow, green).
Boots, ... (slippers, boots).
Sofa, ... Plate, ...
Cap, ... Volga, ...
Moscow, .. . Cat, ...
Rook, ... Tulip, ...
Winter, ... Tuesday, ...
"Kolobok", ... Pistol, ...
Football, ... Pinky, ...
Tiger, ... Birch, ...
Raspberry, ... Pencil case, ...
January, ... Bus, ...
"Zhiguli", ... Square, ...
Exercise 6
"DID YOU KNOW?" (genus - species)
The exercise develops the ability to concretize concepts. Below are generic terms. The child needs to name as many species concepts as possible (for children of five years - 3, for children of six or seven years - at least 5). If the child is at a loss, he needs to be helped to learn an unknown concept. He will understand and remember the word better if he sees the object, touches it, smells it, hears its sound (of course, if possible).
There is a variant of this game, which makes it possible to develop not only the ability to specify concepts, but also coordination of movements. The facilitator asks the kid (if the lesson is held in a group of children, then in turn to each child) a common name, a concept for which it is necessary to name more private words related to it. For example, ask your child to name 5 plant names.
Saying each name, he should hit the ball with one hand on the ground: "I know five names of plants: chamomile - one, dandelion - two, rose - three, carnation - four, tulip - five." The number of such words can not be limited, then the child should name them as many as possible.
Tasks are carried out gradually, this is a program of work with a child on long time. pets (goat, cow, cat...).
wild animals,
insects,
shrubs,
hats,
decorations,
fingers (name all)
days of the week,
instruments
transport,
states,
sports,
geometric figures,
medicines.
Food,
dairy products,
meat products,
bakery products,
confectionery,
spices,
Construction Materials,
Agreecultural machines. Agreecultural equipment,
dog breeds,
car brands
Exercise 7
"CALL ONE WORD" (view-genus)
You name three words belonging to the same group, and the child must name them with one generalizing concept (the correct answer is indicated in brackets). It is not at all necessary that only one word be generalizing. Very often, generalizing concepts consist of two words, and the more accurately the child selects a generalizing concept, the better. This game can also be played with a group of children. To do this, it is enough to introduce only one rule: the generalizing word must be named as quickly as possible; the one who does it first wins.
Name in one word (in some cases two words are necessary).
Wolf, hare, fox……………… (wild animals).
Cow, sheep, dog...
Sparrow, crow, tit...
Fly, butterfly, beetle...
Oak, birch, pine...
Chamomile, bluebell, aster...
Tomato, cucumber, carrot...
Apple, pear, orange...
Strawberries, strawberries, raspberries...
Hazel, lilac, currant...
Honey mushrooms, chanterelles, boletus ...
Summer, winter, autumn...
January February March...
Monday Tuesday Wednesday...
Morning day Evening...
Spoon, plate, pan...
Dress, pants, jacket...
Beads, earrings, brooch...
Bus, trolleybus, plane...
Circle, square, triangle...
Cap, hat, hat...
Rain, hail, dew...
Notebook, ruler, satchel...
Iron, copper, silver...
Millet, rice, buckwheat...
Sour cream, cottage cheese, kefir...
Meat grinder, vacuum cleaner, coffee grinder...
Piano, button accordion, guitar...
Machine gun, rifle, pistol...
Russia. China, Germany...
Waffle, cookies, candy...
Parsley, pepper, bay leaf...
Silk. chintz, wool...
Checkers, chess, dominoes...
Sand, cement, gravel...
Iodine, aspirin, mustard plaster...
Bulldog, poodle, lapdog...
Tank, armored personnel carrier, military aircraft...
Combine, tractor, mower...
Exercise 8
"SUBSEQUENCE"
1. Name in order:
a) numbers from 1 to 10 (20);
b) letters of the alphabet:
c) seasons
d) parts of the day;
e) days of the week;
e) the names of the months;
g) ordinal numbers (first, ...);
h) cases;
i) the colors of the rainbow.
2.What is missing?
b) a, b, d, e, f;
c) summer, autumn, spring;
d) day, night, morning;
e) January, February, April;
e) Monday, Tuesday, Thursday;
g) first, second, third, fifth;
h) nominative, dative, accusative, instrumental,
prepositional;
i) red, orange, yellow, blue, indigo, violet.
3.What is between:
b) "d" and "e";
c) summer and winter;
d) in the evening and in the morning;
e) October and December;
e) Saturday and Monday;
g) fifth and seventh;
h) dative and creative?
4. What is (should be):
before the number "5", after the number "5";
before the letter "g", after the letter "g";
before spring, after spring;
before May, after May;
before Thursday, after Thursday;
before morning, after morning;
in the rainbow before green, after green?
Exercise 9
"CONTINUE!" (Part - whole)
Window, roof, wall, door - these are parts of the house.
Paws, whiskers, ...
Feathers, beak, ... Gills, fin, ...
Trunk, root, ... Sleeves, pockets, ...
Head, arms, ... Wings, cockpit, ...
Pedals, steering wheel, ... Motor, wheels, ...
Exercise 10
(part-whole)
Name the parts that make up the whole.
For example: A chair consists of a back, seat, legs.
Boot...
Television...
Human...
Exercise 11
It is necessary to name the whole, of which the...
For example: a page is a part of a book.
page -...?
hat is part of...?
the nose is part of...?
the heart is part of...?
wheel is part of...?
the sleeve is part of...?
the button is part of...?
the door is part of...?
the lid is part of...?
leg is part of...?
paw is part of...?
mustache is part of...?
horns are part of...?
the handle is part of...?
the wing is part of...?
the pen is part of...?
the tail is part of...?
scales are part of...?
petal is part of...?
branch is part of...?
the stem is part of...?
the heel is part of...?
the belt is part of...?
the sole is part of...?
the railing is part of...?
lace is part of...?
the back is part of...?
Exercise 12
OPPOSITES
1. During the day - light, at night - ...
Sugar is sweet, salt is...
Pepper - bitter, candy - ...
Winter is cold, summer is...
The house is big, the hut is...
The bear is strong, the hare is...
The feather is light, the stone is...
The child is short, the adult is...
Grandson - young, grandmother - ...
The hare is wild, the cat is...
The fox is moving fast, the turtle is...
Baba Yaga is ugly, Thumbelina is...
Eating vegetables is good, eating snow is...
2. Name opposite words (antonyms).
resemblance
cowardly
affectionate
talk
get younger
destroy
Exercise 13
ANALOGIES
The first two words in the task are in a certain connection. Name the fourth word that is related to the third in the same way as the second is to the first.
I. 1. Spoon: yes, knife: ... (cut).
2.Saw: sawing, ax: ...
3. Rake: rake, shovel: ...
4.Notebook: write, book: ...
5.Ruler: measure, eraser: ...
6. Worm: crawl, fly: ...
7.Needle: sew, scissors:...
8. Song: sing, dance: ...
9.Dog: bark, cat: ...
10. Horse: neigh, cow: ...
11. Wasp: buzz, neck: ...
12. Sparrow: chirp, crow: ...
13. Man: go, car: ...
14.Bed: sleep, chair: ...
1.5. Eye: see, ear: ...
16. Pies: oven, soup: ...
17. Planer: plan, hammer: ...
18. Snake: crawl, bird: ...
19. Face: wash, teeth: ...
20. Vacuum cleaner: clean, iron: ...
21.Color: see, sound: ...
22. Doctor: treat, teacher: ...
24. Air: breathe, water: ...
25. Ballerina: dance, singer: ...
II. 1. Shop: groceries, pharmacy: ...
2. Hospital: doctor, school: ...
3. Refrigerator: metal, book: ...
4. Dress: silk, window: ...
5. Nightingale: garden, pike: ...
6. Forest: hunter, river: ...
7. Orange: fruit, cucumber: ...
8. Fish: scales, bird: ...
9. Lilac: shrub, birch: ...
10. Man: mouth, bird: ...
11. North: south, morning: ...
12. Cucumber: vegetable garden, apple: ...
13. Table: wood, needle: ...
14. Cat: house, hare: ...
15. Mushrooms: forest, wheat: ...
16. Man: house, bird: ...
17. Glove; hand, shoe: ...
18. Clock: time, thermometer: ...
19. Teacher: student, doctor: ...
20. Floor: carpet, table: ...
21. Horse: foal, dog: ...
22. Cow: calf, sheep: ...
23. Duck: duckling, chicken: ...
24. Fly: web, fish: ...
25. Boy: man, girl: ...
26. football: soccer player, hockey: ...
28. Crockery: saucepan, furniture: ...
29. House: rooms, beehive: ...
30. Bread. baker, home: ...
31. Coat: button, boot: ...
32. Water: thirst, food: ...
33. Locomotive: wagons, horse: ...
34.Teatp: spectator, library: ...
35. Cow: milk, chicken: ...
36. Barley: barley, millet: ...
37. Glass: tea, plate: ...
38. Plane: air, steamer: ...
39. Finger: ring, ear: ...
40. Leg: shoes, head: ...
41. Wardrobe: clothes, sideboard: ...
42. Summer: panama, winter: ...
43. Crowd; people, herd: ...
44. Man: leg. cat: ...
45. Dog: bone, cat: ...
46. Bear: honey, hare: ...
47. Goat goat. cat: ...
48. Bread: flour, ice cream: ...
49. Bird: beak, wolf: ...
Exercise 14
CHOOSE THE CONCEPT UNDER THE DEFINITION
1. A large pet that will give us milk.
2. A tree on which plums grow.
3. An institution where drugs are prepared and stored.
4. The first month of the year.
5.Second day of the week.
6. The time of the year when the berries ripen.
7. Time of day when the sun rises.
8. The planet we live on.
9. A tool with which to unscrew and tighten the screws.
10. A tool with which nails are hammered.
11. Bedding, which we put under the head.
12. An electrical device for lighting a room.
13.Adaptation for rain protection.
14. Instruments for measuring time.
15. Coat made of fur.
16. An old man with a large white beard and a bag of gifts, coming to
us for the New Year.
17. Fairy-tale hero, very thin and bony.
18. Utensils for carrying water.
20. Device that people wear on the face to improve vision.
21. The subject with which we write.
22. A piece of land where vegetables grow.
23. A man who sews boots.
24. A man who cleans pipes.
25. A strong electrical flash during a thunderstorm.
26. Precipitation that falls in winter.
27. Precipitation in the form of frozen peas.
29. Game on a cell field with 32 pieces.
30. Device for receiving television broadcasts.
Exercise 15
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
Defining a concept is hard work. And yet, let's try ... First, a generic concept is given, and then specific differences are determined. For example, a doll is a toy (generic concept) that looks like a person (specific difference).
Bicycle - a type of transport (generic concept), the wheels of which are driven by the feet with the help of pedals (specific difference). A knapsack is a student's bag worn on the back. Shorts - short trousers.
I.Cow - ... II. Hero- ... III. Peace- ...
Chicken - ... Coward - ... Friendship - ...
Duck -... Sneak - ... Honesty - ...
Dog -.. . Lazy -... Malice -...
Cat -... Greedy -... Kindness - ...
Apple tree -... Liar -... Tenderness -...
Cherry -... Bouncer -... Beauty - ...
Birch -... Whine -... Love -...
Shovel -... Quiet -...
Saw - ... Kopusha -...
Ax -... Onlooker - ...
Winter -... Brainy - ...
Monday - ... Clever - ...
December -...
Earrings -...
Cap - ...
Slippers - ...
Boots - ...
Purse - ...
When compiling the teaching aid, literature was used;
1. Anufriev A.F., Kostromina S.N. How to overcome difficulties in teaching children. - M., 1998.
2. Bartashnikova I.A., Bartashnikov A.A. Learn by playing. - Kharkov, 1997.
3. Rotenberg V.S., Bondarenko S.M. Brain. Education. Zdorovye.- M., 1989.
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Hello! According to psychologist Lyudmila Yasyukova, less than 20% of adults living in our country do not have a well-formed conceptual thinking. This is not just Russian statistics: in others developed countries the number will remain about the same. Such data are frightening and alarming, forcing us to think: “What is conceptual thinking? Do I have it?"
Specifically and slowly
This type of thinking was introduced by L.S. Vygotsky, famous Soviet psychologist. To summarize his reasoning, it turns out that this way of thinking has three important characteristics:
- the ability to see the essence of the phenomenon,
- the ability to find the cause of events and present the consequences,
- the ability to handle information, systematize it, build a complete picture of what happened.
Only those who know how to operate with concepts are able to adequately perceive reality and draw competent conclusions. The rest can only illusory consider themselves right, but, alas, their plans and forecasts are not realized. Then they put the blame on circumstances and obstacles, but do not admit that they themselves were mistaken in interpreting the situation.
Unfortunately, there are a lot of such people now. When faced with their stubbornness, their conviction that they are right, you just want to shrug your shoulders, remembering the hunchback and the grave.
Do you want to test yourself? Try to answer the following questions
- Imagine the following row: swallow, dove, bird, bullfinch, penguin. Which one is redundant?
- One pound of flour costs thirty rubles. How much will two ten-kopeck buns cost?
- We have two cobblestones, four buckets of water, five cats and four mares. Which is more: animals or physical bodies?
There is no innate conceptual thinking. No person is born with it. It develops later on the basis of visual-effective and visual-figurative, is a more complex form of mental activity. To reach the depth, the essence of the phenomenon, to analyze it correctly - all this takes time. People with a developed conceptual apparatus do not know how to quickly solve a problem in stressful situation. They need to figure it out. This is an advantage, but at the same time a disadvantage of this type of thinking.
Chance for conceptual thinking
It begins to form by the age of six or seven, and develops while the child is in school. If during this time he cannot cope with the concepts, then knowledge will not be able to pass into personal experience, and will remain abstract. In this case, we will get an adult with pre-conceptual thinking, who is not good at generalizing, does not distinguish between cause and effect. Although you can live with it. And live well. But we have to admit that the level of intellectual development will not be up to par.
It is impossible to imagine a scientist, mathematician, philosopher who does not have a good conceptual apparatus. All scientific research will then be reduced to zero efficiency or general popular knowledge.
The driving force behind the formation of conceptual thinking is Practical activities. Since thinking itself remains theoretical ( all operations occur without the involvement of the senses), then he needs to check himself in real life. The best way to do this is a controlled experiment. What is control for? The purpose of thinking is to find out the essence of the relationship between objects, therefore, for the purity of the study, it is necessary to change the factors influencing the phenomenon, to notice the changes made.
The most accessible type of experiment for a child is a game. It is she who develops thinking, opening the connection between the end and the means. It must be borne in mind that a child will not be able to deeply assimilate ready-made theoretical knowledge. It is important that he himself comes to the right decision on his own, by trial and error. It will transform objects, try to group them. For example, only by himself pouring water from two identical glasses into two different ones in volume, he will be able to understand that the amount of water, despite appearances, does not change.
A great exercise that you can do with your child is " little explorer". You need to choose any subject to study. Name it first. Next, identify the main characteristics: “What is its shape? And the size? How much does he weigh? What colour is he? Does it have taste? What about the smell? What does he feel like? What items are similar to it? Which ones don't look alike?"
After you have collected this information, you need to name its purpose: “What is it for?”
Then the most interesting: directly experimental. Find out empirically what will happen to the object of study if it:
- drop from a height (at least 1 meter)?
- dip in water?
- burn with fire?
- hit with a heavy object?
- forget on the street
- put in the fridge?
- leave in the sun? and etc.
Items can be added indefinitely, depending on how much you are carried away by knowledge.
This exercise not only develops the child's conceptual thinking abilities, but is also great fun to play together that brings them together.
We communicate "by concepts"
Starting with simpler thinking in images, a person moves on to a more perfect one: operating with concepts, always expressed in words. Why is a word more universal than an image? All people have different ideas, it is impossible to come to a good level of mutual understanding on their basis. Therefore, it is so difficult for us to communicate with young children: we are at different stages of development.
For adults, concepts are a kind of bridges for communication that facilitate understanding. They highlight the essential connections of objects, get the opportunity to overcome private system orientations with the help of logical operations: movement from the general to the particular using analysis and synthesis, methods of induction and deduction, generalizing or systematizing, comparing or contrasting.
It is thanks to conceptual thinking that we are able to build logical statements according to the type: thesis - its proof - the conclusion of the conclusion.
Thus, we can be convinced that the ability to think with the help of concepts is necessary not only for people of science, but for everyone who is important to convey their opinion to others. For any successful work, the ability to filter information is useful, isolating the main thoughts, discarding unnecessary ones, building cause-and-effect chains not according to the principle: "It's raining because the trees are wet."
I wish you good science. It is they who will help develop the ability to correctly use concepts, build competent judgments.
Answers to questions in the article:
- The bird will be superfluous, since this is a generalizing concept. For some reason, many call a penguin, citing the fact that it is big.
- Ignore the pound of flour - this is unnecessary information. Two buns cost 10 kopecks.
- Of course, physical bodies, because animals also belong to them.
Sincerely, Alexander Fadeev.
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