What does a general personality characteristic include? Mental properties of personality: brief description

Topic: "Man".
Part 1 . Level A assignments.
A1. Individuality is

1) specific features inherent in man as a biological

body

2) a person’s temperament, his character

3) the unique originality of both natural and

social in man

4) the totality of human needs and abilities

A2. The sign that distinguishes a person from an animal is

1) manifestation of activity

2) goal setting

3) adaptation to the environment

4)interaction with the outside world

A3. Are the following judgments about human life in society true?

A. In man, nature itself has the ability to live in

society.

B. Personality can only be formed in the human

society.

1) only A is correct

2) only B is correct

3) both judgments are correct

4) both judgments are incorrect

A4. Results of industrial, social and spiritual

human activity and society together can be

name


1)culture

2) economics

3) worldview

4) history

A5. Human activity and animal behavior are characterized by

1) setting goals

2) self-control mechanism

3) conscious choice of means

4) satisfaction of needs

A6. Work as opposed to communication

1) is a human need

2) can give a person pleasure

3)directly transforms environmental objects

4) assumes the presence of a goal

A7. Are the following statements about human freedom true?

A. Human freedom is synonymous with permissiveness.

B. Human freedom is impossible in public conditions

connections and interactions.

1)Only A is correct.

2) Only B is correct.

3) Both judgments are correct.

4)Both judgments are incorrect.

A8. To human needs determined by his biological

nature, include the needs for

1) self-preservation

2) self-realization

3)self-knowledge

4) self-education


A9. Personality qualities are manifested in

1) features of a person as a biological organism

2) hereditary predisposition

3) characteristics of temperament

4)socially transformative activities


A10. Are the following judgments about the manifestation of individual and

social in man?

A. Individual and social in a person - the result

biological evolution.

B. Individual and social development of a person does not

connected to each other.

1) only A is correct

2) only B is correct

3) both judgments are correct

4) both judgments are incorrect

A11. Both humans and animals are capable

1) use natural objects

2) make tools using other tools

3) transfer labor skills to subsequent generations

4)be aware of your own needs

A12. In such species human activity like communication and

game, what they have in common is that they

1) allow the use of certain rules or regulations

2) require the presence of a partner

3) are conditional in nature

4) prescribe mandatory observance of rituals

gradual evolution from the ape to man himself?


  1. I.I. Mechnikov

  2. I.P. Pavlov

  3. C. Darwin

  4. J. Cuvier

A14. Which of the following features is characteristic of humans and is absent in

animal?


  1. metabolic processes

  2. creative activity

  3. work of the senses

  4. need for food
A15. IN cognitive activity unlike labor:

  1. means must correspond to ends

  2. the goal is to obtain reliable knowledge

  3. the subject is an individual

  4. the result is a new product
A16. Personality is formed under the influence of:

  1. biological program

  2. natural environment

  3. socialization

A17. A student for a teacher is:


  1. object of activity

  2. competitor

  3. subject of activity

  4. colleague
A18. Are the following statements about personality true?

A. The main thing in characterizing a person is the person’s participation in social relations and creative activities.

B. A newborn person is a person.

1) true A


  1. true B

  2. A and B are correct

  3. both judgments are wrong
A19. Agents of secondary socialization do not include:

  1. radio journalist

  2. cousin

  3. University professor

  4. head of the enterprise?
A20. Are the judgments correct?

Formal interpersonal relationships:

A. They are built depending on individual characteristics personality.

B. Standardized and impersonal.


  1. only A is correct

  2. only B is correct

  3. both judgments are correct

  4. both judgments are wrong
A21. Complete the statement: Man, a being who embodies the highest stage of life development, is most likely based on human ability

  1. organize together with other people into cohesive groups to defend their interests;

  1. resist any aggressive attacks against him;

  1. adapt to environmental conditions that are not always favorable for him;

  2. to creative creative activity based on developed, improving consciousness (thinking, imagination, intuition, etc.)
A22. Existential needs include:

  1. comfort

  2. communication

  3. knowledge

  4. self-respect
A23. Are the following statements about self-awareness true?

A. A person can determine what he is like by comparing himself with other people.

B. A person can determine what he is like without being interested in other people's opinions of himself.


  1. only A is correct

  2. only B is correct

  3. both judgments are correct

  4. both judgments are wrong

A24. Are the following statements about a person true?

A. Man remains part of the natural world.

B. Man develops through the process of social and cultural evolution.


  1. only A is correct

  2. only B is correct

  3. both judgments are correct

  4. both judgments are wrong
A25. Are the following judgments about a person's outstanding abilities true?

A. Nature makes a person a genius.

B. Mental talent is a quality determined by the biological nature of a person.


  1. only A is correct

  2. only B is correct

  3. both judgments are correct

  4. both judgments are wrong
A26. Practical activities include

  1. production of material goods

  2. knowledge of the laws of natural development

  3. formation of religious ideas about the world

  4. composing music
A27. Activity as opposed to communication

  1. is a human need

  2. can give a person pleasure

  3. presupposes a goal

  4. directly transforms environmental objects
A28. Are they true? the following statements about personal freedom?

A. Human freedom presupposes a person’s responsibility to society for his actions and deeds.

B. Freedom is the ability to choose a method of action to achieve a goal.


  1. only A is correct

  2. only B is correct

  3. both judgments are correct

  4. both judgments are wrong
A29. Choose the correct answer from the list below.

A person as an individual representative of the human community, a bearer of individually free traits is called:


  1. activist

  2. individual

  3. leader

  4. personality
A30. The "second nature" or "inorganic body" of man is

  1. The world of social and artificial objects created by man.

  2. The world of the supernatural, mysterious and enigmatic.

  3. The sphere of the true and present, in contrast to everyday, boring and monotonous life.

  4. The result of overcoming or denying the first - natural-biological nature of man.
A31. Human nature

  1. This is an innate biopsychic constitution common to all people.

  2. There is nothing more than the totality of his basic needs.

  3. Represents the basic and unchangeable qualities of a person.

  4. This is a set of qualities such as reason, conscience, duty, and the gift of communication.
A32. Human needs determined by society include the need for

  1. labor activity

  2. preservation of the family

  3. self-preservation

  4. physical activity
A33. Distinctive feature the concept of “personality” is (are)

  1. articulate speech

  2. consciousness and thinking

  3. ability to take responsibility

  4. presence of physical needs
A34. Are the following statements about self-knowledge correct?

A. The ideal “I” is the idea of ​​how others want me to be.

B. An integral part of self-knowledge is self-esteem.


  1. only A is correct

  2. only B is correct

  3. both judgments are correct

  4. both judgments are wrong
A35. The main factor in personality formation is

  1. natural environment

  2. communication with others

  3. mechanism of heredity

  4. innate tendencies

A36. Personality is


  1. a person living in society and possessing a system of socially significant traits, properties and qualities

  2. a person's temperament, his character

  3. unique psychophysiological characteristics of a person

  4. the totality of original human abilities

A37. Are the following judgments about the separation of man from nature correct?

A. The separation of man from nature occurred due to the presence of consciousness in him

and reason.

B. The separation of man from nature occurred due to the presence of

a certain set of instincts.


  1. only A is correct

  2. only B is correct

  3. Both A and B are true

  4. both judgments are wrong

A38. The concept of “individuality” captures:


  1. single representative of the human race

  2. features of a person’s temperament, his character

  3. human labor activity

  4. the unique originality of a person, implying not only his appearance, but also a set of socially significant qualities.

A39. The guidelines of human activity are:


  1. values

  2. attractions

  3. needs

  4. interests.

A40. Are the following judgments about the formation of continuity in behavior true?

person?

A. Functions of innate instincts characteristic of animals in humans

are replaced by norms (rules).

B. Culture acts as a unique program for human behavior.


  1. only A is correct

  2. only B is correct

  3. Both A and B are true

  4. both judgments are wrong

A41. What sign characterizes a person as a person?


  1. active life position

  2. physical and mental health

  3. belonging to homo sapiens

  4. appearance features

A42. “Individuality is the unique identity of a person, a set of his unique

properties". This statement is an example


  1. artistic image

  2. mythological knowledge

  3. religious norm

  4. scientific knowledge

A43. Properties and roles of a person that he acquires only in interaction with

other people characterize him as


  1. individual

  2. individuality

  3. organism

  4. personality

A44. What is common in the activities of inventors, writers, and artists is that it is


  1. administrative

  2. practical

  3. material

  4. creative

A45. Both humans and animals have needs for


  1. self-realization

  2. self-preservation

  3. self-knowledge

  4. self-education

A46. Man, unlike animals, is capable


  1. perform habitual actions

  2. think about your behavior in advance

  3. show emotions

  4. take care of offspring

A47. Unlike animals, man is capable


  1. react with feelings

  2. develop conditioned reflexes

  3. satisfy needs

  4. predict the results of actions

A48. Human social needs include the need


  1. breathe

  2. eat

  3. sleep

  4. communicate

A49. Scientific discoveries represent the result of activity


  1. material and production

  2. socially transformative

  3. practical

  4. spiritual

A50. Play, learning, work act as


  1. criteria of truth

  2. types of activities

  3. social qualities

  4. biological needs

A51. Indicate one of the signs of human activity that distinguishes it from

animal behavior:


  1. manifestation of activity

  2. goal setting

  3. adaptation to the environment

  4. interaction with the outside world

A52. What is the name of the process in which a person comprehends the essence of his “I”?


  1. self-education

  2. self-knowledge

  3. self-preservation

  4. narcissism

A53. The result of self-knowledge, in particular, is


  1. accumulation of knowledge about man and nature

  2. knowledge of the values ​​of society

  3. study of social norms

  4. idea of ​​your abilities

A54. The process of self-knowledge includes the accumulation of knowledge about the characteristics


  1. own appearance

  2. different types of temperament

  3. moral and legal standards

  4. interaction between man and nature

A55. The assertion that man is a product and subject of social

historical activity is a characteristic of his


  1. social essence

  2. biological nature

  3. physiological characteristics

  4. psychological qualities

A56. Man is a unity of three components: biological,

psychological and social. The social component includes


  1. knowledge and skills

  2. feelings and will

  3. physical development

  4. age characteristics

A57. Are the following statements about personality true?

A. Personality is a product of biological evolution.

B. Society has the greatest influence on the individual.

1) only A is correct

2) only B is correct

3) both judgments are correct

4) both judgments are incorrect
A58. Are the following judgments about the connection between activity and communication true?

A. Communication is a side of any joint activity, since

activity involves interaction.

B. Communication is a special activity based on the exchange of knowledge, ideas,

actions.


  1. only A is correct

  2. only B is correct

  3. both judgments are correct

  4. both judgments are wrong

A59. The basis of human existence is


  1. consumerism

  2. activity

  3. Love

  4. friendship

A60. Human activity that has a moral or immoral meaning

Called


  1. window dressing

  2. behavior

  3. self-expression

  4. presentation

A61. Will is


  1. power over oneself, control of one’s actions, conscious regulation of one’s behavior

  2. the ability to fight back against the offender

  3. the ability to fundamentally oppose any point of view other than one’s own

  4. ability for the most dangerous and brutal struggle

A62. The highest moral meaning of human activity is given by


  1. dedication

  2. material benefit

  3. pride in what has been accomplished

  4. enjoyment of craftsmanship.

Do not forget to transfer all the answers written down in the text of the examination paper to answer form No. 1 (without spaces between numbers and letters).

Part 2. Level B tasks.

IN 1. Complete the phrase: “A characteristic manifestation of human activity, expressed in the transformation of the internal and external world, is


AT 2. What concept does the following definition correspond to?

“Mental properties that are conditions for the successful performance of any one or more types of activity.”

Answer: ___________________________________
VZ. Match the definitions given in the first column with the concepts given in the second column.



1

2

3

4

Answer: ____________________________________


AT 4. Fill in the blank in the diagram below

_______________________

Biological

Existential

Prestigious

Existential

Social

Existential

AT 5. Complete the phrase: “The conscious image of the result that the goal is aimed at achieving.”

activity, this."

Answer: _____________________________
AT 6. Find in the list below the properties of a person that reveal his social nature.


  1. Ability for joint transformative activities

  2. The desire for self-realization

  3. Ability to adapt to natural conditions

  4. Stable views on the world and your place in it

  5. Need for water, food, rest

  6. Self-preservation ability
Answer: ___________________________
AT 7. Establish a correspondence between the types of human needs given in the first column and examples of their manifestations in the second.

Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces or other symbols).


1

2

3


AT 8. A team of construction workers is constructing a residential building. Find the subjects of this activity in the list below.

  1. Carpenters

  2. Masons

  3. House under construction

  4. Crane operators

  5. Cranes

  6. Safety regulations

  7. Construction Materials

AT 9. Match the two lists, one of which names the main functions of communication, and the other describes them. Mark the distinctive characteristics of a person in the list below.

FUNCTION DESCRIPTION

COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS

1. Organization of joint activities

A. Communicative

2. Exchange of information

B. Interaction function

3. Perceiving each other and establishing mutual understanding

B. The function of interpersonal cognition

Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces or other symbols).


1

2

3

Answer: __________________________
AT 10. Below are the characteristics of communication as a dialogue, but mistakes are made. Remove them from the list.

a) Equality of partners

b) Activity of each participant

c) Respect for the opinion of the interlocutor

d) Willingness for mutual understanding

e) The desire to convince the opponent at all costs

f) Arrogance

g) Not knowing the name of the interlocutor

Answer: ________________________________
AT 11. Find in the list below the traits that are unique to creative activity.


  1. Availability for use

  2. Uniqueness

  3. Practical significance

  4. Sample reproducibility

  5. Fundamental novelty
Answer: _________________________________
AT 12. Establish a correspondence between the activities given in the first column and their characteristics given in the second.

Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces or other symbols).


1

2

3

4

5

Answer: _______________________________
B13. Complete the sentence:

“Human needs are based on...”

Answer: ________________________________________________________________
B14. Find the distinctive ones in the list below

characteristics of a person.

1) biological creature

2) consciously sets goals for activities

3) lives among his own kind

4) has the ability to be creative

5) produces tools with the help of other tools

6) has innate instincts of self-preservation


Write the numbers in your answer in ascending order.
Answer: __________________________.

B15. Establish a correspondence between the types of human needs

and them concrete examples: to each position given in

second column.

Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces or other symbols).


1

2

3

4

Answer: ______________________

B16. Establish correspondence between activities and

features of their manifestation: to each position given in

first column, select the appropriate position from

second column.


Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces or other symbols).


1

2

3

4

Answer: ______________________

B17. The social characteristics of a person are determined by his

needs... (Circle the numbers below which are correct

positions)


  1. in work activity

  2. in a dream

  3. on vacation

  4. in creation

  5. in food

  6. in social activity

  7. in the air

  8. in water

  9. in communication with other people

Write the circled numbers in ascending order.


Answer: ___________________

B18. Name the concept that matches the definition.

This is a person as a carrier of consciousness, endowed

a number of important social properties: the ability to learn,

work, communicate with others like you, participate in life

society, have spiritual interests, experience complex

feelings, etc.

Answer: __________________

B19. Name the concept that matches the definition.

These are the simplest learned movements,

the implementation of which does not require special efforts, for example,

household activities: fastening buttons, combing hair,

sewing, using a knife and fork while eating, etc.
Answer: ___________________

IN 20. Name the concept that matches the definition.

Independent use of entire systems mastered

person skills, conscious grouping them into

a certain sequence, evaluation of results

actions, methods of action - _______.
Answer: ____________________

AT 21. Fill in the words in place of the blanks.

Sciences: anthropology, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, etc.

study man as ____________ (1) organism. Man like

______________ (2), as a subject of _______________ (3) life –

subject of study of psychology, philosophy, sociology, ethics,

pedagogy, jurisprudence and other sciences.


Answer: 1 _________________, 2 ________________, 3 ______________

B22

A combination of abilities that makes it possible

creative performance of any activity is called

To this activity.


Answer: __________________

B23. Fill in the words in place of the blanks.

Do you think that L.N. Tolstoy considered manifestations of fear

before your conscience?


  1. drunkenness

  2. smoking

  3. talkativeness

Answer: ______________

B24. Name the concept that matches the definition.

This is an act of moral activity,

moral search, which is expressed in conscious

preference for a certain system of life values,

lines of behavior.
Answer: ______________

B25.“Why am I living? What is the purpose of my existence? Like me

must live so that my existence is filled with dignity

kind of ______________.


Answer: _______________

B26. German psychologist and teacher E. Spranger (1882-1963)

proposed a personality typology, including the following types:

religious, aesthetic, political, social,

theoretical, economic.

Match characteristics and personality types

by substituting in the table for the number from the left column the letter from


CHARACTERISTIC

PERSONALITY TYPE

1) embodies the desire for dominance, for the distribution of social roles, imposes its normative field of communication

A) religious

2) tends to communicate in a non-role situation; expresses himself in communication. Vibrantly individualistic

B) aesthetic

3) the main thing is communication with the Absolute (God). This communication becomes a role-vocation. Everything else becomes of secondary importance

B) political

4) for him, communication is a form of dedication. The main form of life is love. Getting used to the object of love, it can take on any form of life activity

D) economic

5) the basis of behavior is pragmatic orientation. In communication, strives primarily to achieve benefits

D) theoretical

6) is distinguished by an all-consuming passion for knowledge. Not so much communicating as exploring objects of communication

E) social

Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces or other symbols).


1

2

3

4

5

6

Answer: ___________________

B27. Establish a correspondence between the sciences, to one degree or another,

in one aspect or another who study man, and their brief

description.


THE SCIENCE

SHORT DESCRIPTION

1) anatomy

A) the science of the structure of organisms

2) pedagogy

B) science is the most general laws development of nature, society and consciousness

3) philosophy

C) the science of the functions and functions of the body

4) sociology

D) the science of human biological nature

5) physiology

D) science that studies the processes and patterns of mental activity

6) anthropology

E) the science that studies the chemical substances that make up organisms

7) psychology

G) the science of society, the relationships of people and groups in it

8) biochemistry

H) the science of education and training

Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces or other symbols).


1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Answer: __________________

B28. Establish a correspondence between some abilities and their manifestations (results).

Write down the selected letters in the table, and then transfer the resulting sequence of letters to the answer form (without spaces or other symbols).


1

2

3

4

Answer: _________________

B29. What are the two main evaluative points of view on

person:


  1. optimistic

  2. synthetic

  3. economic

  4. political

  5. pessimistic

  6. artistic
Answer: __________________

B30. What are the two main aspects that make up the essence of a person:


  1. class

  2. biological (natural)

  3. space

  4. social

  5. economic

  6. mystical

Answer: ___________________

B31. Note which concepts are included as components in

productive human activity:


  1. immutability

  2. unconscious movements

  3. activity

  4. interaction

  5. aimlessness

  6. following instinct

  7. conscious change

  8. focus

  9. self-realization.

Answer: ________________

B32. Highlight the main types of activities by content:


  1. combat

  2. labor

  3. gaming

  4. educational

  5. medical

  6. a commercial

Answer: _________________

Part 3. Level C assignments.
C1. Name at least three features human body, which form the biological basis of human activity as a social being.

C2. A human child at the moment of birth, in the apt expression of A. Pieron, is not a person, but only a “candidate for a person.” Explain what A. Pieron meant when he called the child a “candidate for man”? Formulate three judgments.

NW. It is known that the behavior of an animal in its main features is genetically programmed. Many human instincts as a result social history appeared to be loose and worn out. According to A. Pieron, “humanity has freed itself from the despotism of heredity.” How is human freedom from the “despotism of responsibility” manifested? Formulate at least three statements.

C4. Build a logical chain based on the statement of the Russian publicist and critic V.G. Belinsky: “Without a goal there is no activity, without interests there is no goal, and without activity there is no life.”

Explain what role interests, goals, and activities play in a person’s life? What is the connection between them?

C5. Read the text and complete the tasks for it.

It seems to me that those who are horrified by the development of technology do not notice the difference between the means and the end. ... the car is not the goal. An airplane is not a target, it is just a tool. The same tool as the plow. ... Reveling in our successes, we served progress - we laid railways, built factories, drilled oil wells. And somehow they forgot that all this was created to serve people.

Even a machine, becoming more perfect, does its job more and more modestly and unnoticed. It seems as if all the works of man - the creator of machines, all his calculations, all sleepless nights over the drawings only appear in external simplicity; as if the experience of many generations was needed so that the column, keel of a ship or the fuselage of an airplane would become slimmer and more embossed, until they finally acquired pristine purity and smoothness of lines... It seems as if the work of engineers, draftsmen, and designers boils down to polishing and smooth out to lighten and simplify the attachment mechanism, to balance the wing, to make it invisible - no longer a wing attached to the fuselage, but a kind of perfection of form, naturally developed from a bud, a mysteriously fused and harmonious unity that is akin to a beautiful poem. As you can see, perfection is achieved not when there is nothing left to add, but when nothing can be taken away. A machine at the limit of its development is no longer a machine. So, when an invention is brought to perfection, it is not clear how it was created. With the simplest tools, the visible signs of the mechanism were gradually erased, and in our hands we found an object that seemed to have been created by nature itself, like a pebble ground by the sea; The car is also remarkable in the same way - when you use it, you gradually forget about it.

A. de Saint-Exupéry. Planet of People


  1. Find any three examples of people's transformative activities in the text.

  2. Indicate and illustrate using this text any two
    distinctive features of human activity.

  3. Can the process of human labor to create machines captured in a document be considered creative? Justify your answer using the text. Define creative activity.

  4. What is the ultimate goal of human transformative activity?
    century, according to the author and in your opinion? Justify both answers.
C6. The conflict between beliefs and immediate interests awaits a person at every step: the conviction that one must tell the truth, and the reluctance to offend a person; the belief that you need to come to the aid of a person who has been attacked, and the fear that by providing help you may get hurt yourself...

Continue this list. What types of conflicts are we talking about in this case? Are these conflicts that should be avoided? How do you see the manifestation of the conscious and unconscious in this example?

C7. Otto von Bismarck wrote: “Freedom is a luxury that not everyone can afford.”

How are freedom and necessity related? Support your answer with examples.

C8. Choose one of the statements below. On the form

answers No. 2 write down the full number of the task you have chosen,

rewrite the content of the statement and then give

detailed response.


Express your thoughts (your point of view, attitude) about

the problem raised. The answer should use

the corresponding concepts of the social science course and, based on

to the facts public life and my own life experience,

provide the necessary arguments to substantiate your position.

1) “A person outside of society is either a god or a beast.” (Aristotle)

2) “If a person has a “why” to live, he can withstand any

"How". (F. Nietzsche)

3) “Man is a fundamental novelty in nature.” (N. Berdyaev)

4) “A person is not a thing, but a living being who

can only be understood in the long process of its development. IN

every moment of his life he is not yet what he can

become, and what he may also become” (E. Fromm)

ANSWERS

Level A


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Part 2. Level B


№ tasks

answer

1

activity

2

creation

3

V;B;A

4

needs

5

target

6

1,2,4

7

1-A;2-B;3-C

8

1,2,4

9

B;A;B

10

d), f)

11

2,5

12

V;A;B;V;A

13

motives

14

2,4,5

15

BAAB

16

VABV

17

1,4,6,9

18

personality

19

skills

20

skills

21

1) biological, 2) personality, 3) social

22

Talent

23

1,2

24

moral choice

25

meaning of life

26

B;B;A;E;D;D

27

A;Z;B;F;C;D;E;E

28

B;D;B;A

29

1,5

30

2,4

31

3,4,7,8,9

32

2,3,4

Part 3. Level C.

C1. The correct answer may contain the following characteristics:

upright walking;

developed hand;

complex brain;

the ability to see in three dimensions;

plasticity of needs.

Other characteristics may be given.

C2. The correct answer may contain the following judgments, for example:

man is a social being, not just a biological one;

the concepts of individual - individuality - personality represent different aspects of considering the problem of “man”, they differ;

a person becomes a person in the process of socialization (upbringing, training, communication with his own kind);

outside society - communication with others like oneself, the development of thinking and speech is impossible.

Other valid judgments may be given.

NW. The correct answer may contain the following statements:

man is a social and conscious being;

unlike an animal, it has goal-setting; the human ability to be creative is not hereditary; a person is able to consciously control his instincts.

Other wording of the answer is allowed.

C4. The answer must contain the following items:

logical chain: interest - goal - activity - life; interests underlie the goal, the goal determines the activity and meaning of life;

a goal is what actions are taken for, the ideal of the desired result, it is based on motives determined by interests;

motives are motivations for activity related to the satisfaction of needs - biological, social, ideal;

interests play a special role in motivation—conscious needs that are of significant importance to people; they give value to human activity.

Other wording of positions is allowed that does not distort the meaning of the answer.

C5. Contents of correct answers to tasks for the text.


  1. The following may be indicated: the creation of machines, tools, mechanisms, railways, factories, oil wells.

  2. The answer can indicate and illustrate, based on the text, such features of human activity as: expediency, practical usefulness, the presence of a result; conscious, productive, transformative, social nature of activity.
3) The correct answer must be affirmative; argument:
the author describes the emergence of a new, more advanced quality of human labor results;

creative activity should be defined as an activity as a result of which something new appears that did not previously exist.

4) According to the author, “all this was created to serve people”; The ultimate goal of any transformative activity is service to people. For example: work activity is aimed at satisfying the fundamental needs of people.

Other examples may be given.

C6. The correct answer suggests the following:

there may be a conflict between desires and capabilities; between conscience and desire; duty and mood, etc.;

we are talking about internal conflicts;

in this case we are talking about a conflict between unconscious feelings, intuition, the source of which is conscience, and reason (consciousness), which sometimes evaluates our good deeds as inappropriate, unprofitable, and sometimes stupid.

Other wording is allowed without distorting the meaning.

C7. If the answer to the first question is affirmative, it should be indicated that freedom is the ability to choose a method of action to achieve any goal, which depends on the person, his education, upbringing, attitudes, motives, interests.

The second answer should give definitions of freedom and necessity in human activity. Necessity is the dependence of the individual on objective circumstances. Human freedom presupposes his responsibility to society for his actions and deeds. For example, being late for class entails reprimand, violation of rules traffic is fraught with consequences. As freedom develops, the degree of responsibility increases. Today there is a shift in the center of gravity of responsibility from the collective to the individual. When answering the second question, both mastery of the concepts of the social science course and their application to the analysis of specific situations (examples) are equally important.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

higher professional education

"North Caucasus State Technical University"

Department of Management

HOMEWORK

in the discipline: "Organizational Behavior"

on the topic: “The concept of personality, its main characteristics”

Speciality: 080507(061100)

Group: M – 041

Head of work: Chuprova D.B.

Work protected:

Stavropol

2008

Introduction

Personality is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that includes many components. In psychological science there are several generally accepted provisions regarding personality. At least we can talk about 4 main points:

    personality is inherent in every person;

    personality is what distinguishes a person from animals, which do not have a personality;

    personality is a product of historical development, i.e. arises at a certain stage of the evolution of a human being;

    individual, distinctive personality characteristics of a person, i.e. that which distinguishes one person from another.

Not every person’s personality is expressed clearly enough. We can talk about a person as an individual to the extent that he was able to express his desires, ideas, feelings through specific achievements in science, art, i.e. through what mark he will leave in this life. The organization of the psyche that helps a person actively transform and change the environment in accordance with some of his internal ideas and desires is understood in psychology as a personality. Various manifestations of personality, its properties, as well as the psyche itself in general, are the result of the work of the brain, higher nervous activity. In order for a person to demonstrate his abilities and to improve himself, it is not individual mental manifestations that are needed, but the activity of the entire consciousness; you need to think, and feel, and want, and observe. Perhaps the most significant characteristic of a personality is its orientation. The course that a person follows in life and, in general, all his creative activity, depend primarily on the orientation of the individual. Personality is the crossroads at which the individually unique and the socially typical coexist. It is important that social dogmas do not dominate individual ones, because It is individuality that is the source of personal development. But if others external conditions do not contribute to the development of certain personality traits, then they remain only “inclinations”. Mental properties of a person are “what a person can turn out to be under certain external conditions. Therefore, the characteristics of a person’s psyche are at the same time a prediction of how a person can behave under given circumstances.”

1 The concept of personality

The concept of “personality” is multifaceted; personality is the object of study of many sciences: philosophy, sociology, psychology, ethics, aesthetics, pedagogy, etc. Each of these sciences studies personality in its specific aspect.

For a socio-psychological analysis of personality, the concepts of “personality”, “individual”, “individuality”, “person” should be clearly distinguished.

The most general concept is “man” - a biosocial being with articulate speech, consciousness, higher mental functions (abstract-logical thinking, logical memory, etc.), capable of creating tools and using them in the process social labor. These specific human abilities and properties (speech, consciousness, work activity, etc.) are not transmitted to people in the order of biological heredity, but are formed in them during their lifetime, in the process of assimilating the culture created by previous generations.

No person’s personal experience can lead to the fact that he independently develops logical thinking and independently develops a system of concepts. This would require not one, but a thousand lives. People of each subsequent generation begin their lives in the world of objects and phenomena created by previous generations. By participating in labor and various forms social activities, they develop in themselves those specific human abilities that have already been formed in humanity. Necessary conditions for a child to assimilate socio-historical experience:

1) communication between a child and adults, during which the child learns adequate activities and assimilates human culture. If, as a result of the catastrophe, the adult population had died and only small children had survived, then, although the human race would not have ceased, the history of mankind would have been interrupted. Cars, books and other culture would continue to physically exist, but there would be no one to reveal their purpose to children;

2) in order to master those objects that are products of historical development, it is necessary to carry out not just any activity in relation to them, but such adequate activity that will reproduce in itself the essential socially developed ways of human and human activity. The assimilation of socio-historical experience acts as a process of reproduction in the child’s properties of the historically developed properties and abilities of the human race. Thus, the development of humanity is impossible without the active transmission of human culture to new generations. Without society, without assimilation of the socio-historical experience of mankind, it is impossible to become a human being, to acquire specific human qualities, even if a human being has biological usefulness. But, on the other hand, without biological completeness (mental retardation), morphological properties inherent in man as a biological species, it is impossible even under the influence of society, upbringing, and education to achieve the highest human qualities.

Human life and activity are determined by the unity and interaction of biological and social factors, with the leading role of the social factor. Since consciousness, speech, etc. are not transmitted to people in the order of biological heredity, but are formed in them during their lifetime, they use the concept of “individual” - as a biological organism, the bearer of the general genotypic hereditary properties of a biological species (we are born as an individual) and the concept of “personality” - as the socio-psychological essence of a person, formed as a result of a person’s assimilation of social forms of consciousness and behavior, the socio-historical experience of mankind (we become individuals under the influence of life in society, education, training, communication, interaction).

Sociology considers a person as a representative of a certain social “group”, as social type as a product of social relations. But psychology takes into account that at the same time the personality is not only an object of social relations, not only experiences social influences, but refracts and transforms them, since gradually the personality begins to act as a set of internal conditions through which the external influences of society are refracted. These internal
conditions are an alloy of hereditary-biological properties and socially determined qualities that were formed under the influence of previous social influences. As personality develops, internal conditions become deeper; as a result, the same external influence can have on different people different influence.

Thus, the personality is not only an object and product of social relations, but also an active subject of activity, communication, consciousness, and self-awareness.

Personality is a social concept; it expresses everything that is supranatural and historical in a person. Personality is not innate, but arises as a result of cultural and social development.
A special and different personality in the fullness of its spiritual and physical properties is characterized by the concept of “individuality”. Individuality is expressed in the presence of different experiences, knowledge, opinions, beliefs, in differences in character and temperament; we prove and affirm our individuality. Motivation, temperament, abilities, character are the main parameters of individuality.

2 Basic personality characteristics

The main characteristics of an individual are: activity (the desire to expand the scope of one’s activities), orientation (a system of motives, needs, interests, beliefs), joint activities of social groups and collectives.

Activity is the most important thing general property personality, and it manifests itself in activity, in the process of interaction with the environment. But what exactly motivates a person to act in a certain way, set certain goals and achieve them? Such motivating reasons are needs. A need is an impulse to activity, which is recognized and experienced by a person as a need for something, a lack of something, dissatisfaction with something. The activity of the individual is directed towards satisfying needs.
Human needs are varied. First of all, natural needs are distinguished, which directly ensure human existence: the needs for food, rest and sleep, clothing and housing. These are basically biological needs, but in their essence they are fundamentally different from the corresponding needs of animals: the way to satisfy human needs is social in nature, that is, it depends on society, upbringing, and the surrounding social environment. Let us compare, for example, the need for housing in animals (burrow, den, nest) and in humans (home). Even a person’s need for food is socialized: “...the hunger that is satisfied by boiled meat, eaten with a knife and fork, is a different hunger than that in which raw meat is swallowed with the help of hands, nails and teeth.”

Along with natural ones, a person also has purely human, spiritual, or social needs: the need for verbal communication with other people, the need for knowledge, active participation in public life, cultural needs (reading books and newspapers, listening to radio programs, visiting theaters and cinema , listening to music).

The most important characteristic of a personality is its orientation, which determines the goals that a person sets for himself, the aspirations that are characteristic of him, the motives in accordance with which he acts.
When analyzing one or another specific act, a specific action, a certain activity of a person (and they are always extremely diverse), one must know the motives or motivating reasons for these actions, actions or specific activities. Motives can be specific manifestations of needs or other types of motivation.
A person’s cognitive need manifests itself in interests. Interests are a person’s active cognitive orientation towards a particular object, phenomenon or activity associated with a positive emotional attitude towards them. The concept of legal consciousness, its structure, basic functions, evaluative relations. Defects of legal consciousness Abstract >> Psychology

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    • Plan

      The concept of personality.

    Basic concepts: individual, individuality, personality, depersonalization, personalization, self-realization, self-awareness, self-image, self-concept, psychological defense, identification, cognitive dissonance, value orientations, personality orientation, worldview, motive, motivation, causal attribution, locus of control, motivation to achieve success, motivation to avoid failure.

    Literature

    1. Ananyev, B. G. Man as an object of knowledge / B. G. Ananyev. – St. Petersburg: Publishing House “Peter”, 2001. – 288 p.

    2. Ananyev, B. G. On the problems of modern human knowledge / B. G. Ananyev. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. – 272 p.

    3. Asmolov, A. G. Personality psychology: principles of psychological analysis / A. G. Asmolov. – M.: Smysl, 2001. – 468 p.

    4. Burns, E. Development of self-concept and education / E. Burns. – M., 1986.

    5. Gippenreiter, Yu. B. Introduction to general psychology / Yu. B. Gippenreiter. – M.: CheRo Publishing House, “Urayt”, 2000. – 336 p.

    6. Godefroy, J. What is psychology: In 2 volumes / J. Godefroy. – M.: Mir, 1999.

    7. Leontyev, A. N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality / A. N. Leontiev. – M., 1975. – 304 p.

    8. Meili, R. Personality structure // Experimental psychology / R. Meili. – Issue 5. – 1975. – P. 197 – 277. Petrovsky, V. A. Psychology of non-adaptive activity / V. A. Petrovsky. – M.: LLP “Gorbunok”, 1992. – 224 p.

    9. Raigorodsky, D. Ya. Psychology of personality: in 2 vols. / D. Ya. Raigorodsky. – T.2. Reader. – Second edition, add. – Samara: Publishing House “BAKHRAH-M”, 2000. – 544 p.

    10. Rubinstein S. L. Problems of general psychology / S. L. Rubinstein. – M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1973.

    11. Stolin, V.V. Personal self-awareness / V.V. Stolin, - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1983. - 284 p.

    12. Freud, Z. Psychology of the unconscious / Z. Freud. – M.: Education, 1989. – 448 p.

      The concept of personality. Personality – the highest integration of all mental processes and properties, the formation of special, purely personal new formations: beliefs, value orientations, worldview.

    The concept of “personality” is often combined with the word “person”. However, these are different concepts. Individual is a biological phenomenon, a representative of Homo sapiens, with genetically transmitted properties. Human - This is a half biological, half social phenomenon, participating in socially beneficial activities. A.G. Asmolov wrote: “One is born as an individual, one becomes an individual, and one defends individuality.” Close to these concepts is the concept individuality. It has the following characteristics: 1) individuality presupposes the presence of properties and characteristics mental processes, neoplasms of one person that distinguish him from other people; 2) constant, stable difference.

    Personality is born twice.

    First "birth" personality - at three years of age, when self-awareness appears, a person distinguishes himself from the world around him, realizes himself and his “I”. The first sign of independence is noted when a person begins to prefer something, delays one behavior for the sake of another, when a system of his needs is formed and a hierarchy of motives is determined.

    Second birth" occurs in adolescence, when the ability for self-development and self-education appears, when a person realizes himself as an activist and plans his own life. In general, personality in adolescence is already formed, although later it can change.

    There are also crises and turning points in a person’s life when it is necessary to rethink everything that has been lived and make new decisions. American psychologist Gail Sheehy argues that these crises have a certain theme and periodicity, following each other every seven years, starting from the age of 16. Other researchers believe that the very first mental crisis is a neonatal crisis, followed by a crisis three years, entry into primary school, adolescence, crisis of nineteen years, thirty, thirty-seven, forty-five and then every seven years. A mental crisis is the phenomenon of the transition of quantitative changes, accumulations into qualitative ones; at each age, the formation of new formations occurs, clarification of values, meanings of life, the ability to see oneself, loved ones and the world around us with different eyes, in a new way.

    Thus, a person becomes an individual in communication, in joint activities. In every person who is involved in concrete historical social relations, there awakens the need to be a person and the ability to become one. This need is determined by the acceptance of a social role.

    Role- a concept denoting human behavior in a certain life situation corresponding to the position he occupies (for example, the role of a doctor, patient, leader, father, mother, etc.).

    “The social role is a unit of transmission of socially typical experience, ensuring adaptive behavior of the individual and expressing the general tendency of the “individual in the group” system to persist. By being included in the life of the individual, the role is individualized,” wrote A.G. Asmolov. If this role is not part of the individual’s value system, then the individual does not “invest” himself in the activity. It only manifests itself at the level of individual operations (knowledge, skills) in accordance with social regulatory requirements. If social role acquires a personal meaning, then the individual in his activity strives to make the most effective possible “investments” of his abilities and at the same time goes beyond the limits of normative restrictions, in the interests of the business he shows non-adaptive activity in solving problems, takes supra-situational risks (V. A. Petrovsky, 1981 ).

    Thus, the formation of personality goes through two phases: 1) operational, where the role determines the behavior of the individual, 2) personal-semantic, when the personality personalizes the activity, influencing the productivity of the business and thereby determining “investments” in other people.

    At the first stage, a tendency towards social adaptation and adherence to the norms and values ​​of the group appears. Through role prescriptions, “I” passes into “We”.

    The second stage is characterized by the emergence of freedom of choice, when a person becomes a subject of self-development, determining not only his own destiny, but also the life circumstances of others. The “I” finds itself represented in others. Large-scale achievements mature personality are translated into the experience of other people. A person who has crossed the normative role boundaries of activity appears in a new quality - bright, strong, original individuality.

    In the 20th century, philosophical, sociological, teleological, socio-psychological developments of the problem of personality intensified.

    The humanistic approach postulates that in every person there is an orientation that pushes him to realize his possibilities (J. Godefroy).

    According to K. Rogers, every living organism is endowed with the desire to preserve and improve its life. The competence required for this can only be developed in a context of social values ​​in which the individual has the opportunity to establish positive connections.

    According to humanistic psychology, the following personal traits can be distinguished: characteristics:

    1) self-awareness (self-knowledge and self-esteem), when a person distinguishes himself from the world around him and understands his personality as “I-image”, “I-mental image”, “I-social image”, roles in public life, which add up to “ “I-concept” - a complete, complex idea of ​​oneself, not only external appearance, but also the meaning of life; the main functions of self-awareness are self-knowledge, self-improvement, search for the meaning of life;

    2) consciousness of the continuity and identity of one’s “I”: “I” – in the past, “I” – now, “I” – in the future; if this connection is broken, depersonalization occurs, or split personality, and it ceases to exist;

    3) individuality:

    a) specific mental processes, for example: observation, prudence, impressionability, emotional excitability, determination, initiative;

    b) stable manifestation of these mental phenomena in the individual;

    4) activity, which is generated not by basal needs, not due to a dominant need, but due to the formation of a hierarchy of motives and needs, a person chooses the direction of his activity;

    5) self-regulation - not only behavior, but also personality development, setting goals in life, awareness of the meaning of life. Self-regulation leads to self-actualization, personalization, self-development of one’s personality, which constantly thinks about it and creates temporary meanings for itself that temporarily satisfy it. Self-actualization - the desire to realize one's potential - and personalization - the desire to enter the lives of other people - are innate human needs (meta-needs according to A. G. Maslow). There is a struggle for this. People strive to leave a mark. For some, this becomes the meaning of life: “No! All of me will not die - the soul in the treasured lyre will survive my ashes and escape decay ... "

    The idea of ​​oneself, that is, the “I-concept,” also consists of the “real I” and the “ideal I.” If we feel that we are accepted for who we are, then we tend to reveal our true emotions, feelings, thoughts. On the contrary, if we do not conform to socially approved forms of behavior, we will hide our feelings and thoughts, instead demonstrating those that are approved by others. This will lead to a discord between the real “I”, formed by the environment, and that part of the psyche that we are forced to abandon, which will become a source of anxiety. A personality is balanced the better, the greater the agreement, or congruence, between the person’s real “I” and his feelings, thoughts and behavior. The highest values ​​and calling of a self-actualizing personality are truth, beauty, perfection and simplicity. Involvement in a task and dedication to this task encourage one to strive for self-improvement.

    In the hierarchy of human needs, the desire for self-actualization, according to A. G. Maslow, occupies the top of the pyramid, while at its base lie the simplest physiological needs:

    1. Physiological (hunger, thirst, etc.);

    2. The need for safety, security;

    3. The need for love, inclusion, acceptance, friendship;

    4. The need for respect and self-esteem;

    5. Cognitive, research needs;

    6. Aesthetic (need for harmony, order, beauty);

    7. The need for self-actualization (self-development, realization of abilities).

    Personality in its development goes through four stages:

    1. Survival;

    2. Adaptation niche (gaining security);

    3. Active activity (cognition and assessment of the situation);

    4. Personal prosperity (non-adaptive activity). This stage is the most significant and successful for the individual, because in this case the individual is realized as a bright individuality, making maximum abilities and contributions to his activities, overcoming normative restrictions and assigning his own identity to the activity.

      Personality formation: social and biological, unconscious and conscious in the individual. Personality formation occurs under the influence of many factors: the presence of vitamins in the diet, musical instruments, both parents, place of residence, etc., primarily biological, affecting from the inside, and social, affecting from the outside.

    The group of factors acting from the inside is the entire set of innate needs, instincts, growth characteristics (small, tall), physique (thin, fat), appearance (beautiful or with body defects), hormonal and humoral balance, and the structure of the nervous system. All these components will indirectly affect the formation of a person’s personality. Rarely, only in the presence of a compensatory environment (smart and strong parents, friends, teachers), a disabled child can grow into a morally and psychologically complete person. A beautiful child, more often than other children, can be drawn into a certain system of asocial relationships.

    On the other hand, from the outside, a person can also be influenced by the whole range of social factors: the characteristics of relationships in the family, the school community, the education system, and society as a whole. A person in camps and prisons loses his personality under the influence of the system of these relations. The interaction of factors, their influence on a person is different. The result of personality is the balance between these two groups of factors.

    The biological and social in personality resembles what he wrote about Z. Freud. According to Freud, personality is formed under the influence of three factors (structures):

    1. “It” (“id”) is a cauldron of lower passions that do not reach the level of consciousness, but provide energy for searching for objects to satisfy passions according to the principle: satisfy a need, regardless of reality; but this is unacceptable, and the person in real life puts a “taboo” on it.

    2. “I” (“ego”) – is formed above the “It” and is separated from it by a thin partition in order to introduce restrictions into the actions of the “It”. The self is the result of using experience and thinking to organize behavior. The task of the “I” is to preserve the integrity of the new formations that make up the personality, to protect them from the “id”, as well as from the prohibitions and norms of society through sublimation, repression, regression, replacement and other psychological defense mechanisms.

    3. “Super-I” (“super-ego”) – stands out from the “I”, is formed by society within the individual and consists of taboos and values ​​​​instilled by parents and society, since the individual is an arena of the struggle between want (It) and necessary / impossible (super-ego). Sometimes the “super-ego” produces signals, and the person commits violations, and “guilt” (the mechanism of internal punishment for the possible weakness of the “I”, for the concessions that the “I” made) falls on the “I” of this person. The “I” includes a part of the “It” and a part of the “super-ego”. We don’t remember many of the taboos that were placed in us in early childhood, what we were limited in. The “I” perceives everything, the whole world; within the “I” there are entire zones (for example, the Oedipus complex and the Electra complex) that are not conscious, but break through in dreams, in forgetfulness, humor, slips of the tongue, and mistakes.

    The unconscious always remains unconscious, but can take on some verbal form: a person must try to find suitable words, as precise as possible to define his state. The task of a psychoanalyst is to find non-frightening words and put a different meaning into them in order to correct a person’s given condition. Sometimes a conflict matures in a personality if the “It” and the “super-ego” are strong. “It” is always strong, it always puts the same pressure on the personality, but only with a strong “super-ego” do conflicts occur. If the super-ego is weak, the id is always satisfied. “It” can be compared to a horse, and “I” can be compared to the rider on this horse. The rider can always use the horse's energy. Sometimes the “I” only pretends to be in control of the “It”, and the whole power of the “I” lies in sublimating the “It”, in bringing it into a state and channel acceptable for man and society (for example, the fate and work of Leonardo da Vinci).

    L. I. Bozhovich identifies 2 main criteria for personality development:

    1) the ability to overcome one’s own immediate impulses based on socially significant facts (“the first birth of personality,” according to A. N. Leontiev);

    2) the ability to act on the basis of conscious motives, goals and principles, that is, conscious mediation. “It presupposes the presence of self-awareness as a special instance of personality.” The emergence of self-awareness means the “second birth of personality.” The main function of self-awareness is to know oneself, improve oneself, and search for the meaning of life.

    Yu. B. Gippenreiter characterizes the following “spontaneous mechanisms of personality formation”: 1) shift of motive to goal; 2) identification and 3) mastering social roles.

    The named mechanisms operate in line with the general, general process of “objectification of the need for communication.” “The need for something different,” in contact with one’s own kind, turns out to be the main driving force behind the formation and development of personality.”

    Let's take it in order.

    1)Motive shift to goal: the norms and requirements of a loving mother are illuminated for the child personal meaning. Communication with her is a joy. Initially, he fulfills her demands in order to continue experiencing this joy. The child performs the required actions (goal) for the sake of communicating with his mother (motive). “Over time, everything is “projected” onto this action large quantity positive experiences, and along with their accumulation, the correct action acquires an independent motivating force (becomes a motive).” So, at first the action takes place for the sake of one goal, and then the activity itself becomes a motivating motive, for example: a sailor can first go to sea for the sake of money, then for the sake of the sea and the whole complex of interactions. The child’s need for positive emotional contacts proceeds as a huge internal work, leading to good, correct and cultural behavior and becomes an internal need of a person. This indicates successful parenting. “That object (idea, goal), which is long and persistently saturated with positive emotions, turns into an independent motive (shift of the motive to the goal).” “If communication with an adult goes poorly, joylessly, and brings grief, then the child does not develop new motives, and proper personality education does not occur.” Sudden infant mortality syndrome is known, when a child not only does not develop as a person, but also dies physically if he is exposed to emotional trauma. “Parents, make your child strong! Your most powerful weapon is unconditional love,” American scientist Ross Campbell (1992) addresses his readers.

    2)Identification– assimilation, identification with someone, gaining personal experience through imitation and an attempt to merge with this image, appropriation of experience; introducing one's personality into the personality of another (in early childhood, social experience is acquired through imitation). Projecting oneself into the personality of an adult or another person and mastering his experience is called social heredity. Then there may be a change in the object of imitation: educator, teacher, leader of peers, etc. Youth does not reject authority, it just looks for it not in its immediate environment, but in fictional, literary or pop-rock culture. But then disappointment may come, and the person is freed from identification.

    3)Acceptance and development of social roles. This differs from identification in that identification occurs not with a person, but with the role. A child plays roles in early childhood, and this is of great importance, being a significant factor in the development of his personality.

    The transition to a role has several stages:

    – stage of role expectations – at first we dream of becoming someone, we try on this role;

    – the stage of implantation into the role – the role is realized and understood;

    - stage of execution - the role can lead, leaving a special imprint on the personality, forming in it qualities that were previously absent, for example: a white coat for a doctor, a class magazine for a teacher, a whistle and baton in the hands of a policeman, etc.

    So, the fate of the individual is in the hands of the immediate social environment, but the strength of the internal desire for self-improvement and self-development lifts a person above the personal level - to an original individuality.

    B. G. Ananyev determined the following personality levels:

    – cellular (type of heredity),

    – morphological (type of constitution),

    – organic functions (life support),

    – psychophysiological (vitality),

    – psychological (reflection of the reflected and transformed),

    – socio-psychological (role),

    – social (statuses).

    The vertical movement of the individual becomes possible thanks to the inclusion basic functions of self-awareness: self-knowledge, search for the meaning of life, self-improvement. A personality, squeezed in the grip of conformism, does not go beyond the limits of norm group, stereotypical consciousness and behavior. And, conversely, a personality that breaks out of the adaptive niche, goes to explode this niche, to destroy its physical and social balance, enters a new era of its existence - manifests itself as individuality. According to the definition of S. L. Rubinstein, the existence of a person is a continuous transcendence of himself: “With my actions I continuously explode, change the situation in which I find myself, and at the same time I continuously go beyond myself. This going beyond oneself is not a denial of my essence, as existentialists think, it is its formation and, at the same time, the realization of my essence.”

    Bright individuality inherent psychological qualities such as:

    1) creative approach and constant creative search;

    2) the presence of vivid, stable ideas;

    3) a sense of material, including intuition, guesswork, forecasting;

    4) persistence and obsession;

    5) focus on originality in solving emerging problems.

    The non-triviality of the personality is “cast” in the style of activity. A person of bright individuality acts not as a formal subject of activity, but as an “author” who contributes to the originality of the operational and semantic aspects of activity. A high professional level of activity turns out to be a condition for the emancipation of the individual’s unique customs: “The higher the skill, the more clearly the individual handwriting manifests itself” (Klimov E. M., 1969).

      Personality (role) orientation.

    Personality orientation – a personality property that characterizes a set of stable motives that orient the activity of the individual and are relatively independent of existing situations. This is an integrative system-forming property that mobilizes and regulates human activity in specific situations. The orientation of a person is characterized by his interests, beliefs, ideals, in which a person’s worldview is expressed. The substantive side of a person’s orientation is value orientations. The formation of personality orientation is associated with the development of self-awareness and with the transition from external criteria for assessing oneself and one’s actions to internal ones based on one’s own beliefs, values ​​and meanings. The orientation of the individual is revealed in the style of thinking, behavior, relationships, communication and activity, in the nature of attitudes, value orientations and goals. The essence of direction is not only “what” a person wants, but “why” he wants it, that is, the motives for his behavior.

    Value orientations – 1) ideological, political, moral, aesthetic and other grounds for the subject’s assessment of the surrounding reality and orientation in it; 2) a way for an individual to differentiate objects according to their significance. Value orientations are formed during the assimilation of social experience and are found in goals, ideals, beliefs, interests and other manifestations of personality. The coincidence of the most important value orientations of group members ensures its cohesion (value-orientation unity).

    Need- this is a need for something, some kind of anxiety in the body, experienced by a subjectively defined feeling. Need gives rise to urge - a feeling of lack of something that has a certain direction and purpose. The source of human activity is needs.

    Motive– conscious need; and also 1) motivation for activity related to meeting the needs of the subject; a set of external or internal conditions that cause the subject’s activity and determine its direction; 2) the object (material or ideal) that motivates and determines the choice of direction of activity, for the sake of which it is carried out; 3) the conscious reason underlying the choice of actions and actions of the individual; 4) what belongs to the subject of behavior himself is his stable personal property, which internally encourages him to perform certain actions.

    Worldview- a system of views on the objective world and man’s place in it, on man’s attitude to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the basic life positions of people, their beliefs, ideals, principles of knowledge and activity, and value orientations determined by these views. The social group and the individual actually act as the subject of the worldview.

    Motivation– a set of conscious needs (motives) that causes the activity of the body and determines the dominant orientation of the personality.

    It is a process of continuous choice and decision-making based on weighing behavioral alternatives. Motivation explains the purposefulness of action, organization and sustainability of holistic activities aimed at achieving a specific goal; These are the impulses that cause the activity of the body and determine its direction. The term “Motivation”, taken in a broad sense, is used in all areas of psychology that study the causes and mechanisms of goal-directed behavior in humans and animals. Based on their manifestations and functions in the regulation of behavior, motivating factors can be divided into three relatively independent classes. When analyzing the question of why the body generally comes into a state of activity, the manifestations of needs and instincts as sources of activity. If we study the question of what the activity of the organism is aimed at, for the sake of which these particular acts of behavior were chosen, and not others, the manifestations of motives as reasons determining the choice of direction of behavior. When deciding how the dynamics of behavior are regulated, the manifestations of emotions, subjective experiences(aspirations, desires, etc.) and installations in the subject's behavior.

      Localization of control and causal attribution.

    Causal attribution(from lat.cause - reason, atribucio - attribute) - one of the most important issues of motivation for human activity is the causal explanation of his actions. Causal attribution is the subject’s interpretation of the interpersonal perception of the reasons and motives of other people’s behavior, a motivated cognitive process aimed at understanding the information received about a person’s behavior, finding out the reasons for certain of his actions, and most importantly, developing a person’s ability to predict them. If one person knows the reason for another person’s action, then he can not only explain it, but also predict it, and this is very important in communication and interaction between people. Causal attribution simultaneously acts as a person’s need to understand the causes of the phenomena he observes, and his ability to such understanding. Causal attribution is directly related to the regulation of human relations and includes explanation, justification or condemnation of people's actions.

    The study of causal attribution began with the work of F. Heider “The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations” (1958). At the same time, important studies on the perception of a person by a person appeared in the press, where the effects of the influence of the sequence of presentation of information about a person on his perception as a person were established, for example, the work of G. Kelly on the theory of personal constructs - stable cognitive-evaluative formations, which are a system of concepts, through the prism through which a person perceives the world. One person tends to more often turn to positive characteristics (positive poles of constructs), another - to negative ones.

    Personal constructs can serve to predict human behavior and its motivational-cognitive explanation (causal attribution). In modern psychological literature, there are several concepts of the relationship between motivation of activity (communication, behavior). One of them - causal attribution theory.

    Under causal attribution refers to the subject’s interpretation of interpersonal perceptions, reasons and motives for the behavior of other people and the development on this basis of the ability to predict their future behavior. Experimental studies of causal attribution have shown the following: a) a person explains his behavior differently from the way he explains the behavior of other people; b) processes of causal attribution do not obey logical norms; c) a person tends to explain unsuccessful results of his activities by external factors, and successful ones by internal factors.

    It turned out that people are more willing to attribute the causes of observed personal actions to the stable qualities of the person who performs them than to external circumstances independent of the person. They explain the reasons for their actions in reverse. This pattern is called the “fundamental error of causal attribution” (I. Jones, 1979).

    Locus of control– a characteristic of the localization of the reasons on the basis of which a person explains his behavior and responsibility and the observed behavior and responsibility of other people. Internal (internal) locus of control - the search for the reasons for behavior and responsibility in the person himself, in himself; external (external) locus of control – localization of such causes and responsibilities outside a person, in his environment, fate.

    Self-esteem– a person’s assessment of himself, his capabilities, qualities, advantages and disadvantages, his place among other people. Self-esteem includes assessments of various kinds. Estimation of the first kind- this is an assessment of one’s external appearance and one’s capabilities, the products of one’s labor, the results of one’s activities. This is a procedural assessment in which the object and the subject are combined. There is an innate need for a positive assessment of oneself, all aspects of oneself, and for self-respect. Estimation of the second kind– this is an assessment of the integral education of selfevolution. But integral self-esteem is not equal to “I-concept”, and self-knowledge is not equal to self-esteem. “Self-concept” includes integrated, stable evaluations that consist of outcome evaluations (rather than the evaluation process). Assessment of the third kind- this self-esteem as a personality property reveals itself not in evaluative processes, but in the choice of task difficulty - in the level of aspirations.

    Level of personality aspirations(English) . personal level of aspiration) - the desire to achieve goals of the degree of complexity that a person considers himself capable of. It is based on such an assessment of one’s capabilities, the preservation of which has become a necessity for a person. The level of claims can be specific or general. The private nature of the level of aspiration refers to achievements in certain types and areas of activity or human relations. It is based on self-esteem in the relevant area. The general nature of the level of aspirations applies to many areas of a person’s life and activity, and primarily to those in which his mental and moral qualities are manifested. This level of aspiration is based on a holistic assessment of oneself as an individual. The concept was introduced by K. Levin and his students. The decisive factor in its formation is not the objective success or failure itself, but the subject’s experience of his achievements as successful or unsuccessful. The level of aspirations can be adequate to the individual’s capabilities or inadequate (underestimated, overestimated). An inflated level of aspirations can become a source of the affect of inadequacy: conflicts with other people, with oneself, which can lead to deviations in personality development. Correspondence of the level of aspirations to a person’s capabilities is one of the conditions for the harmonious development of the individual.

    Theory of achievement motivation V various types activities were created and developed in detail by American scientists D. McClelland, D. Atkinson and German scientist H. Heckhausen. A person has two different motives, functionally related to activities aimed at achieving success. This is the motive for achieving success and the motive for avoiding failure.

    The behavior of people motivated to achieve success and to avoid failure differs as follows. People motivated to succeed usually set themselves some positive goal in their activity, the achievement of which can be clearly regarded as success. They clearly demonstrate the desire to achieve success in their activities at all costs and are looking for such activities. They actively participate in it, choose means and prefer actions aimed at achieving the goal. Such people usually have an expectation of success in their cognitive sphere, i.e., when taking on some work, they definitely expect to succeed and are confident of this. They expect to receive approval for actions aimed at achieving their goals, and the work associated with this causes them positive emotions. They are characterized by the complete mobilization of all their resources and focus on achieving their goals.

    Individuals motivated to avoid failure behave completely differently. Their explicit goal in activity is not to achieve success, but to avoid failure; all their thoughts and actions are primarily subordinated to this goal. A person who is initially motivated to fail exhibits self-doubt, does not believe in the possibility of success, and is afraid of criticism. He usually has negative emotional experiences associated with his work; he does not enjoy the activity and is burdened by it. As a result, he often turns out not to be a winner, but a loser.

    Individuals who are focused on achieving success are able to more correctly assess their capabilities, successes and failures and usually choose professions that correspond to their existing knowledge, skills and abilities. People who are focused on failure, on the contrary, are often characterized by inadequate professional self-determination, preferring either too easy or too difficult types of professions. At the same time, they often ignore objective information about their abilities, have high or low self-esteem, and an unrealistic level of aspirations. People who are motivated to succeed are more persistent in achieving their goals. When faced with very easy and very difficult tasks, they behave differently than those who are motivated to fail. When the motivation to achieve success dominates, a person prefers tasks of average or slightly increased difficulty, and when the motivation to avoid failure predominates, he prefers tasks that are the easiest and most difficult.

    For a person striving for success in an activity, the attractiveness of a certain task and interest in it increases after failure to solve it, but for a person focused on failure, it decreases. Individuals motivated to succeed tend to return to solving a task in which they failed, while those initially motivated to fail tend to avoid it and never return to it. People who are initially determined to succeed usually achieve success after failure. best results, and those who were determined from the very beginning to avoid failure, on the contrary, achieve better results after success.

    Review questions

      Give definitions of individual, person, personality, individuality.

      Tell us about the stages of the “birth of personality.”

      What stages of personality development do you know?

      Name personal characteristics.

      What is personality orientation, what is role?

      What mechanisms of personality formation and development do you know?

      What is motivation, motive, need, self-esteem, locus of control, value orientations, causal attribution?

      What theories of personality and motivation do you know?

      What is self-actualization and personalization?

    Rice. 38. Motivation (student E. Kocherova, EiU-329)

    Rice. 39. Motivation (student E. Maltseva, EiU-329)

    Rice. 40. “Personality” and “Motivation” (student G. Kasatkin, EiU-428)

    Rice. 41. “Personality” and “Motivation” (student Yu. Goglidze, EiU-428)

    Personality in psychology is one of the leading concepts. In the process of development, it begins to form as an individual, it begins to have specific features that make a person original, unique, different from others. Personality properties in psychology are distinguished as follows. These are temperament, orientation, abilities, character and others. It is worth taking a closer look at the characteristics of some of them.

    Thus, Hippocrates identified the main types of temperament, dividing people into four main groups. Unlike other properties, this quality is determined, first of all, by the biological organization of the individual. Its features appear quite early, they can be seen already in young children, in their behavior, games, communication with each other and with adults. Thus, choleric people are characterized by strong excitability of the nervous system, which is why they are often characterized by unbalanced behavior. One of the most stable types of temperament is the sanguine person. Usually this is a cheerful person with quick reactions and thoughtful decisions. The most vulnerable is considered to be a melancholic person, who has a weak nervous system and is particularly sensitive to the slightest irritants. It is quite difficult to motivate a phlegmatic person to engage in any activity, however, if he gets carried away, he will continue to work no matter what, until it is completely completed. Personality traits such as impressionability, anxiety, emotionality, and impulsiveness largely depend on the type of temperament.

    In psychology, individual personality properties are distinguished (that is, special, characteristic only of a given person). These include character. This is a kind of mental activity that manifests itself in the characteristics of human social behavior. It is formed, as a rule, gradually, through the process of cognition and practical activities. Researchers studying personality traits in psychology distinguish two sides in the structure of character, namely content and form. Moreover, they are inextricably linked with each other, forming an organic unity. The content includes the interests, needs, and life values ​​of a person. These are individually unique relationships that speak about the activity of the individual in society. Character forms express various manifestations of relationships, temperament and other qualities. The character structure also includes interests, temperament, will, beliefs, intelligence, etc.

    When talking about personality traits, abilities are also highlighted. It should be remembered that in psychology this concept is clearly separated from “inclinations”. The latter constitute the natural basis for the development of abilities and are innate anatomical and physiological characteristics of the brain, nervous system, and sensory organs.

    No less important than other personality traits are feelings and emotions. Although they are interconnected, they are different phenomena in the emotional sphere. Feelings are characterized by stability and duration. Emotions are a direct manifestation of experiences at a certain moment.

    Will is the conscious regulation of one’s actions and actions by a person, despite external or internal difficulties. Most people encounter this property almost every day. A person in whom this quality is developed at a high level not only has good self-control, but can also control circumstances, achieving many of his goals.

    Thus, personality traits in psychology are a fairly broad concept that includes a large number of human characteristics. At the same time, it is necessary for those who want to better understand themselves or others to know them.

    In psychology, similar but not identical concepts are widely used: “person”, “personality”, “individuality”. Let's look at these concepts.

    A specific feature of humans as a biological being belonging to the class of mammals is upright posture, the adaptability of the hands to work, and a highly developed brain. As a social being, man is endowed with consciousness, thanks to which he is able not only to consciously reflect the world, but also to transform it in accordance with his needs and interests.

    A person who, thanks to work, emerges from the animal world and develops in society, enters into communication with other people through language, becomes a person. The main thing in characterizing a person is his social entity.

    Each person has his own specific characteristics. Personality in its originality is individuality. Individuality can manifest itself in the intellectual, emotional and volitional spheres.

    In psychology, a distinction has been made between the following concepts: individual, personality and individuality. This distinction is made most consistently in the works of B.G. Ananyeva, A.N. Leontyev.

    Ananiev considers human development as a single process, where individuality represents a variety of social and natural properties. Speaking about the relationship between the categories “personality” and “individuality”, Ananyev B.G. notes that if personality is the top level of human development, then individuality is its deepest dimension.

    Ananyev singled out his individuality as a special projection of a person.

    Knowing a person as an individual involves considering the natural foundations of human life, his psychology. Man as an individual is a material, natural, corporeal being in its integrity and indivisibility. Another projection of a person is his existence as a subject. Ananyev pointed out such manifestations as the ability to be a manager and organizer of activity, communication, cognition, and behavior.

    Man as a subject is also a holistic form of his existence. References to subjectivity as a basic characteristic of a person are found in many philosophical and psychological works.

    In psychology, the concept of personality refers to the most developed level of human subjectivity. Due to the fact that all three projections are integral forms, there is constant mixing and identification of these categories: individual, subject, personality.

    The concept of personality was written by A.N. Leontyev expresses the integrity of the subject of life. Personality is a holistic formation of a special kind. Personality is not an integrity determined genotypically; one is not born as a person, one becomes a person.

    Personality is a relatively late product of the socio-historical and ontogenetic development of man. Supreme synthesis, integral result life path In psychology, a person is considered to be individuality, which captures the originality and uniqueness of a person as an individual, as a subject, as a person.

    We proceed from the idea that the highest stage of human development in society is the stage of universalization. Man as a universe is his special image. Man as a universe is equivalent to actual and potential infinity, in it man appears as a microcosm, as an identity with the human race. These are: human actions for the benefit of all humanity, guided by the external values ​​of life. Let's look at these concepts.

    An individual is a person as a representative of a species, having natural properties, the bodily existence of a person.

    Subject - a person as a carrier of objective-practical activity, a manager of mental forces

    Personality is a person as a representative of society, who freely and responsibly determines his position among others.

    Individuality is a person as a unique, original person who realizes himself in creative activity.

    The Universe is the highest level of spiritual development of a person who is aware of his existence and place in the world.

    In concept individual the person’s gender identity is expressed, i.e. any Human- this is an individual. But being born as an individual, a person acquires a special social quality, he becomes a personality.

    It is possible to understand what a person is only through studying the real social connections into which a person enters. The social nature of the individual always has a specific historical content. It is from specific socio-historical relations that a person must be deduced not only General terms development, but also the historically specific essence of personality. The specificity of social conditions of life and a person’s way of activity determines the characteristics of his individual characteristics and properties. All people accept certain mental traits, views, customs and feelings of their society, the society to which they belong.

    Personality cannot be reduced only to a set of more or less arbitrarily selected internal mental properties and qualities; it cannot be isolated from objective conditions, connections and relationships of the individual with the outside world.

    In domestic and foreign psychological literature there are a large number of defined personalities, which each time was determined by the level of development of science or the methodological position of the author.

    If we take into account that a person always acts as a subject of his actual relations with a specific social environment, his structure should include these relationships and connections that develop in the activities and communication of specific social groups and collectives.

    The structure of a person's personality is broader than the structure of his individuality.

    The central place in psychological science is occupied by the problem of the psychological development of the individual. The study of the mental development of an individual is a question of the relationship between the biological and social in it.

    Different psychologies offer different principles for classifying personality substructures. In modern foreign psychology, a prominent place is occupied by theories that distinguish two main substructures in a person’s personality, formed by the influence of two factors: biological and social. The idea was put forward that personality is divided into endopsychic and exopsychic organizations. Endopsyche as a substructure of personality expresses the internal interdependence of mental elements and functions, as if the internal mechanism of the human personality, identified with the neuropsychic organization of a person. The exopsyche is determined by the relationship of the individual to the external environment, that is, to the entire sphere of what confronts the individual and to which the individual can relate in one way or another.

    The endopsyche includes such traits as receptivity, characteristics of memory, thinking and imagination, the ability to exert volition, impulsiveness, etc., and the exopsyche is a system of relations between the individual and his experience, that is, interests, inclinations, ideals, prevailing feelings, formed knowledge, etc.

    “The endopsyche, which has a natural basis, is determined biologically in contrast to the exopsyche, which is determined by social factors” (A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1971. P. 6).

    “Modern foreign multifactor theories of personality ultimately reduce the structure of personality to projections of the same basic factors - biological and social” (Ibid.).

    The concept of personality refers to certain properties belonging to an individual. This also refers to the unique uniqueness of the individual, i.e. individuality. However, the concepts of “individual”, “personality” and “individuality” are not identical in content. Each of them reveals a specific aspect of a person’s individual existence. Personality can only be understood in a system of stable interpersonal connections mediated by the values ​​and meaning of the joint activities of each of the participants. These interpersonal connections are real, but hypersensitive in nature. They manifest themselves in specific individual properties and actions of people included in the team. Interpersonal connections that form a personality in a team appear in the form of communication or subject-subject relationship along with the subject-object relationship characteristic of objective activity. Upon deeper examination, it turns out that subject-subject connections exist not only in themselves, but in mediation by some objects (material or ideal). This means that the relationship of an individual to another individual is mediated by the object of activity (S - O - S).

    In turn, what outwardly looks like a direct act of an individual’s objective activity is in fact an act of mediation. Moreover, the mediating link for the personality is no longer the object of activity, but the personality of another person, a participant in the activity, acting as a refractive device through which he can perceive, understand, feel the object of activity.

    All of the above allows us to understand the personality as a subject of a stable system of interindividual relations (subject-object-subject and subject-subject-object) relationships that develop in activity and communication.

    The personality of each person is endowed only with his own combination of traits and characteristics that form his individuality, which distinguishes him from others.

    Individuality is manifested in temperamental traits, habits, prevailing interests, the quality of cognitive processes, abilities, and individual style of activity.

    The concepts of “individual” and “personality” are not identical, “personality” and “individuality”, in turn, form unity, but not identity. The individual characteristics of a person do not appear in any way until a certain time, until they become necessary in the system of interpersonal relations, the subject of which is the given person as an individual.

    So, individuality is only one aspect of a person’s personality.

    But this is how they understand A.V. Petrovsky and V.A. Petrovsky personality structure.

    Considering personality in a system of subjective relations, they identify three types of attribution (i.e., endowing the individual with personal existence) or three aspects of the interpretation of personality:

    1st aspect- intra-individual personal attribution. Personality is interpreted as a property inherent in the subject himself; the personal turns out to be immersed in the internal space of the individual’s existence;

    2nd aspect- interindividual personal attribution as a way of understanding personality, when the sphere of its definition and existence becomes the “space of interindividual connections”;

    3rd aspect- meta-individual personal attribution. Here attention is drawn to the impact that an individual has through his activities (individual and joint) on other people. Personality is perceived from a new angle; it is proposed to look for its most important characteristics not only in this individual, but also in other people. In this case, personality acts as the ideal representation of the individual in other people, its personalization.

    Thus, we are talking about an active process, about the continuation of oneself in another, i.e. personality finds a second life in other people. Continuing in other people with the death of the individual, the personality does not die completely. The individual as the bearer of personality passes away, but the person personalized in other people continues to live. Personality can be characterized only in the unity of all three aspects of consideration.

    The approach to understanding the problem of personality was outlined by A.N. Leontyev. The concept of “personality” has many variants, both historically and logically. It is known that in Ancient Rome this term meant a ritual mask that was removed from the face of the deceased. Later, with the development of proprietary relations, this concept acquired a certain moral load: moral norms were in effect in interpersonal relationships, and arbitrariness reigned in relation to “non-persons” (slaves). In its moral meaning, the concept of “personality” emphasized the moments of consciousness, responsibility and freedom of behavior. The modern understanding of the problem of personality and its formation is considered both from the point of view of historical and individual human development.

    An analysis of the concepts of personality and its development by domestic and foreign psychologists made it possible to identify some of them as the most significant in the context of our study.

    Of particular interest are the definitions of personality given by major Soviet philosophers L.P. Bueva and K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, Tugarinov. “Personality, according to Bueva, is a person in the totality of his social qualities, formed in various types of social activities and relationships.” (Bueva L.P. 1968. P. 26-27).

    “The individual, as a subject of life’s journey,” as K.A. correctly states. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, “there are special structures whose functions are the construction of a life position, the conduct and implementation of a life line, the experience of the meaning of life.” These higher structures or qualities are associated, according to the author, with the implementation of the life path as a whole, organization and regulation, which they serve. A person actively builds his life position, his life models and strategies, self-determining in relation to the objective determination of life, its conditions and circumstances. Activity is a typical generalized value way for a given person to reflect, express and fulfill his life needs.” (Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A.)

    Personality - a person as a carrier of consciousness; one of two human systems (the second is the body) and therefore a general psychological category of the 4th level of their hierarchy. Any adult healthy man is a person, although he is not born one, but becomes one in the process of activity and communication with other people, through which he masters social experience and multiplies it. Having learned to compare himself with other people, he distinguishes his “I” from his surroundings.

    There are different personalities: harmoniously and one-sidedly developed, progressive and reactionary, moral and immoral, healthy and sick, etc. developing and sometimes degrading.

    Personality is the object of philosophy, sociology, ethics, law, pedagogy and other sciences. The methodological basis for the study of personality by all sciences is the philosophical doctrine of personality, the historical-materialistic concept of personality.

    The personality is in the sphere of influence of various relationships and, above all, the relationships that develop in the process of production and consumption of material goods. Personality is also in the sphere of political relations. Her psychology depends on whether she is free or oppressed, whether she has political rights or not - the psychology of a slave, a master or a free person, a citizen. The personality is also in the sphere of ideological relations. Through ideology, the psychology of personality and its attitude to various aspects of social life are formed.

    At the same time, the individual shares or does not share the psychology of the group to which he belongs. In the process of communication, people mutually influence each other, as a result of which a commonality or opposition is formed in views, social attitudes and other types of attitudes towards society, work, people, and oneself. Thus, there is an organic direct connection and interdependence between society and the individual. However, a person is not a passive object of certain social relations; he actively interacts with society as a system of these relations, and is a subject in a system of activities generated by certain relations.

    The process of personality formation is long, complex and historical in nature. Since personality is a product of social development, it is studied by various sciences: philosophy, sociology, pedagogy, psychology, methodology, etc., but each in a certain aspect.

    Historical materialism studies personality as part of masses, classes, and the whole society. Political economy studies personality in the system of social relations. Sociology studies personality as a member of social and demographic groups of the population. Ethics studies the personality of a person as a bearer of moral beliefs. Pedagogy studies personality as an object of training and education. Psychology studies the patterns of development and personality formation.

    “Personality is the subject and object of social relations” (A.G. Kovalev). “Personality is the subject of activity” (A.N. Leontyev). “A person is a capable member of society, aware of his role in it” (K.K. Platonov). “Personality is a set of internal conditions through which external influences are refracted” (S.L. Rubinstein).

    In foreign psychology, various approaches to the study of personality are common.

    The biogenetic approach places the biological processes of maturation of the organism as the basis for personality development. The development process itself is interpreted mainly as maturation, the stages of which are universal.

    Thus, the American psychologist of the early twentieth century, S. Hall, considered the main law of development to be the biogenetic “law of recapitulation,” according to which individual development and ontogenesis repeat the main stages of phylogenesis, repeating in a condensed form such stages of the development of human society as gathering, hunting, etc.

    The development of an individual reproduces the evolution of the species to which this species belongs. They are trying to find in the mental development of an individual a repetition of the stages of the evolutionary process as a whole, or at least the main stages of the development of the species. The idea of ​​recapitulation is not alien to sociological concepts of the mental development of the individual. It is argued here that the mental development of an individual reproduces the main stages of the process of historical development of society, primarily its spiritual life and culture.

    Another version of the biogenetic concept was developed by representatives of German constitutional psychology. Thus, E. Kretschmer, developing problems of personality typology based on body type, etc., believed that there is some kind of unambiguous connection between the physical type of a person and the characteristics of his development.

    Biologism appeared especially clearly in S. Freud’s interpretation of personality. According to his teaching, all personal behavior is determined by unconscious biological drives or instincts, and, first of all, sexual drives.

    In contrast to the biogenetic approach, the starting point of which is the processes occurring inside the body, sociogenetic theories try to explain personality characteristics based on the structure of society, methods of socialization, and relationships with other people.

    Thus, according to the theory of socialization, a person, being born as a biological individual, becomes a person only through the influence of social conditions of life.

    Another concept in this series is the so-called learning theory. According to her, the life of an individual, her relationships, are the result of reinforced learning, the assimilation of a sum of knowledge and skills (E. Thorndeye, B. Skinner).

    More popular in the West is role theory. It proceeds from the fact that society offers each person a set of stable modes of behavior (roles), determined by his status. These roles leave an imprint on the nature of the individual’s behavior and his relationships with other people.

    One of the directions in the development of personality psychology is “field theory”, proposed by the American psychologist K. Levin. According to this concept, an individual’s behavior is controlled by psychological forces (aspirations, intentions, etc.) that have direction, magnitude and point of application in the field of living space.

    As a result, each of these theories explains human social behavior from the self-contained properties of the environment to which a person is forced to somehow adapt. At the same time, the objective, socio-historical conditions of human life are not taken into account.

    The psychogenetic approach does not deny the importance of either biology or the environment, but brings to the fore the development of mental processes themselves. Three currents can be distinguished in it:

      concepts that explain personal behavior, mainly through emotions, drives and other non-rational components of the psyche, called psychodynamic (American psychologist E. Erikson);

      concepts that give preference to the development of the cognitive aspects of intelligence (called cognitivist) (J. Piaget, J. Kelly, etc.);

      concepts that focus on the development of the individual as a whole (called personological) (E. Spranger, K. Bühler, A. Maslow, etc.).

    Soviet psychologists, relying on the basic principles of dialectical and historical materialism and guided by the activity approach, the principles of determinism, activity, development, believe that personality is not just the result of biological maturation or an “imprint” of specific living conditions, but also a subject of active interaction with the environment, in a process in which an individual gradually acquires (or does not acquire) personality traits. In other words, personality is a level of development that is not achieved by every individual. The measure of its development is the embodiment in the individual of “transpersonal” socio-historical needs of human development.

    The basis of personality is its structure, i.e. relatively stable connection and interaction of all aspects of the personality as a holistic entity.

    In modern psychology there are several points of view on what constitutes the internal makeup of a personality. All Soviet psychologists identify orientation as the leading component of personality structure. Orientation is a complex personal formation that determines all individual behavior, attitude towards oneself and others.

    As already mentioned, personality is formed in the process of active interaction with the outside world. Active provision and adaptation to environment, and its change, stimulates the individual’s participation in life and activity. The question of personality activity was first raised by the Austrian psychologist S. Freud, the founder of the theory and practice of psychoanalysis. The main provisions of this theory boil down to the following: the source of human activity is the instinctive urges given to him from birth, transmitted by inheritance. This is the world of instincts, biological and physiological impulses, drives, unconscious impulses, the nature of which, according to Freud, is unknown and unknowable. The basis of his teaching is the biological principle in man and the separation of the psyche from activity.

    A positive aspect of Freud's teachings can be considered his appeal to the sphere of the subconscious in the human psyche. Neo-Freudians, starting from Freud's basic postulates about the unconscious, followed the line of limiting the role of sexual drives in explaining the human psyche and searching for new ones. driving forces human behavior. Neo-Freudianism comes from the recognition of the decisive role of the environment, thereby putting forward mechanisms of social order instead of biological ones. However, the opposition between the individual and society, their conflict, remains.

    The unconscious was only filled with new content: the place of unrealized sexual desires was taken by aspirations for power due to feelings of inferiority (A. Adler), the collective unconscious, expressed in mythology, religious symbolism, art and passed on by inheritance (C. Jung), the inability to achieve harmony with the social structure society and the resulting feeling of loneliness (E. Fromm). And other psychoanalytic mechanisms for the rejection of the individual from a hostile society, according to neo-Freudianism, the fundamental tendencies of personality development.

    In developing the problem of personality activity, Soviet psychology relies on the idea of ​​the active nature of reflection, the origin of consciousness from work activity and its leading role in human behavior and activity.

    The source of personality activity, from the point of view of Soviet psychology, is needs. According to their origin, needs are divided into natural and cultural.

    The needs are characterized by the following features. Firstly, any need has its own subject, i.e. it is always an awareness of the need for something. Secondly, every need acquires specific content depending on the conditions and method in which it is satisfied. Thirdly, the need has the ability to be reproduced.

    Needs are expressed in motives, i.e. in direct motivation to activity. Thus, the need for food can lead to apparently completely different activities to satisfy it. These different activities have different motives.

    An important place in the system of personality orientation belongs to the worldview, beliefs and ideals of the individual. A worldview has such characteristics as scientificity, systematicity, logical consistency and evidence, the degree of generality and specificity, connection with activity and behavior. Beliefs are an important conscious motive of behavior that gives all individual activities special significance and clear direction. Beliefs are characterized, firstly, by high awareness and, secondly, by their close connection with the world of feelings. This is a system of stable principles.

    An important conscious motive is the ideal. An ideal is an image that guides a person at the present time and that determines a plan for self-education.

    Unconscious motives include attitudes and desires of the individual.

    Experimental studies of personality in Russia were started by A.F. Lazursky, and abroad - G. Eysenck and R. Kettel. A.F. Lazursky developed a technique and methodology for conducting systematic scientific observations of an individual, as well as a procedure for a natural experiment in which it was possible to obtain and generalize data concerning the psychology and behavior of a healthy individual. Eysenck's merit was the development of methods and procedures for mathematical processing of observational data, surveys and analysis of documents collected about a person from various documents. As a result of this processing, correlating (statistically related) facts and characteristic common individual stable traits were obtained. G. Allport laid the foundations of a new theory of personality, called “trait theory,” and R. Cattell, using G. Eysenck’s method, gave personality research conducted within the framework of trait theory an experimental character. He introduced the method of factor analysis into the procedure for experimental personality research, identified, described and defined a number of existing factors or personality traits. He also laid the foundations of modern personality testing, developing one of the first personality tests named after him.

    The concept of a dynamically functioning personality structure is a core section of the doctrine of personality, because theoretically it allows us to more deeply reveal the essence of personality as a structural phenomenon; it allows us to systematize a large number of personality properties.

    Starting with S.L. Rubinstein, an increasing number of psychologists have tried and are trying to understand and formulate their understanding of personality structure.

    K.K. Platonov defined personality substructures with the following criteria. The first is the relationship between the biological and social, innate (but not necessarily hereditary) and acquired, procedural and substantive. The first substructure includes substantive personality traits (direction in its various forms, relationships of the moral quality of the individual, etc.). In the second substructure of experience, which includes knowledge, skills, abilities and habits, along with personal experience include social. The third substructure includes personality traits that depend on the individual characteristics of mental processes as forms of reflection of reality. In the fourth biopsychic substructure of personality, innateness procedurally sharply prevails over acquisition.

    Why was it necessary to identify substructures? Because each of them has its own special, basic type of formation. In the identified substructures, the first is formed through education, the second - training, the third - exercises, the fourth - training. The dependence of these substructures, the various structural connections of coordination are significant both between the substructures and within each of them.

    The dependence of the first on the traits of the second and together - on the traits of the third and all of them together on the traits of the fourth is expressed clearly and objectively. The four identified substructures reflect objective reality and are the basis of personality substructures.

    The personality structure can be detailed and individual, but it can also be more coarse and general. The individuality or community of a structure indicates that it is inherent only to an individual person or to all individuals without exception. In this regard, it is necessary to distinguish between individual, typical and general structures, reflecting the individual, special and general in the individual.

    In psychology there are different approaches to understanding personality.

      A personality can be described in terms of its motives and aspirations, which constitute the content of its “personal world”, that is unique system personal meanings, individually unique ways of organizing external impressions and internal experiences.

      Personality is viewed as a system of traits - relatively stable, externally manifested characteristics and individuality that are imprinted in the subject's judgments about himself, as well as in the judgments of other people about him.

      Personality is also described as the active “I” of the subject, as a system of plans, relationships, orientation, and semantic formations that regulate the departure of its behavior beyond the limits of the initial plans.

      The personality is also considered as a subject of personalization, i.e. the individual's needs and abilities to bring about change in other people.

    Personality is a social concept; it expresses everything that is supranatural and historical in a person. Personality is not innate, but arises as a result of cultural and social development. A personality is a person who has his own position in life, to which he came as a result of a lot of conscious work. This is how he demonstrates independence of thought, unbanality of feelings, some kind of composure and inner passion. The depth and richness of a personality presuppose the depth and richness of its connections with the world, with other people.

    Personality is a specific human formation that is “produced” by social relations into which the individual enters in his activities. The functions of a person’s behavior regulator are performed by his worldview, orientation, character, and abilities.

    What does it mean to be a person? To be a person means to have an active life position, about which we can say this: I stand on this and cannot do otherwise.

    Thus, a personality is determined not by its character, temperament, physical qualities, but by what and how it knows, what and how it values, what and how it creates, with whom and how it communicates, what its artistic needs are and how it satisfies.

    In psychology, there are two main directions of personality research: the first is based on the identification of certain personality traits, the second is based on the determination of personality types. Personality traits combine groups of closely related mental characteristics. Let us give several examples of factors (personality traits) as normal psychological characteristics of people.

    Of all the definitions of personality proposed at the beginning of the experimental period of developing the problem of personality, the most successful turned out to be the one given by G. Allport: personality is an evolving, individually unique set of psychophysiological systems - personality traits that determine the thinking and behavior peculiar to a given person.

    At the end of the 20s of our century, active differentiation of directions and research began in personality psychology. As a result, by the second half of our century, many different approaches and theories of personality had developed.

    Personality theories

      S. Freud's theory.

      Theory of K. Jung

      K. Horney's theory.

      G. Sullivan's theory.

      Theory of alienation by E. Fromm

      E. Erikson's theory - personality development takes place different stages, which Erikson calls crises.

      Frustration theory.

      Humanistic theories that put forward the idea that a person initially has humanoid, altruistic needs, that they are the source of human behavior.

      Theory of K. Rogers. The central place in which is the category of self-esteem, as a result of the child’s interaction with adults and other children, he creates an idea of ​​himself.

      G. Allport's theory (“Trait Theory”)

      Self-actualization theory by A. Maslow.

      Role theory.

      Personality theory in existential psychology

      Understanding psychology by E. Spranger.

      K. Lewin's theory.

    Domestic theories of personality

      Abulkhanova-Slavskaya. Life strategy.

      Bozhovich L.I.

      Bodalev A.A.

      Vygotsky L.S.

      Derkaya A.A.

      Leontyev A.N.

      Platonov K.K.

      Petrovsky A.V.

      Rubinshtein S.L.

    Dynamic theory of personality (K. Levin)

    The subject of his research was needs, affects (emotions), and will. Lewin believed that basic needs underlie human behavior. The formation and realization of needs occurs in an actual life situation or in the psychological field. It is the “field” that determines the motivational power of the object of need: it receives a positively or negatively charged valence, motivating and directing the behavior of the individual, which can only be understood by analyzing the psychological field in which he is located at a given moment in time. K. Levin introduced a number of concepts into circulation: time perspective, quasi-needs (social), target structure, level of aspirations, search for success and desire to avoid failure. He developed a special geometric model to describe the vectors of movement of a subject in the psychological field.

    Levin belongs to the scientific school of Gestalt psychology. This school revealed the principle of integrity in the study of human psychology, its own view of its subject, methods and explanatory schemes.

    Self-actualizing personality in humanistic psychology

    In the early 60s. In the 20th century, humanistic psychology arose in the United States as a set of theoretical views on man and as a psychotherapeutic practice. This school opposes behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which it regarded as inhumane approaches to humans.

    Humanistic psychology is a complex interdisciplinary science about man and combines philosophy, psychology, sociology, and pedagogy. Representatives of the direction - G. Allport, G.A. Murray, R. May, K. Rogers, et al.

    Humanistic psychology has roots in both the humanities and the sciences. Particular importance is attached to philosophy and literature. One of the foundations of humanistic psychology was the philosophical movement of existentialism, i.e. related to the highest, semantic value manifestations of human subjectivity.

    Humanistic psychology has created a new approach to the practice of counseling and psychotherapy. K. Rogers made a great contribution: he developed person-oriented psychotherapy, called “client-centered therapy.”

    K. Rogers

    The central link in K. Rogers' theory of personality is the category of self-esteem. As a result of a child's interaction with adults and other children, he develops an idea of ​​himself. However, the formation of self-esteem does not occur without conflict. Very often the assessment of others does not correspond to self-esteem. A person is faced with a dilemma - whether to accept the assessment of others or remain with his own. In other words, devalue either yourself or others. A complex weighing process occurs, which Rogers calls the organic evaluative process.

    One of the conditions for the mental integrity of an individual and his mental health is flexibility in assessing himself, in the ability, under the pressure of experience, to re-evaluate a previously emerged value system. Flexibility, according to Rogers, is a necessary condition for an individual’s painless adaptation to constantly changing living conditions.

    Rogers's merit lies in making the subject of his empirical research and analysis internal structure personality. He focused on the phenomena of self-awareness and self-esteem and their functions in the emergence and development of the subject. He tried to understand the emotional state of patients, the cause and nature of their illnesses from the relationship between their self-esteem and the assessment of them by other people, self-esteem and experience.

    A. Adler.

    A. Adler opposed Freud's biologizing theory. He emphasized that the main thing in a person is not his natural instincts, but a social feeling, which he called “a sense of community.” This feeling is innate, but it must be socially developed. He protests against Freud's opinion that a person is aggressive from birth, that his development is determined by biological needs.

    Adler opposed the division of personality into three levels (Id, Ego and Super-Ego). It can be considered that the so-called sociologization of Freud was first undertaken by Adler.

    According to Adler, the desire for superiority is a determinant in the development of personality. However, this desire cannot always be realized, since due to a defect in the development of bodily organs, a person begins to experience a feeling of inferiority; it can also arise in childhood due to unfavorable social conditions. A person strives to find ways to overcome feelings of inferiority and resorts to various types of compensation. For example, shy teenagers, ashamed of their shyness, commit “courageous” but inappropriate actions. Or often the roughness may be a manifestation of his special sensitivity and vulnerability. Such attempts at self-affirmation lead to neurotic reactions when a person wants to dominate others.

    Social feeling or social interest is not developed in the process of socialization. This, according to Adler, is an innate property. Adler emphasizes that a normal person strives not only for personal power and for the good of the society in which he lives. Only by taking part in the life of society does a person manifest himself.

    Particularly important in his teaching is the problem of compensation. He highlights different types that create different lifestyles:

      successful compensation of feelings of inferiority as a result of the coincidence of the desire for superiority with social interest;

      overcompensation, which means a one-sided adaptation to life as a result of the excessive development of any one trait or ability;

      withdrawal into illness, in this case a person cannot free himself from feelings of inferiority, cannot come to compensation in normal ways, he develops symptoms of the disease to justify his failure - neurosis arises.

    Thus, according to Adler, neurotic symptoms themselves should be considered as failed methods of compensation.

    Its main provisions suggest that the feeling of inferiority is innate and arises from the organic imperfection and weakness of a person. In Adler's theory, social interest is an innate property that only needs to be directed in the process of its development.

    L.S. Vygotsky highly appreciated A. Adler’s position on overcompensation in his article “Defect and Overcompensation.” He emphasizes that it is necessary to distinguish overcompensation as the beginning of a new creative force from adaptation to a defect, from humility in front of it. Vygotsky saw an important point that overcompensation should be understood in connection not only with the past, but also with the future of a person, which will allow us to consider these phenomena in their eternal movement and development.

    Theory of alienation (E. Fromm)

    Fromm's teaching is, as it were, the most socialized teaching of neo-Freudianism. Fromm often begins his works with a presentation of Marx's teachings - he knew Marx's provisions on the alienation of the results of labor and took advantage of this. Fromm argues that the problem of alienation that Marx posed in the socio-economic aspect should be extended to mental activity person.

    Fromm called his book “Flight from Freedom,” i.e. alienation. He says that a person suffers under the burden of freedom, he does not want to be free, he wants to have some kind of relationship, enter into some kind of communication with people, but the world around him does not provide him with this opportunity and as a result people are lonely. A person is alienated from everything and suffers from the “burden of freedom” - this is the leitmotif of Fromm’s theory.

    In his work, Fromm tries to show that the form of social character coincides with various historical types of self-alienation and takes different forms. Thus, in the era of early capitalism, an accumulative type of person develops (combining stinginess and pedantry) and an exploitative type of character. At the other social pole, a receptive (passive) type is formed. And finally, in the era of imperialism, the “market type” is formed as a product of total alienation.

    Subsequently, Fromm wrote that the market type loses its strength with the death of capitalist society. And then another type of character arises - a spiritual productive type. The main feature of the productive type is love for other people and for oneself.

    Frustration theory

    Frustration (from the Latin frustracio - deception, frustration, destruction of plans) is a psychological state of a person caused by objectively insurmountable (or subjectively perceived) difficulties that arise on the way to achieving a goal or solving a problem; experiencing failure. Frustration can be considered a form of psychological stress.

    There are a frustration cause that causes frustration, a frustration situation, and a frustration reaction. Frustration is accompanied mainly by a range of negative emotions: anger, irritation, guilt, etc. The level of frustration depends on the strength, intensity of the frustrator, the person’s frustration state, as well as on the stable forms of emotional response to life’s difficulties that have developed in the process of personality formation.

    The study of frustration becomes important in connection with the urgent task of developing personality resistance to the influence of unfavorable life factors.

    A variety of neo-Freudianism is also the theory of frustration (obstacle). Representatives of this direction - Dollard, Miller and others - believe that the driving force for the development of the human personality is the presence of frustration, which always exists, because the outside world is hostile to man. Human development should proceed, according to the representatives of this theory, as if contrary to the action of the external world, which puts forward these obstacles at every step. They can be of a different nature, they can appear in the form of physical, moral, spiritual frustrations. Our whole life, according to these scientists, consists of fighting them.

    A person is born, in their opinion, calm, but then he enters life and obstacles begin to appear, to which the person reacts all the time. Reactions may vary. The fight against frustration comes in the form of aggression, which can be of different modalities and different forms. This can be aggressive behavior (which is often represented in American...), it can appear in the form of negativism (in a teenager), verbally, in the form of manifestations of sadism, masochism; Frustration sometimes appears in the form of depression and anger. Dollard lists a large number of forms of frustration.

    Soviet psychologist N.D. Levitov rightly points out that aggression should be studied not only as behavior, but also as a state, and that it is important to evaluate the emotional component of this state. Levitov points out that the American psychiatrist Naulis, speaking at the III International Symposium on Emotions in 1968 in the USA, said that in emotions, anger is primarily distinguished. A person very often, at all stages of an aggressive state - during the preparation of aggression, during the process of its implementation and when assessing the results - experiences a strong emotion of anger, sometimes taking the form of rage. But aggression is not always accompanied by anger and not all anger leads to aggression. Sometimes children experience anger towards their elders, but this anger is not accompanied by aggression.

    There is “grateful anger,” which is associated with indignation at some other action. Such anger can motivate not aggression, but creativity. When Juvenal said that verse is born from indignation, he meant anger.

    The idea that frustration can serve as a mechanism for personality development formed the basis of many techniques, in particular, the well-known and popular Rosenzweig technique.

    The subject is offered a card, one half of which depicts an event, and the other half a person. The content of the event is frustrating. The subject must give in writing the response of the person being frustrated. Frustration acts in different ways: some people direct aggression directly at others, while others direct aggression at themselves (I'm awkward, clumsy, etc.).

    The theory of frustration is based on the same false ideas that are characteristic of Freudianism - about the innate aggressiveness of human nature. This theory especially clearly shows a lack of understanding that aggressiveness as a basic personality trait depends on the conditions in which a person develops.



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