Geography (Greek - "land description")- a science that studies the surface of the Earth, the surrounding and underlying layers of matter, which together form a geographic envelope.
The name of this science was given by Eratosthenes more than 2200 years ago.
Rice. 1. Study of the surface of the earth ()
Geography is one of the oldest and most fundamental sciences.
Already in 3 thousand BC. NS. in ancient Egypt, expeditions were equipped to the center of Africa, along the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The resettlement of peoples, wars and trade expanded the knowledge of people about the surrounding spaces, developed the skills of orientation by the Sun, Moon and stars. The dependence of agriculture and cattle breeding on river floods and other periodic natural phenomena determined the appearance of the calendar.
In the 3-2 millennium BC. NS. representatives of the Harappan civilization (in the territory of modern Pakistan) discovered monsoons. Elements of geography contain the sacred ancient Indian books: in the Vedas a whole chapter is devoted to cosmology, in the Mahabharata you can find a list of oceans, mountains, rivers.
Nowadays there is not a single place on Earth that a person would not know about.
The object of study of geography is the laws and patterns of placement and interaction of the components of the geographic environment and their combinations at different levels. The complexity of the object of research and the breadth of the subject area led to the differentiation of a single geography into a number of specialized (sectoral) scientific disciplines that form a system of geographical sciences. Geography is divided into two (physical and economic) or three (physical, economic and social) branches. Sometimes geographic cartography is singled out separately as a separate geographic discipline.
Fig. 2. The main branches of geography
Economic (or socio-economic) geography studies the population and its economic activities.
There are three main sciences in the composition of physical geography. This is geography, which studies the general laws of the structure and development of the geographical envelope, landscape science, which studies territorial natural complexes, and paleogeography. In turn, these sections have their own hierarchical structure according to the types of studied components, processes and phenomena. Thus, individual components of the geographic envelope are studied by geomorphology, climatology, meteorology, hydrology (the study of water bodies), glaciology (the study of natural ice), soil geography, biogeography (the geography of living organisms). And at the junction with other sciences, such new areas of physical geography as medical geography and engineering geography were formed. Physical geography studies natural phenomena, objects of nature.
Physical geography is closely related to other geographical sciences - cartography, regional studies, historical geography, socio-economic geography.
The importance of physical geography
1. Description of nature.
2. Explanation of the peculiarities of nature.
3. Anticipation of possible changes due to interference with human nature.
In the process of studying the course of initial physical geography, ideas are formed about the Earth as a natural complex, about the features of the earth's shells and their interrelationships. When studying this course, the formation of a geographic culture and the teaching of a geographic language begin; students master the initial concepts and concepts, and also acquire the ability to use sources of geographic information.
Structurally The 6th grade geography course consists of four sections:
1. "Types of images of the Earth's surface - plan and map."
2. "Earth shells: lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere".
3. "Population of the Earth".
4. "The influence of nature on human life."
In the process of studying the course of initial physical geography, you will learn how to work with a plan and a map, generalize the collected material, and determine the location of geographical objects on Earth.
Homework
Paragraph 1.
1. What does geography study?
Bibliography
The main
1. An initial course in geography: Textbook. for 6 cl. general education. institutions / T.P. Gerasimova, N.P. Neklyukova. - 10th ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard, 2010 .-- 176 p.
2. Geography. 6th grade: atlas. - 3rd ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard, DIK, 2011 .-- 32 p.
3. Geography. 6th grade: atlas. - 4th ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard, DIK, 2013 .-- 32 p.
4. Geography. 6 cl .: cont. cards. - M .: DIK, Bustard, 2012 .-- 16 p.
Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections
1. Geography. Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin. - M .: Rosmen-Press, 2006 .-- 624 p.
Literature for preparing for the State Examination and the Unified State Exam
1. Geography: initial course. Tests. Textbook. manual for students of 6 cl. - M .: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2011 .-- 144 p.
2. Tests. Geography. 6-10 cells: Study guide/ A.A. Letyagin. - M .: OOO "Agency" KRPA "Olymp": "Astrel", "AST", 2001. - 284 p.
Materials on the Internet
1. Federal Institute for Pedagogical Measurements ().
4. Electronic version of the journal Geography ().
A fascinating subject, geography is a scientific field that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means "description of the earth." Below is the general definition term geography:
"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies physical features Land and environment, including the influence of human activity on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers the patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production. "
Scientists who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although the cartographers the ancient world were known as geographers, today it is a relatively independent specialization. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas of geographical research: physical geography and human geography.
History of the development of geography
The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps the surrounding area, and also explained the difference between people and natural landscapes in different places Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into vibrant Islamic minds. The golden age of Islam has witnessed astounding advances in the geographical sciences. Islamic geographers have become famous for their pioneering discoveries. New lands were explored and the first grid-based map system was developed. Chinese civilization also instrumentally contributed to the development of early geography. The compass, developed by the Chinese, was used by researchers to study the unknown.
A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period that coincides with the European Renaissance. A fresh interest in geography has awakened in the European world. Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant and traveler, spearheaded this new era of exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the wealthy civilizations of Asia such as China and India became the main incentive for travel in those days. Europeans have moved forward in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures, etc. The enormous potential of geography to shape the future of human civilization was recognized and, in the 18th century, it was introduced as a core discipline at the university level. Relying on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software radically changed science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.
Branches of geography
Geography can be viewed as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach that allows you to observe and analyze objects in the space of the Earth, as well as develop ways to solve problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification of geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socioeconomic geography.
Physical geography
is defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.
Physical geography is further subdivided into the following industries:
- Geomorphology: is engaged in the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps clarify various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also tries to predict future changes in physical characteristics. external appearance Earth.
- Glaciology: a branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some of the subdisciplines of glaciological research.
- Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is devoted to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine flora, fauna, and ocean ecosystems), chemical oceanography (the study of chemical composition sea waters and their impact on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of oceanic movements such as waves, currents, ebb and flow).
- Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. She explores the rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers of the planet. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the surface of the Earth, through.
- Soil science: a branch of science that studies different types of soils in their natural environment on the surface of the Earth. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the formation process (soil formation), composition, texture and classification of soils.
- : an irreplaceable discipline of physical geography, which studies the dispersal of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. She also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship with physical and geographical features. There are different branches of biogeography: zoogeography (the geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (the geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (the study of factors affecting individual ecosystems), etc.
- Paleogeography: a branch of physical geography that studies geographic features at different points in time in the geological history of the Earth. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics, as determined by studying paleomagnetism and fossil records.
- Climatology: Scientific research climate, as well as the most important section of geographical research in modern world... Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
- Meteorology: studies weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that affect local and global weather.
- Environmental geography: explores the interaction between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial point of view.
- Coastal geography: a specialized area of physical geography, which also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It explores the dynamic interaction between the coastal area and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape change. The study also involves understanding the impact of coastal residents on coastal landforms and ecosystems.
- Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Quaternary period of the Earth (the geographical history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about environmental changes in the planet's recent past. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
- Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography, which includes the collection, analysis, interpretation, and storage of data on the earth's surface.
- Landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.
Human geography
Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the world's most developed creatures from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.
This branch of geography is divided into different disciplines depending on the focus of research:
- Geography population: deals with the study of how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle and migration of human populations.
- Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographic phenomena over time. Although this section is viewed as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography tries to understand why, how and when places and regions of the Earth change, as well as what impact they have on human society.
- Cultural geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change with space and place. As such, she studies the spatial variation of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, etc.
- Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographic space.
- Political geography: examines the political boundaries of the countries of the world and the division between countries. She also examines how spatial structures affect political functions and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the sub-disciplines of political geography.
- Health geography: explores the impact of geographic location on human health and well-being.
- Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the human population of the world and tries to understand how and why such standards change depending on the place and space.
- Geography of settlements: researches urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
- Geography of animals: examines animal world Earth and the interdependence between humans and animals.
Geographic concepts
Absolute height - vertical distance from sea level togivenpoints.A.V. points above sea level is considered positive,below - negative.
Azimuth - the angle between the direction to the north andtargetingany subjecton the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360 ° in the directionmovement of the hourarrows.
Iceberg - large block of ice floating in the sea, lake, or aground
Antarctic belt - descends from the South Pole to 70 ° S latitude.Anticyclone - the area of increased air pressure inatmosphere.Area - the area of distribution of any phenomenon or group of livingorganisms.
Arctic belt - descends from the North Pole to 70 ° N.Archipelago - group of islands.
Atmosphere - the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll - a coral island in the form of a ring.
Beam - dry valley in the steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan - an accumulation of loose sand, blown by the wind and not fixed by vegetation.
Pool - an area of depression that does not have a runoff on the surface.Coast - a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope down to the water basin.
Biosphere - one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.Breeze - local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers.Day B. (or marine) blows from the sea (lake) to land.Night B. (or coastal) -withsushionsea.
"Brocken Ghost" (on the Brocken mountain in the Harz massif, Germany)- a special kind of mirage observed in clouds or fog whensunrise or sunset.
Wind - air movement relative to the ground, usually horizontal, directed from high pressure to low pressure.Direction B. is determined by the side of the horizon, whencehe blows.Speed B. is defined in m / s, km / h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity - the content of water vapor in it.
Watershed - the boundary between drainage basins.Elevation - a section elevated above the surrounding terrain.
Waves - oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seasandoceanscaused byby the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun(tidal V.), by the wind(wind turbines), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure(anemobaric V.), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands - a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, peaked peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights over 3000m. The highest mountain systems of the planet:Himalayas, vertexEverest (8848 m) located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China -Karakorum, vertexChogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zonality - change of natural zones in the mountains from the bottom to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates - angular values that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and the prime meridian.
Geospheres - shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.Hydrosphere - the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain: 1) an isolated sharp rise in a relatively flat area; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
The mountains - vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their limits.
Mountain system - a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges, extending in one direction and having a common appearance.
Ridge - an elongated, relatively low relief form; formed by hills linedvrow and merged at their feet.
Delta - the area of deposition of river sediments at the mouth of the river when it flows into the sea or lake.
Geographic longitude - the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through this point and the plane of the initial meridian; measured in degrees and measured from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley - negative laneously elongated landform.
Dunes - the accumulation of sands on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
The bay - part of the ocean (seaorLake), which juts out quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
Earth's crust - the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell - slight, with a calm, uniform wave, sea, river or lake disturbance.
Ionosphere - high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source - the place where the river begins.
Canyon - deep river valley with steep slopes and narrow bottom.K. underwater - a deep valley within the submarine edge of the mainland.
Karst - dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomenon associated with it.
Climate - long-term weather regime in a particular area.Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.Climatic zone (or belt) - a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe - a sandy or pebble rampart stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater - a depression formed after the explosion of a volcano.
The ridge is a sharply uplifting large uplift, one of the types of uplands.
Avalanche - a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.Lagoon - a shallow bay or bay, separated from the sea by an oblique or coral reef.
Geographic landscape - a relatively homogeneous area of the geographic envelope.
Glacier - a mass of ice slowly moving under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or along a valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km 2 , the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total ice volume is about 25-27 million km 3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period - a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.Forest-steppe - a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.Forest tundra - a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Lyman - shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by an oblique or in-fill.
Lithosphere - one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle - the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and the core.
Mainland - a large part of the land, surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.Australia - in the South. hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents);North. and Yuzh. America - in Zap. hemisphere, between the Pacific and Antlatic oceans;Antarctica - in the central part of Yuzh. the polar region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);Africa - in the South. hemispheres (the second largest continent);Eurasia - all in. hemisphere (the largest continent of the Earth).
Geographic meridians - imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographic longitude.
World Ocean - all water space of the Earth.
Monsoons - winds that periodically change their direction depending on the season: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands - a mountainous country characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet is in Central Asia, the highest and greatest plateau on Earth. Its base rests at absolute heights of 3500-5000 m and more. Individual peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Low mountains - the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m.The most famous of them Ural mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan, the vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland - a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazonian lowland with an area of more than 5 million km 2 in Yuzh. America.
Lake - a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Baikal.
Oceans - parts of the World Ocean, separated from each other by continents and islands.Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters;Arctic - the smallest and shallowest ocean;Pacific Ocean (Great) the greatest and deepest ocean on earth.
Landslide - displacement down the slope of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island - a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world -Greenland area of 2 million 176 thousand km 2 .
Relative altitude - the vertical distance between the top of the mountain and its foot,
Geographic parallels - imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect (atmospheric greenhouse effect) - protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds - constant winds in tropical areas blowing towards the equator.
Plateau: 1) a high plain bounded by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain peak.P. underwater - elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos - a deep section of the river bed between rifts.
Plateau - a vast area of land with a height of 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m and more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example:East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain - part of the river valley, which is flooded during floods.Semi-desert - a transitional landscape that combines features of the steppe or desert.
Earthly hemisphere - half of the earth's sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160 ° E and 20 ° W. (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or on other grounds.
Geographic poles - points of intersection of the axis of rotation of the Earth with the earth's surface.
Magnetic p. Of the Earth - points on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where the magnetic compass is inapplicable for orientation by the cardinal points.
Polar circles (Northern andSouthern) - parallels located 66 ° 33 "north and south of the equator.
Threshold - a shallow area in the riverbed with a steep slope and fast current.
Foothills - hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairie - vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebb and flow - periodic fluctuations in the water level of the seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the moon and the sun.
Deserts - vast areas with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe -Sahara all in. Africa,
Plains - vast flat or slightly hilly areas of land. Largest on EarthEastern European, orRussian, with an area of more than 6 million km 2 andWest Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of about 3 million km 2 .
River - a constant stream of water flowing in the channel.Amazon - river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in terms of basin area (7180 microns G) and by water content;Mississippi - the largest river North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km);Nile - a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief - a set of various irregularities of the earth's surface (forms of R.) of various origins; are formed under a combination of endogenous and exogenous processes affecting the earth's surface.
Bed - the deepened part of the bottom of the valley, occupied by the river.
Savannah - a landscape of the tropics and subtropics, in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with individual trees or their groups.
North Pole - the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the North. hemisphere.
Mud - mud or mud-stone flow, suddenly passing through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado (American name for tornado) - a vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Middle mountains - mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and north-east of Siberia. They occupy almost the entire Far East, the eastern part of China and the Indo-China peninsula; in the north of Africa and the East African plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope - an inclined area on land or the seabed.Windward S. - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow.Leeward S. - facing away from the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe - treeless areas with an arid climate, which are characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeastern China, and in North America occupy vast areas of the Great Plains, joining in the south with the savannahs of the tropical belt.
Stratosphere - the layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical belts (subtropics) - located between the tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts - located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga - zone of temperate coniferous forests. Taiga almost continuous belt covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America.
Typhoon - the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takir - a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements - movement crust, changing its structure and shape.
Tropics: 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, spaced 23 ° 30 ° north and south of the equator:tropics of Capricorn (North t.) - North tropics. hemispheres andTropics of Cancer (South t.) - the tropics of the South. hemispheres; 2) natural belts.
Tropical belts - located between the subtropical and subequatorial belts.
Troposphere - the lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra - treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Moderate belts - located in temperate latitudes.
Moderate latitudes - located between 40 ° and 65 ° N. and between 42 ° and 58 ° S latitude.Hurricane - a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m / s.
Estuary - the place where the river flows into the sea, lake or other river.
Front atmospheric - the zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord) - a narrow deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill - a small in height and gently sloping hill.Cyclones - an area of low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami - Japanese name for huge waves that occur as a result of underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world - regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts of them) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf - continental shelf with prevailing depths up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographic - the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and measured from the equator to the north and south.
Squall - a sharp short-term increase in wind before the storm.
Calm - calm, calm.
Storm - very strong wind, accompanied by strong sea waves.
Equator - an imaginary line connecting points on the globe that are equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere - the layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere - an area of outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion, destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole, the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the South. hemisphere.
The core of the earth the central part of the planet with a radius of approx. 3470 km.
Typical plans for the description of geographic objects
Geographical position of the mainland
1. The location of the continent relative to the equator, the tropics (polar circles) and the prime meridian.
2. The extreme points of the continent, their coordinates and the length of the continent in degrees and kilometers from north to south and from west to east.
3. In what climatic zones is the mainland located?
4. Oceans and seas washing the mainland.
5. Location of the mainland relative to other continents.
Terrain relief
1. What is the general nature of the surface? How can it be explained?
2. How are the landforms located in the study area?
3. What are the highest and prevailing heights?
Climate
1. In what climatic zone and in what region is the territory located?
2. Average temperatures in July and January. The direction and reasons for their change.
3. The prevailing winds (seasons).
4. Annual amount of precipitation and their regime. The reasons for the difference in the amount of precipitation.
River
1. In which part of the mainland does it flow?
2. Where does it originate? Where does it flow?
3. In which direction does it flow?
4. Explain the dependence of the nature of the current on the relief.
5. Determine the sources of the river supply.
6. What is the regime of the river and how does it depend on the climate?
Natural area
1. Geographic location of the zone.
2. Geology, tectonics, relief.
3. Climate.
4. Internal waters.
5. Soils.
6. Vegetation.
7. Animal world.
Population of the country
1. Number, type of population reproduction, demographic policy.
2. Age and sex composition of the population, labor force availability.
3. National (ethnic) composition of the population.
4. Social-class composition of the population.
5. The main features of the distribution of the population, the impact of migration on its distribution.
6. Levels, rates and forms of urbanization, major cities and urban agglomerations.
7. Rural settlement.
8. General conclusion... Population growth prospects and labor supply.
EGP of the country (region)
1. Position in relation to neighboring countries.
2. Position in relation to the main land and sea transport routes.
3. Position in relation to the main fuel and raw material bases, industrial and agricultural regions.
4. Location in relation to the main marketing areas.
5. Change in EGP over time.
6. General conclusion about the influence of EGP on the development and location of the country's economy.
Industry
1. The importance of the industry and the size of its products.
2. Natural prerequisites for the development of the industry.
3. The structure of the industry.
4. The main factors influencing the location of the industry, and the main features of its geography; sectoral industrial areas.
5. Dependence of the industry on exports and imports.
6. General conclusion. Prospects for the development of the industry.
Agriculture of the country
1. The importance of the industry and the size of the products.
2. Natural conditions for the development of the industry.
3. Features of agrarian relations.
4. The structure of the industry, the ratio of crop and livestock production.
5. Geography of crop and livestock production, agricultural areas.
6. Dependence of the country on the export and import of agricultural products.
7. General conclusion. Prospects for population growth and labor supply.
Territory of the economic region
1. EGP of the region.
2. Natural conditions, resources of the region and their economic assessment.
3. Labor resources and the possibility of their use.
4. Historical background development of the national economy of the economic region.
5. Specialization of the economy (industry and Agriculture).
6. Interrelationships of industries and territories within the region, forms of production location (TPK, nodes, centers).
7. Cities.
8. Prospects for the development of the region.
Race is a historically developed group of people with common physical characteristics: skin color, eyes and hair, eye shape, eyelid structure, head shape, and others. Previously, the division of races into "black" (negroes), yellow (Asians) and white (Europeans) was accepted, but now this classification is considered outdated and incomplete.
The simplest modern division is not too different from the "color" one. According to her, there are 3 main or large races: Negroid, Caucasoid and Mongoloid. Representatives of these three races have significant distinctive features.
Negroids are characterized by curly black hair, dark brown skin (sometimes almost black), brown eyes, strongly protruding jaws, a weakly protruding wide nose, thickened lips.
Caucasians usually have wavy or straight hair, relatively light skin, varying eye colors, slightly protruding jaws, a narrow, protruding nose with a high nose, and usually thin or medium lips.
Mongoloids have straight, coarse dark hair, yellowish skin tones, brown eyes, a narrow eye shape, a flattened face with strongly prominent cheekbones, a narrow or medium wide nose with a low nose, moderately thickened lips.
In the extended classification, it is customary to distinguish several more racial groups. For example, the Amerindian race (Indians, American race) is the indigenous population of the American continent. It is physiologically close to the Mongoloid race, however, the settlement of America began more than 20 thousand years ago, therefore, according to experts, it is incorrect to consider the Amerindians as a branch of the Mongoloids.
Australoids (Australian-Oceanic race) - the indigenous population of Australia. An ancient race that had a huge range, limited by regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, Kuril Islands. The features of the appearance of indigenous Australians - a large nose, a beard, long wavy hair, a massive brow, powerful jaws sharply distinguish them from Negroids.
Currently, there are few pure representatives of their races left. Basically, mestizos live on our planet - the result of a mixture of different races, which may have signs of different racial groups.
Time zones are conventionally defined parts of the Earth in which the same local time is accepted.
Before the introduction of standard time, each city used its own local solar time depending on the geographic longitude. However, this was very inconvenient, especially in terms of train timetables. First modern system time zones appeared in North America in the late 19th century. In Russia, it became widespread in 1917, and by 1929 it was accepted throughout the world.
For greater convenience (so as not to enter the local time for each degree of longitude), the Earth's surface was conditionally divided into 24 time zones. The boundaries of time zones are determined not by meridians, but by administrative units (states, cities, regions). This is also done for convenience. When moving from one time zone to another, the values of minutes and seconds (time) are usually saved, only in some countries, the local time differs from the universal time by 30 or 45 minutes.
Greenwich Observatory in the suburbs of London is taken as the starting point (prime meridian or belt). At the North and South Poles, the meridians converge at one point, so time zones are usually not adhered to there. Time at the poles is usually equated with universal time, although at polar stations it is sometimes led in its own way.
GMT -12 - Date change meridian
GMT -11 - about. Midway, Samoa
GMT -10 - Hawaii
GMT -9 - Alaska
GMT -8 - Pacific Time (US & Canada), Tijuana
GMT -7 - Mountain Time, USA and Canada (Arizona), Mexico (Chihuahua, La Paz, Matsatlan)
GMT -6 - Central Time (USA and Canada), Central American Time, Mexico (Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey)
GMT -5 - Eastern Time (USA and Canada), South American Pacific Time (Bogota, Lima, Quito)
GMT -4 - Atlantic Time (Canada), South American Pacific Time (Caracas, La Paz, Santiago)
GMT -3 - South American Eastern Time (Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Georgetown), Greenland
GMT -2 - Mid-Atlantic Time
GMT -1 - Azores, Cape Verde
GMT - Greenwich Time (Dublin, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London), Casablanca, Monrovia
GMT +1 - Central European Time (Amsterdam, Berlin, Bern, Brussels, Vienna, Copenhagen, Madrid, Paris, Rome, Stockholm), Belgrade, Bratislava, Budapest, Warsaw, Ljubljana, Prague, Sarajevo, Skopje, Zagreb), West Central African Time
GMT +2 - Eastern European Time (Athens, Bucharest, Vilnius, Kiev, Chisinau, Minsk, Riga, Sofia, Tallinn, Helsinki, Kaliningrad), Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Turkey, South Africa
GMT +3 - Moscow Time, Eastern African Time (Nairobi, Addis Ababa), Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia
GMT +4 - Samara time, United United Arab Emirates, Oman, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia
GMT +5 - Yekaterinburg time, West Asian time (Islamabad, Karachi, Tashkent)
GMT +6 - Novosibirsk, Omsk Time, Central Asian Time (Bangladesh, Kazakhstan), Sri Lanka
GMT +7 - Krasnoyarsk time, Southeast Asia(Bangkok, Jakarta, Hanoi)
GMT +8 - Irkutsk Time, Ulaanbaatar, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Taiwan, Western Australian Time (Perth)
GMT +9 - Yakutsk Time, Korea, Japan
GMT +10 - Vladivostok Time, Eastern Australian Time (Brisbane, Canberra, Melbourne, Sydney), Tasmania, Western Pacific Time (Guam, Port Moresby)
GMT +11 - Magadan Time, Central Pacific Time (Solomon Islands, New Caledonia)
GMT +12 - Wellington
The wind rose is called a diagram that depicts the mode of change in the directions and speeds of the wind in a certain place, over a certain period of time. It got its name thanks to a pattern similar to a rose. The first wind roses were known before our era.
It is assumed that sailors invented the wind rose, who tried to identify the patterns of changes in the winds, depending on the season. She helped determine when to start sailing in order to get to a certain destination.
The diagram is constructed as follows: on rays coming from a common center in different directions, the value of repeatability is plotted (in percentage) or wind speed. The rays correspond to the cardinal points: north, west, east, south, northeast, northeast, etc. Currently, the wind rose is usually built according to long-term data for the month, season, year.
Clouds are classified using Latin words to define the appearance of clouds as seen from the ground. The word cumulus is the definition of cumulus clouds, stratus - stratus clouds, cirrus - cirrus, nimbus - rain clouds.
In addition to the type of clouds, the classification describes their location. Usually, several groups of clouds are distinguished, the first three of which are determined by their height above the ground. The fourth group consists of clouds of vertical development, and the last group includes clouds mixed types.
High clouds are formed in temperate latitudes above 5 km, in polar - above 3 km, in tropical - above 6 km. The temperature at this altitude is quite low, so they are composed mostly of ice crystals. Top clouds are usually thin and white. The most common forms of top clouds are cirrus and cirrostratus, which can usually be seen in good weather.
Middle clouds usually located at an altitude of 2-7 km in temperate latitudes, 2-4 km - in polar and 2-8 km - in tropical. They consist mainly of small particles of water, but at low temperatures they can also contain ice crystals. The most common type of middle clouds are altocumulus (altocumulus), altostratus (altostratus). They may have shaded parts, which distinguishes them from cirrocumulus clouds. This type of cloud usually occurs as a result of air convection, as well as the gradual ascent of air ahead of a cold front.
Low clouds are located at altitudes below 2 km, where the temperature is high enough, therefore, they consist mainly of water droplets. Only in the cold season. When the surface temperature is low, they contain particles of ice (hail) or snow. The most common low cloud types are nimbostratus (nimbostratus) and stratocumulus (stratocumulus), dark low clouds accompanied by moderate precipitation.
Vertical development clouds - cumulus clouds, in the form of isolated cloud masses, the vertical dimensions of which are similar to the horizontal ones. They arise as a result of thermal convection, and can reach heights of 12 km. The main types are fair weather cumulus and cumulonimbus. Good weather clouds look like cotton wool. Their lifetime is from 5 to 40 minutes. Young fair weather clouds have sharply defined edges and bases, while older clouds are jagged and blurred.
Other types of clouds: contrails, billow clouds, mammatus, orographic, and pileus.
Precipitation is called water in a liquid or solid state, which falls out of clouds or is deposited from the air on the Earth's surface (dew, frost). There are two main types of precipitation: overburden precipitation (occurs mainly during the passage of a warm front) and heavy rainfall (associated with cold fronts). The amount of precipitation is measured by the thickness of the water layer that has fallen over a certain period (usually mm / year). On average, the Earth's precipitation is about 1000 mm / year. The amount of precipitation less than this value is called insufficient, and more - excessive.
Water does not form in the sky - it gets there from the earth's surface. This happens in the following way: under the influence of sunlight, moisture gradually evaporates from the surface of the planet (mainly from the surface of the oceans, seas and other bodies of water), then water vapor gradually rises up, where, under the influence low temperatures it condenses (converts gas into a liquid state) and freezes. This is how clouds are formed. As the mass of liquid in the cloud builds up, it also becomes heavier. When a certain mass is reached, moisture from the cloud is poured onto the ground in the form of rain.
If precipitation falls in an area with a low temperature, then the moisture droplets freeze on the way to the ground, turning into snow at the same time. Sometimes they seem to stick to each other, as a result of which the snow falls out in large flakes. This happens most often when the temperature is not very low and the wind is strong. When the temperature is close to zero, the snow, approaching the ground, melts and becomes wet. Such snowflakes, falling to the ground or objects, immediately turn into drops of water. In those areas of the planet where the surface of the earth has managed to freeze, snow can remain in the form of a cover for up to several months. In some especially cold regions of the Earth (at the poles or high in the mountains), precipitation falls only in the form of snow, and in warm regions (the equator of the tropics) there is no snow at all.
When frozen water particles move within the cloud, they grow and thicken. In this case, small pieces of ice are formed, which in this state fall to the ground. This is how hail forms. Hail can fall even in summer - the ice does not have time to melt even when the surface temperature is high. The sizes of hailstones can be different: from a few millimeters to several centimeters.
Sometimes moisture does not have time to rise into the sky, and then condensation occurs right on the surface of the earth. This usually happens when the temperature drops at night. In the summer, you can observe the deposition of moisture on the surface of leaves and grass in the form of water droplets - this is dew. In the cold season, the smallest particles of water freeze, and frost forms instead of dew.
Soils are classified by type. The first scientist to classify soils was Dokuchaev. The following types of soils are found on the territory of the Russian Federation: Podzolic soils, tundra gley soils, arctic soils, permafrost taiga, gray and brown forest soils, and chestnut soils.
Tundra gley soils are found on the plains. They are formed without much influence of vegetation on them. These soils are found in areas where there is permafrost (In the Northern Hemisphere). Gley soils are often places where deer live and feed in summer and winter. An example of tundra soils in Russia is Chukotka, and in the world it is Alaska in the United States. On the territory with such soils, people are engaged in agriculture. This land grows potatoes, vegetables and various herbs. To improve the fertility of tundra gley soils in agriculture, the following types of work are used: drainage of the most saturated with moisture lands and irrigation of arid regions. Also, the methods of improving the fertility of these soils include the introduction of organic and mineral fertilizers into them.
Arctic soils are produced by thawing permafrost. Such soil is rather thin. The maximum layer of humus (fertile layer) is 1-2 cm. This type of soil has a low acidic environment. This soil is not restored due to the harsh climate. These soils are common on the territory of Russia only in the Arctic (on a number of islands in the Arctic Ocean). Due to the harsh climate and a small layer of humus, nothing grows on such soils.
Podzolic soils are common in forests. There is only 1-4% humus in the soil. Podzolic soils are obtained through the process of podzol formation. A reaction with acid takes place. That is why this type of soil is also called sour. Dokuchaev was the first to describe podzolic soils. In Russia, podzolic soils are common in Siberia and the Far East. In the world, there are podzolic soils in Asia, Africa, Europe, the USA and Canada. Such soils in agriculture must be properly processed. They need to be fertilized, organic and mineral fertilizers... Such soils are more useful in logging than in agriculture. After all, trees grow on them better than agricultural crops. Sod-podzolic soils are a subtype of podzolic soils. In composition, they are in many ways similar to podzolic soils. Characteristic feature of these soils is that they can be washed out more slowly with water, in contrast to podzolic soils. Sod-podzolic soils are found mainly in the taiga (territory of Siberia). This soil contains up to 10% of the fertile layer on the surface, and at depth the layer sharply decreases to 0.5%.
Permafrost taiga soils were formed in forests, in permafrost conditions. They are found only in a continental climate. The deepest depths of these soils do not exceed 1 meter. This is caused by the proximity to the permafrost surface. The humus content is only 3-10%. As a subspecies, there are mountain permafrost taiga soils. They form in the taiga on rocks that are covered with ice only in winter. These soils are in Eastern Siberia... They are found in the Far East. More often mountain permafrost-taiga soils are found next to small water bodies. Outside of Russia, there are such soils in Canada and Alaska.
Gray forest soils are formed on the territory of forests. An indispensable condition for the formation of such soils is the presence of a continental climate. Deciduous forests and grassy vegetation. Places of formation contain an element necessary for such a soil - calcium. Thanks to this element, water does not penetrate deep into the soil and does not erode them. These soils are gray in color. The humus content in gray forest soils is 2-8 percent, that is, the soil fertility is average. Gray forest soils are divided into gray, light gray, and dark gray. These soils prevail in Russia from Transbaikalia to the Carpathian Mountains. Fruit and grain crops are grown on the soil.
Brown forest soils are common in forests: mixed, coniferous and broad-leaved. These soils exist only in temperate warm climates. The color of the soil is brown. Usually brown soils look like this: on the surface of the earth there is a layer of fallen leaves, about 5 cm high. Next comes the fertile layer, which is 20, and sometimes 30 cm. Even lower is a clay layer of 15-40 cm. There are several subtypes of brown soils. The subtypes vary with temperatures. Allocate: typical, podzolized, gley (surface gley and pseudopodzolic). On the territory of the Russian Federation, soils are common in the Far East and at the foothills of the Caucasus. On these soils, unpretentious crops are grown, for example, tea, grapes and tobacco. The forest grows well on such soils.
Chestnut soils are common in steppes and semi-deserts. The fertile layer of such soils is 1.5-4.5%. That says the average soil fertility. This soil has a chestnut, light chestnut and dark chestnut color. Accordingly, there are three subtypes of chestnut soil, differing in color. On light chestnut soils, farming is possible only with abundant watering. The main purpose of this land is pasture. The following crops grow well on dark chestnut soils without watering: wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, millet. There are slight differences in the soil and in the chemical composition of the chestnut soil. Its division into clayey, sandy, sandy loam, light loamy, medium loamy and heavy loamy. Each of them has a slightly different chemical composition. The chemical composition of the chestnut soil is varied. The soil contains magnesium, calcium, water-soluble salts. Chestnut soil tends to recover quickly. Its thickness is supported by the annually falling grass and leaves of trees rare in the steppe. You can get good yields on it, provided there is a lot of moisture. After all, the steppes are usually arid. Chestnut soils in Russia are widespread in the Caucasus, the Volga region and Central Siberia.
There are many types of soils on the territory of the Russian Federation. They all differ in chemical and mechanical composition. At the moment, agriculture is on the brink of a crisis. Russian soils must be valued as the land on which we live. Take care of the soil: fertilize it and prevent erosion (destruction).
Biosphere - a set of parts of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which is inhabited by living organisms. This term was introduced in 1875 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess. The biosphere does not occupy a certain position, like other shells, but is located within them. Thus, aquatic animals and aquatic plants are part of the hydrosphere, birds and insects are part of the atmosphere, and plants and animals living in the earth are part of the lithosphere. The biosphere also covers everything related to the activities of living beings.
The composition of living organisms includes about 60 chemical elements, the main of which are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, iron and calcium. Living organisms can adapt to life in extreme conditions... Spores of some plants can withstand ultra-low temperatures down to -200 ° C, and some microorganisms (bacteria) survive at temperatures up to 250 ° C. The inhabitants of the depths of the sea withstand the enormous pressure of water, which would instantly crush a person.
Living organisms mean not only animals, plants, bacteria and fungi are also considered living things. Moreover, plants account for 99% of the biomass, while animals and microorganisms account for only 1%. Thus, plants make up the overwhelming part of the biosphere. The biosphere is a powerful storage device solar energy... This is due to the photosynthesis of plants. Thanks to living organisms, the circulation of substances on the planet takes place.
According to experts, life on Earth originated about 3.5 billion years ago in the oceans. It was this age that was assigned to the oldest organic remains found. Since the age of our planet, scientists determine in the region of 4.6 billion years, we can say that living things appeared on early stage development of the Earth. The biosphere has the greatest impact on the rest of the Earth's shell, although not always beneficial. Living organisms inside the shell also actively interact with each other.
The atmosphere (from the Greek atmos - steam and sphaira - ball) is the gaseous shell of the Earth, which is held by its gravity and rotates with the planet. The physical state of the atmosphere is determined by the climate, and the main parameters of the atmosphere are the composition, density, pressure and temperature of the air. Air density and atmospheric pressure decrease with altitude. The atmosphere is divided into several layers depending on temperature changes: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere. Transitional regions are located between these layers, which are called tropopause, stratopause, and so on.
The troposphere is the lower layer of the atmosphere, in the polar regions it is located up to an altitude of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, and at the equator - 16-18 km. The troposphere contains about 80% of the entire mass of the atmosphere and almost all water vapor. The air density is greatest here. With a rise for every 100 m, the temperature in the troposphere decreases by an average of 0.65 °. The upper layer of the troposphere, which is intermediate between it and the stratosphere, is called the tropopause.
The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere, which is located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Here the temperature rises with altitude. On the border with the troposphere, it reaches about -56ºС, and to an altitude of about 50 km it rises to 0ºС. The area between the stratosphere and the mesosphere is called the stratopause. The stratosphere contains the "ozone layer", which defines the upper limit of the biosphere. The ozone layer is also a kind of shield that protects living organisms from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Complex chemical processes occurring in this shell are accompanied by the release of light energy (for example, the northern lights). About 20% of the mass of the atmosphere is concentrated here.
The next layer of the atmosphere is the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 50 km and ends at an altitude of 80-90 km. The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with height and reaches -90ºС in its upper part. The intermediate layer between the mesosphere and the next thermosphere is the mesopause.
The thermosphere or ionosphere begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and ends at an altitude of 800 km. The air temperature here rises rather quickly, reaching several hundred and even thousands of degrees.
The last part of the atmosphere is the exosphere or scattering zone. It is located above 800 km. This space is already practically devoid of air. At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near-space vacuum, which does not enter the Earth's atmosphere.
The hydrosphere is the watery shell of the Earth, which is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere and is a collection of oceans, seas and land surface waters. The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, ice and snow, water contained in the atmosphere and in living organisms. The bulk of water is concentrated in the seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover 71% of the planet's surface. The second place in terms of water volume is taken by groundwater, the third - by ice and snow of the Arctic and Antarctic regions and mountainous regions. The total volume of water on Earth is close to 1.39 billion km³.
Water, along with oxygen, is one of the most important substances on earth. It is part of all living organisms on the planet. For example, a person is approximately 80% water. Water also plays an important role in shaping the topography of the Earth's surface, transporting chemicals in the depths of the Earth and on its surface.
The water vapor in the atmosphere acts as a powerful filter for solar radiation and a climate regulator.
The main volume of water on the planet is made up of the salty waters of the World Ocean. On average, their salinity is 35 ppm (1 kg of ocean water contains 35 g of salt). The highest salinity in the Dead Sea is 270-300 ppm. For comparison, in the Mediterranean Sea this figure is 35-40 ppm, in the Black Sea - 18 ppm, and in the Baltic - only 7. According to experts, the chemical composition of ocean waters is in many ways similar to the composition of human blood - they contain almost all known US chemical elements, only in different proportions... The chemical composition of the more fresh groundwater more diverse and depends on the composition of the host rocks and the depth of occurrence.
The waters of the hydrosphere are in constant interaction with the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interaction is expressed in the transition of waters from one species to another, and is called the water cycle. According to most scientists, it was in water that life was born on our planet.
Volumes of water in the hydrosphere:
Marine and ocean waters- 1370 million km³ (94% of the total)
Groundwater - 61 million km³ (4%)
Ice and snow - 24 million km³ (2%)
Land reservoirs (rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs) - 500 thousand km³ (0.4%)
The lithosphere is the hard shell of the Earth, which includes the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. The thickness of the lithosphere on land on average ranges from 35-40 km (in flat areas) to 70 km (in mountainous areas). Under the ancient mountains, the thickness of the earth's crust is even greater: for example, under the Himalayas, its thickness reaches 90 km. The earth's crust under the oceans is also the lithosphere. Here it is the thinnest - on average about 7-10 km, and in some areas of the Pacific Ocean - up to 5 km.
The thickness of the earth's crust can be determined by the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The latter also provide some information about the properties of the mantle located under the earth's crust and entering the lithosphere. The lithosphere, as well as the hydrosphere and atmosphere, was formed mainly as a result of the release of substances from the upper mantle of the young Earth. Its formation continues today, mainly at the bottom of the oceans.
Most of the lithosphere is made up of crystalline substances, which were formed during the cooling of magma - molten matter in the depths of the Earth. As the magma cooled, hot solutions formed. Passing along cracks in the earth's crust, they cooled down and released the substances contained in them. Since some minerals decompose with changes in temperature and pressure, on the surface they are transformed into new substances.
The lithosphere is exposed to the influence of the Earth's air and water envelopes (atmosphere and hydrosphere), which is expressed in the processes of weathering. Physical weathering is a mechanical process, as a result of which the rock is crushed to smaller particles without changing the chemical composition. Chemical weathering leads to the formation of new substances. The rate of weathering is also influenced by the biosphere, as well as the topography of the land and climate, the composition of the water, and other factors.
As a result of weathering, loose continental deposits were formed, the thickness of which ranges from 10-20 cm on steep slopes to tens of meters on plains and hundreds of meters in depressions. Soils were formed on these deposits, which play an important role in the interaction of living organisms with the earth's crust.
Orientation on the terrain includes determining its location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks), maintaining a given or selected direction of movement to a specific object. The ability to navigate the terrain is especially necessary when being in sparsely populated and unfamiliar areas.
You can navigate by the map, by the compass, by the stars. Various objects of natural (river, swamp, tree) or artificial (lighthouse, tower) origin can also serve as landmarks.
When orienting on the map, it is necessary to link the image on the map with a real object. The easiest way is to go to the bank of a river or road, and then rotate the map until the direction of the line (road, river) on the map coincides with the direction of the line on the ground. Items located to the right and left of the line on the terrain must be on the same sides as on the map.
Orientation of the map by compass is used mainly on terrain that is difficult for orientation (in the forest, in the desert), where it is usually difficult to find landmarks. Under these conditions, the direction to the north is determined by the compass, and the map is positioned with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that vertical line the coordinate grid of the map coincided with the longitudinal axis of the compass magnetic needle. Remember that compass readings can be affected by metal objects, power lines, and electronic devices in the immediate vicinity.
After the location on the ground is determined, you need to determine the direction of movement and azimuth (deviation of the direction of movement in degrees from the north pole of the compass clockwise). If the route is not a straight line, then you need to accurately determine the distance, after passing which you need to change the direction of travel. You can also select a specific landmark on the map and, after finding it on the ground, change the direction of movement from it.
In the absence of a compass, the cardinal points can be determined as follows:
The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side;
On coniferous trees, resin is more commonly accumulated on the south side;
Annual rings on fresh stumps on the north side are closer to each other;
On the north side, trees, stones, stumps, etc. earlier and more abundantly covered with lichens, fungi;
Anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, the northern one is steep;
In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side;
Separate trees have a lush and thicker crown on the south side;
Altars Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran pickaxes are facing east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;
The raised end of the lower crossbar of the cross of the churches faces north.
A geographic map is a visual representation of the earth's surface on a plane. The map shows the location and condition of various natural and social phenomena. Depending on what is depicted on the cards, they are called political, physical, etc.
Maps are classified according to various criteria:
By scale: large-scale (1: 10,000 - 1: 100,000), medium-scale (1: 200,000 - 1: 1,000,000) and small-scale maps (finer than 1: 1,000,000). The scale determines the relationship between real dimensions object and the size of its image on the map. Knowing the scale of the map (it is always indicated on it), you can use simple calculations and special measuring tools (ruler, curvimeter) to determine the size of an object or the distance from one object to another.
In terms of content, maps are subdivided into general geographic and thematic. Thematic maps divided into physical and geographical and socio-economic. Physico- geographic Maps used to show, for example, the nature of the relief of the earth's surface or climatic conditions in a certain area. Socio-economic maps show the borders of countries, the location of roads, industrial facilities etc.
According to the coverage of the territory, geographical maps are divided into world maps, maps of continents and parts of the world, regions of the world, individual countries and parts of countries (regions, cities, districts, etc.).
According to their purpose, geographical maps are divided into reference, educational, navigation, etc.
To learn to distinguish Austria from Australia, north from south, dune from dune - you should study geography well. You will find the definition of the word and its meaning in this article. In addition, you will learn what one of the most ancient sciences studies, and what are its main features.
What is geography: definition and meaning of the term
Geography is the oldest scientific discipline in existence today. Its foundations were laid back in the Hellenistic era. Her interests are seas and oceans, mountains and plains, and society. More precisely, the features of human interaction with the surrounding nature.
Definition of the concept of "geography" is impossible without the interpretation of the word itself. It is of ancient Greek origin and is translated as "land description". The term consists of two Greek words: geo (land) and grapho (writing, describing).
In the third century BC (when geography was born as a science), this term was quite consistent with the essence. Ancient Greek thinkers really were engaged in "land writing", not going too deeply into the intricacies of natural processes and phenomena. However, the current definition of geography cannot be reduced to such a narrow interpretation.
What is science doing at the present stage? To answer this question, you need to understand what geography is. You will find the definition of this scientific discipline later in our article.
Early history of geographical science
So, as we have already figured out, the term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks. They also created the first detailed maps of the area. Actually, the foundations of this science were laid precisely in the Hellenic era. Later, the center of its development smoothly moved to the Arab world. Islamic geographers not only explored and mapped a host of new lands, but also made many important groundbreaking discoveries.
The development of geographical science was also strongly promoted by the Chinese civilization. In particular, instrumental. It was the Chinese who developed such a useful little thing as a compass, which is actively used in the 21st century.
The most famous representatives of the early period in the history of geographical science:
- Eratosthenes ("father of geography").
- Claudius Ptolemy.
- Strabo.
- Muhammad al-Idrisi.
- Ibn Battuta.
Development of geography in the 16th-20th centuries
During the European Renaissance, the vast empirical heritage accumulated by geographers of previous generations and cultures was systematized and rethought. The so-called period of the Great Geographical Discoveries set completely new tasks and goals for the "science of land writing", and a fresh and genuine interest in the profession of a geographer arose in society.
In the 18th century, this science began to be studied at universities as a separate discipline. In the first half of the 19th century, Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter laid the foundation for modern academic geography as we know it today. Today, thanks to satellite technology and the latest geographic information systems, geography is entering a completely new stage in its development.
Scientists who have made a significant contribution to the development of European geographical science:
- Gerhard Mercator.
- Alexander von Humboldt.
- Karl Ritter.
- Walter Kristalller.
- Vasily Dokuchaev.
Definition of geography as a science
“A linear image of the entire known part of the Earth, with everything that is located on it - bays, major cities, peoples, significant rivers. " This definition of geography was given by Claudius Ptolemy back in the second century. Thanks to this science, as the famous ancient Greek astronomer said, we get a unique opportunity "to survey the entire Earth in one picture."
At the beginning of the 19th century, the German geographer Karl Ritter proposed replacing "geography" with the term "geography". By the way, it was he who first divided geography into two independent branches: physical and social (political). "The territory affects the inhabitants, and the inhabitants influence the territory" - this is a just thought Ritter expressed back in 1804.
Another German scientist, Hermann Wagner, he gave the following definition of geography: it is the science of the power of space, which is manifested in local differences in its material filling. Wagner was quite close in his scientific views to Karl Ritter.
An interesting definition of geography was given by the famous Soviet soil scientist Arseny Yarilov. According to him, this is the science that should orient a person within the limits of the dwelling allotted to him by nature.
There are many other curious interpretations of this scientific discipline. To summarize all of the above, a modern definition should be given: geography is a science that studies the so-called geographic shell of the Earth, in all its natural and socio-economic diversity. We will describe in more detail what it is in the next section.
The geographic envelope is ...
The geographic shell is understood as the shell of the planet Earth, consisting of four structural layers:
- Troposphere.
- Earth's crust.
- Hydrospheres.
- Biosphere.
Moreover, all these "spheres" are in the closest interaction, intersecting and penetrating each other. The essence of the concept of the geographic shell of the Earth was first described back in 1910 by the Russian scientist P.I.Brownov.
Within the geographic envelope, there is a constant and continuous process of movement of matter and energy. Thus, water from rivers and lakes constantly flows into the lower layers of the atmosphere, as well as into the earth's crust (through cracks and pores). In turn, gases and solid particles from the troposphere enter the water bodies.
The boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly defined. Most often, its lower line is drawn along the bottom of the earth's crust, the upper one - at an altitude of 20-25 kilometers. Thus, the average thickness of the geographic shell of the Earth is about 30 km. Compared to the parameters of our planet, this is minuscule. But it is precisely this thin "film" that is precisely the main object of study for geographical science.
The structure of geographical science
Modern geography is a complex and very voluminous science that includes dozens of private disciplines. As a rule, it is divided into two large blocks - physical and social (or socio-economic). The first studies the general laws of the development and existence of the geographic envelope and its individual parts, and the second studies the processes of interaction between society and the natural environment.
Among the physical and geographical disciplines, the following stand out:
- Geodesy.
- Geomorphology.
- Hydrology.
- Oceanology.
- Landscape studies.
- Soil Science.
- Paleogeography.
- Climatology.
- Glaciology, etc.
Among the social and geographical sciences, it is customary to distinguish the following disciplines:
- Demography.
- Economical geography.
- Geopolitics.
- Geography of culture.
- Medical geography.
- Geourbanistics.
- Political geography.
- Country studies, etc.
The main problems and discussions of modern geography
Oddly enough, the question "what is geography?" remains one of the most difficult and controversial among the representatives of this science. What geography should study, what goals it must set for itself - these problems still cannot be solved by the minds of the current generation of geographers.
In addition, theoretical geography is trying to solve a number of other pressing problems today. The most basic ones include the following:
- The problem of loss of interest in geography in society.
- The problem of "withering away" of such purely practical disciplines as land improvement, land management, soil science.
- Problem general classification geographical science.
- Definition of a number of key concepts: "geographic envelope", "landscape", "geosystem", etc.
Recently, such a fresh direction as "constructive geography" is gaining popularity. First of all, due to the strategic nature of their research. This discipline can transform traditionally descriptive and theoretical geography into practical and useful one.
Finally
Geography is one of the oldest sciences. It originated in the 3rd century BC. Today geography is an independent scientific branch that is engaged in a deep and comprehensive study of the geographic shell of the Earth, from processes in the thickness of the earth's crust to human production.