Who works in parliament. Parliament and its legal status

Key terms and concepts:

• monocameral parliaments;
• bicameral parliaments;
• the structure of the parliament;
• powers of parliament;
• parliamentary commissions;
• faction models;
• types of laws;
• forms of parliamentary control;
• circle of subjects of legislative initiative;
• quorum types.

As a result of studying this chapter, the student should

know :

• the structure of the parliament and the organization of the work of the chambers;
• the procedure for the formation of parliament and the status of deputies;

be able to :

• indicate the competence of parliament, which depends on the form of government, the form of government, historical conditions, the degree of democracy of the country, the ratio in it political forces;
• understand the peculiarities of the legislative process, in particular in the field of the legislative procedure and the main stages of the passage of the bill;

own :

The conceptual apparatus of the institution of parliamentarism.

Parliament as a national representative body: emergence and development

Parliament(from the French parier and lat. pariare- speak) is the highest legislative and representative body of the state. This body (or similar to it) is available in almost all countries of the world.

The institution of representative power, which simultaneously performs legislative functions, occupies an important place in the constitutional mechanism of any state. The exceptions are states in which such institutions are only deliberative or formally founded, but dissolved and do not function. Since lawmaking is not the only, although the main function of these representative bodies, another collective name is used to designate them - parliament.

International Panorama

For the official designation of the highest bodies of the representative and legislature in different countries apply various titles: "parliament" - in 40 states (Great Britain, Canada, Romania, etc.); "people's (national) assembly" - in 37 (Bulgaria, Egypt, etc.); " federal assembly"- in 3 (Russian Federation, Switzerland, Comoros): "state assembly" - in 4 (Estonia, Hungary, etc.); "supreme (national) council" - in 14 (Slovakia, Ukraine, etc.); " chamber of deputies (or representatives)" - in 11 (Malta, Morocco, etc.); "congress" - in 16 (USA, Argentina, etc.); "senate" - in the Marshall Islands. In 19 states there are individual names: " Sabor" (Croatia); "Folketing" (Denmark); "Jeduskunta" (Finland); "Althing" (Iceland); "Knesset" (Israel); "Landtag" (Liechtenstein); "General Cortes" (Spain); " riksdag" (Sweden); "states general" (Netherlands); "assembly" (Slovenia); "seim" (Latvia, Lithuania); "council of representatives" (Ethiopia); "constitutional assembly" (Cambodia).

It can be stated that the emergence of parliament as a basic political and legal institution in a society organized into a state was in fact a natural reaction against despotism and the specific tyranny of feudal absolutism.

Except England, where from the very beginning, ie. since the end of the 13th century, this institution had both an estate and a territorial character; in all other states of that time, parliaments began to form as real bodies of popular representation during the bourgeois revolutions of the 18th-19th centuries. and subsequent socio-political development in the XIX-XX centuries.

According to the time of emergence and formation, modern parliaments can be divided into four generations, namely: 1) old (Medieval) parliaments; 2) times new history; 3) emerged after the Second World War; 4) the newest parliaments.

To the parliaments first generation it is necessary to include those that have a long pedigree, in particular the Althing of Iceland, which arose as early as 930, and the Parliament of Great Britain (end of the 13th century). These institutions have been and are the carriers of many political and state traditions, and contribute to the establishment of democracy in their communities.

Stages of development and characteristics of the institution of parliamentarism are presented in Scheme 11.1.

Scheme 11.1.

Co. second generation include all parliaments, the emergence of which is associated with bourgeois revolutions and the adoption of the first constitutions (the US Congress, the French Parliament, the Norwegian Storting, etc.). The parliaments of the United States and France can be considered as catalysts for the formation and development of parliamentary construction in the first place: the first played an important role in the formation of the organs of popular representation of Latin American countries, the second European countries and French-speaking countries of other continents. And although a number of classical parliaments experienced a decline in the first half of the 20th century, when dictatorial regimes were established in some countries, they strengthened their positions in the second half of the last century (Austria, Italy, Germany, Japan, etc.).

third generation represent the parliaments formed after the Second World War in a number of Asian and African countries in connection with the proclamation of their independence.

Finally, fourth generation parliaments, the youngest, are the parliaments of states from among former republics USSR and countries of Eastern Europe. In the vast majority of these countries, the highest representative bodies are at the stage of gradual transformation into real bodies of people's power.

Often only the lower house is called parliament, although in constitutional law, especially in the Anglo-Saxon legal system and in those countries where it has retained its influence, the concept of parliament is broader: it includes all higher authorities who take part in the adoption of laws. In Great Britain, for example, the parliament as the supreme legislative body consists of the monarch and two chambers - the House of Commons and the House of Lords. A three-member structure of parliament exists in Australia, India, Canada, Pakistan, Jamaica and other countries of the British Commonwealth (it is clear that in the republics the president takes the place of the monarch).

The Constitution of India (Art. 79) contains a prescription: "The Parliament of the Union is established, which consists of the President and two Chambers, which are called respectively the Council of States and the House of the People." In a number of states, the parliament is a two-pronged institution. In Tanzania, according to the Constitution of 1997, its composition includes the president of the country and the National Assembly; Brazil has two chambers. Finally, in some countries the parliament is a unicameral representative body (in Cuba, in most countries of continental Europe and other continents).

How institutions state power parliaments in form are permanent meetings of representatives of the people, at which the most important public and state affairs are discussed and decided. By the nature of their activities, they are primarily organs of legislative power.

constitutional formula

The US Constitution of 1787 (Sec. 1) states: "The weight of the powers of the legislature here accepted shall be vested in Congress." This formula in different options was reproduced in the constitutions of most states. Other higher bodies of state power, as a rule, do not adopt laws. Their normative acts are called differently (for example, decrees and decrees - presidential laws, resolutions, proclamations, constitutional acts of military bodies (temporary, councils, etc.). Of course, there are exceptions. In some countries, along with the highest representative bodies or in their absence, laws are prepared by some other bodies: the monarch in an absolute monarchy, the People's Consultative Congress in Indonesia (only in the form of a five-year development program), the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (on certain issues), the standing committees of the Italian Parliament, sections of the Parliament in Greece (under special conditions).

It is important to pay attention to the fact that, in addition to the legislative function, other functions occupy a significant place in the activities of parliaments, in particular representative, constituent, control, budgetary and financial, quasi-judicial, foreign policy, etc. In other words, the parliament of any democratic state combines several qualities. Such complex characteristic body of popular representation is reflected in constitutions. Here are some constitutional definitions of Parliament.

The 1974 form of government in Sweden (§ 4) states: "The Riksdag is the highest representative of the people. The Riksdag issues laws, decides on state taxes and determines the use of public funds. The Riksdag exercises control over public administration and administration." The Constitution of Portugal characterizes Parliament differently. In Art. 150 it defines: "The Assembly of the Republic is the assembly which represents all Portuguese citizens". And then in section 2 sets out in some detail the political and legislative competence of Parliament, its supervisory powers, as well as its competence in relation to other authorities. But the most successful definition of this concept is given by the Spanish Constitution (Article 66): "1. The Cortes General represent the Spanish people ... 2. The Cortes General exercise the legislative power of the state, adopt the state budget, control the activities of the government and, in addition, have other powers prescribed by the Constitution."

Consequently, modern parliaments are nationwide collegiate representative bodies of state power that are fully or partially elected by the people (electoral corps), operate on an ongoing basis and carry out in the mechanism of state power primarily such functions as legislative, constituent, budgetary and financial, foreign policy, control over the executive branch, etc.

Of great importance for the characterization of parliament as a constitutional institution is the strengthening of its legal status in the government system. The world constitutional theory and practice proceed from the fact that the legal status of the parliament is determined by many factors, primarily the peculiarities of the history of the political institutions of the corresponding state, its state and social order, the principles proclaimed in the fundamental laws, the existing party systems and socio-economic and political conditions and others

And yet the constitutional status of the parliament depends primarily on the fundamental principles of the organization of state power in this or that country, enshrined in the constitutions. In Great Britain, for example, the principle of parliamentary supremacy is proclaimed as one of the fundamental ones, according to which the representative body of the people legally acts as the source of all legislative power. At the same time, the principle of popular (national) sovereignty predetermines that ultimately the source of power, including the legislative one, is the people, and the parliament is one of the organs of the state through which the people exercise their sovereignty in the form of a legislative function.

The constitutional status of Parliament is defined quite differently in the US Constitution of 1787, where for the first time the formula was used according to which the main source of legislative power is the people (in the preamble it is recorded: "We, the people of the United States ... establish and introduce this Constitution .. .").

At the same time, in the socialist countries, the Marxist conception traditionally belittles the importance of the parliament in the management of state affairs, demanding that it be replaced (and indeed is replacing it in practice) with a system of soviets. Its adherents believe that there are no workers in the parliament under capitalism.

In constitutional science, the concept of "rationalized parliamentarism" has also become widespread (for example, in France). It provides for limiting the role of parliament and transferring part of the legislative powers to the executive branch. However, even in countries that adhere to this concept, the decline in the role of parliament is not unconditional: it remains the last word in resolving key issues. Islamic fundamentalists, whose concept is built on the idea of ​​a caliphate, deny the importance of the parliament from a completely different position. Here, instead of parliament, an advisory body is formed under the ruler, as, for example, in Saudi Arabia in accordance with the 1992 Constitution. Although in most Muslim countries the parliament is elected, its role is often limited to advisory powers.

In the scientific literature, the constitutional status of the parliament is rightly associated with the corresponding forms of government, because the position and role of the highest representative and legislature to a decisive extent depends on the nature of the relationship between the higher authorities of the state. Considering the constitutional status of parliaments from this angle, four main models can be distinguished.

Constitutional Models of Parliament

To the first model include the bodies of popular representation of those states that proclaimed the principle of parliamentary government as the basis of the constitutional order (Great Britain, Italy, Germany, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, etc.). Place and role of parliament in the system government agencies determined by the fact that the government is derived from it, it is formed by the parliament and is responsible to it. In some of these countries, the head of state is also elected by active participation parliament.

Second model The constitutional status of parliaments is inherent in countries with a presidential form of government, which have laid the foundation for the organization of state power on the principle of a strict separation of powers (USA and others). The constitutional system of "checks and balances" that exists here clearly reflects the relationship between the three branches of power.

Third model typical for countries mixed form board (France, Russia, etc.). Here the institution of parliamentary responsibility of the government is proclaimed, however, the president is endowed with the right to dissolve the parliament.

fourth model make up the "Soviet-style" parliaments (SRV, PRC, North Korea, Cuba). Here the purpose of parliament is reduced to the formal approval of laws adopted outside it by the highest party bodies.

The so-called consultative parliaments (Bahrain, Brunei, Qatar, UAE) cannot be attributed to any of these models, since they are only deliberative institutions.

In 1920–1960s. the role of parliaments has declined sharply. In fascist countries and countries of totalitarian socialism, they turned into decorative organs that do not affect anything, into a cover for the dictatorship of the party and its leader, or were suppressed by the executive branch in democratic states(e.g. UK and France).

Since the late 1960s The process of the revival of parliamentarism began and continues to this day. Parliaments gradually "win back" new powers and become the main body in the system of the state apparatus of the majority developed countries. The process of revival of parliaments was driven by the following factors:

• - not only men, but also women received the right to vote (active and passive);
• - Numerous qualifications were eliminated (property, literacy, etc.), which turned the parliament from a body that expressed the interests of a minority of society (the main reason for the widespread decline of its authority after the First World War), into a truly popular body;
• – The media have increased the interest of citizens in the activities of the Parliament;
• - elections to parliament (at least to the lower house) became free, direct, equal and secret;
• - improved electoral systems, the structure of parliaments and the order of their work;
• – parliaments began to gain authority, working more responsibly and professionally.

• In English literature, it is often called "legislature".

Parliament(from French parler - to speak) - the highest representative and legislative body of the state. Even in primitive society, people gathered for various popular assemblies, and from one of these meetings the oldest parliament in the world, the Icelandic Althing(about 1000). But in almost all countries these meetings are losing their significance. In ancient Greece, such meetings of citizens existed in cities, in Rome - Senate and National Assembly who elected all officials and passed laws. In Russia, such institutions existed in almost all principalities, and they lasted the longest in Novgorod (until the 15th century) and Pskov (until the 16th century) - veche. Yes and before late XVII century, before Peter I, in Russia there was a Zemsky Sobor, which met to resolve the most important issues. For example, the Council of 1613 elected a new Romanov dynasty in the person of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. And the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own 2-chamber parliament: the Gospodar Rada and the Great Free Sejm. But parliamentarianism as a phenomenon is associated with the signing in 1215 by the English king John Landless of the Magna Carta under the compulsion of rebellious barons. On the basis of this charter, the English Parliament was created. It acquired real significance in the 17th century. during the English bourgeois revolution. And after the revolutions in the USA and France in the XVIII century. Parliament became the body of supreme power in most countries of Europe and America, and not a single state decision was made without parliament.

Parliament is one- and two-chamber (in South Africa - three-chamber). Unicameral parliament in the Scandinavian countries, Greece, Ukraine, small countries (Luxembourg). A bicameral parliament is typical for large states and federations: the USA, France, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, Russia. lower houses and unicameral parliaments always formed through direct elections and completely updated upper houses(usually the senate) or appointed head of state, or are elected, or partially places in them inherited like in the UK.

Other differences between the upper and lower houses of parliament:

The upper house usually has a longer term of office and is not renewed immediately, but partially;

The age limit for the upper house is higher (for example, in the United States, one can be elected to the House of Representatives from the age of 21, to the Senate - only from 30);

The upper house is smaller in number (but there are exceptions - the British House of Lords).

The role of the upper chamber is, as it were, an examination of the work of the lower chamber, it reviews the adopted laws and can reject them.

In most countries of the world, when forming a parliament, there is numerical standard. It is considered optimal if 1 million people represent from 9 to 17 deputies. In Belarus before, before 1996, the unicameral Supreme Council consisted of 260 deputies, and now the House of Representatives includes 120 deputies, and the Council of the Republic - 64 members (8 each from the regions and the city of Minsk and 8 more are appointed personally by the president). There are 547 deputies in the Indian Parliament, although 1 billion people live in India, in the House of Commons of Great Britain - 650 members, in the House of Representatives of the US Congress - 535 congressmen.

Sessions of the Houses of Parliament as a whole are rarely held. Therefore, in order for its decisions to be valid, it will be determined quorum. In the Indian Parliament, it is 10% of the size of the House, in the English House of Commons - 40 people, and in the House of Lords - only 3 people, including the speaker (despite the fact that until recently it included more than 1,100 people). In the parliament of Belarus, the quorum is 2/3 of the deputies.

The effectiveness of the work of the parliament is determined professionalism deputies. Among the deputies in Western countries, the majority are lawyers, political scientists, economists, businessmen, journalists, and professional politicians. In our parliament, deputies must work on a professional basis.

Members of both chambers have parliamentary privileges: 1) immunity(parliamentary immunity) - a deputy cannot be held accountable and be summoned to court; 2) indemnity– a deputy is not responsible either for his speeches in parliament or for the decisions for which he voted.

MPs have the following powers: 1) the right of legislative initiative, 2) voting right, 3) the right to request, orally or in writing, the Prime Minister or Minister with the requirement to give an explanation on any occasion or fact ( interpellation).

The work of the Parliament is clearly organized. Main elements such organizations are: 1) fractions, 2) commissions (committees), 3) governing bodies of the chambers.

Usually deputies are grouped according to political interests, creating party factions uniting deputies from one party. The faction has its own premises for meetings in the parliament building, participates in the formation of parliamentary bodies. There are no factions in our parliament.

Also of great importance parliamentary commissions (committees). They can be permanent or temporary. Members of the commissions are elected at the plenary (general) meeting of the chamber, and sometimes appointed by the speaker. The principle of proportional representation of factions in commissions is usually observed. The commission is headed by the chairman, he has a deputy or several deputies, as well as a secretary (not a deputy). The faction and the commission have an apparatus that ensures their work. In the House of Representatives we have 14 standing committees for various sectors, in the Council of the Republic - 5.

Directs the work of the parliament chairman. AT English speaking countries he is called speaker. He is usually elected for the entire term of parliament. In addition to conducting meetings, he represents his chamber in relations with other bodies and parliaments, monitors the expenditure of the chamber's financial resources and the work of its apparatus. The speaker has deputies(as in Russia - from each faction, according to the number of factions) or only 1 deputy- like we have. But in the US or the UK there is no vice-speaker. In this way, the leadership of the parliament consists of the speaker, his deputies (if any), chairmen of commissions and committees, and leaders of party factions. In our parliament, the chairman, his deputy and the chairmen of the standing committees form the Council of the Chamber.

Parliament has a number of important functions:

The main function is lawmaking. It goes through several stages:

a) the introduction of a bill.

b) 2nd stage– discussion of the draft law in the parliament (lower house) in commissions and at the plenary session. Often it is discussed in several readings, during which amendments and additions are made.

in) 3rd stage- adoption of amendments and coordination of the interests of the factions.

d) if there is an upper house, then 4-stage- approval of the bill by her. The upper house can either adopt or return the bill for revision.

e) transfer of the bill for signature to the head of state. After his signature, it is no longer a bill, but a law.

There are many ways used by the opposition deputies to drag out the discussion of the bill or to disrupt it altogether. In the Japanese parliament, there is a “suwarikomi” tactic, when some deputies are not allowed into the meeting room or get up and leave the hall. There are tricks with the aim of not giving the floor to objectionable speakers: "guillotine" - even if there are still those who want to speak, it goes on to debate; "filibustering" - dragging out the debate (in the US Congress, the speaker cannot interrupt the debate, even if the congressmen begin to read the text of the Bible instead of speaking).

The second function of parliament is representative. Deputies represent their constituents and must protect their interests.

The third function is the function feedback, without which it is impossible to provide social support for the course. Feedback is provided through the contacts of deputies with voters: letters, round tables, meetings with voters, in the USA - even dinner parties and dinners, however, the entrance ticket for them costs up to $ 1,000.

The fourth function (more in a parliamentary republic or parliamentary monarchy) is participation in the formation of a government or even the election of a president, as well as control over the activities of the government, the executive branch (interpolation, deputies' questions to the government).

The fifth function is the formation of the budget (“the right of the wallet”). In many countries, the parliament paints in detail how the budget should be spent. Parliament, using this right, can also form the policy of the state. For example, in 1972 the US Congress denied the president the allocation of funds for the stay of ground troops in Vietnam.

And, finally, the sixth function is foreign policy (the right to declare war and conclude peace, ratify international treaties and agreements).

The formation of the state took place over a large amount of time. In fact, from the moment humanity reaches the peak of its evolution, it begins to attempt to organize groups. Gradually created formations expand. But in this process, one rather serious problem arose - the regulation of the activities of large social groups. After all, as they developed, people were able to create structures so cumbersome that it became difficult to manage their functioning. Therefore, the question of power in the state began to gradually develop.

It should be noted that the most ancient formations of the state type in most cases were governed by the power embodied in the person of a single ruler. Minor attempts to create republics, examples of which are Ancient Greece and Rome, were unsuccessful. As a result, the represented states were governed by the power of a single leader.

This social system of government lasted until late XVIII century. At this time, revolutionary movements begin in Europe. Autocracy has fully shown its helplessness in certain social issues. Therefore, in this period, the idea arises of creating a universal collective body that will carry out the main

Today, this structure exists in almost every state. It is called Parliament. The functions and tasks of this body have their own specifics. In addition, the parliament is a clear manifestation of the principle, which will be discussed in more detail later in the article.

The essence of power sharing

The main functions of the Parliament and its characteristics cannot be considered without analyzing the principle of separation of powers, which was already mentioned earlier.

With regard to the latter category, it is characterized by the doctrine that power in any state should be distributed between relevant and independent bodies. This will make it much more efficient to coordinate the life of the country's population, and will also make it possible to avoid the abuse of power, which can often be seen in states with monarchical form government and totalitarian regime.

The creation of the principle was preceded by a series of important historical events. In addition, the doctrine was created on the basis of the knowledge and experience of the states of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

History of the development of the principle of separation of powers

The idea of ​​the division of power, which today lives in many state structures, scientists borrowed from such states as Ancient Greece and Rome. It was in them that the collective mode of government was invented first of all. For example, Roman power was completely divided between the comitia, consuls, and the senate. At the same time, the last element played the role of a modern parliament.

In the Middle Ages, it dominated, which excluded the existence of collective power. However, during the Enlightenment, scientists such as John Locke and Charles Louis Montesquieu developed the principle of separation government controlled. According to their teaching, the power in the country should exist in the person of three types of bodies:

• executive;
• legislative;
• judicial.

This principle has gained such popularity that it has found its application in many states. To date, the principle of separation of powers operates almost all over the world. At the same time, Parliament is the body of legislative power. According to many scientists, this is the most important role, because rule-making, in fact, creates acts that directly regulate the activities of the population of the state.

Features of Parliament

So, the parliament, whose functions will be discussed in the article, is the highest representative body. However, its form of acquisition in this case is not the most important characterizing factor. More important is the fact that parliament has the ability to make laws - regulations of the highest legal effect after the state constitution.

Today, this body in one form or another exists in almost every state. As for the powers of the legislature, they may vary depending on the form of government of a particular country. In the classical form, the parliament (its types and functions are presented in the article) can pass a vote of no confidence in the government, which indicates its control of the central executive body, and also release the head of state, that is, the president, from his powers by way of impeachment.

It should be noted that this body can exist in almost any state, regardless of the form of government in it. In other words, even in monarchical powers, the presence of a parliament does not cause any confusion. An excellent example of this is the parliamentary monarchy. In such states, the power of the head of state is limited by the legislature, which implements the function of the same name.

If we are talking about a republican form of government, then in this case the parliament, the structure, the functions of which can change somewhat, plays a key role. In fact, it is he who is the embodiment of republican democracy, as well as the principles of freedom and equality, because most of the issues are decided collectively by representatives of the people.

As for the political regime in the state, this category has a strong influence on the activities of the legislative and other bodies of the state. However, in some cases, it is through the legislative framework that can significantly curb Negative influence totalitarianism or authoritarianism.

Structure of the main legislative body

Parliament, the functions whose powers we are considering, is a rather complex and effective structure. In other words, a modern organ of this type is not something like a popular assembly. This is a rather ordered mechanism, the main purpose of which is the issuance of laws, which will be discussed in more detail later in the article. Thus, the parliament has its own internal structure. It should be noted that it may vary, depending on the specifics of the political regime and territorial features states.

In its original, classical form, any parliament has a bicameral structure. It should be remembered that it originated in Great Britain - the birthplace of world parliamentarism. The bicameral structure was created to ensure a compromise between the bourgeoisie and, of course, the aristocrats - the upper class. In this case, the dual system is fully justified by the need to consider the ideas and views of all classes without exception. After all, the nobility, as the main force of the monarchical system, began to significantly lose its positions during the period of the bourgeois revolution in Europe. Therefore, it was necessary to come to terms with the influence of this estate.

Under the influence revolutionary movements, appeared in some countries. They are great for mobile solution of certain problems, however, they are often used as a support for a totalitarian leader. However, unicameral parliaments exist in modern world. This raises a completely logical question: "What types of structures exist today?" In the 21st century, the following systems of parliament can be found in the world, namely:

1. Bicameral.
2. Unicameral.

The first type is the most popular in the modern world. However, it is worth considering the fact that the chambers have their own clearly defined powers. Moreover, in the vast majority of cases they are absolutely equal in their legal status.

Features of the bicameral structure

Let's consider a bicameral parliament. Its types and functions have a large number of features. The main one is the process of passing laws.

For example, it has a bicameral structure. Her main feature is the fact that any bill must be considered and passed in both houses. If at least one of them rejects it, then it is automatically not accepted. Thus, the bicameral parliament makes it possible to take into account the characteristics of almost all social strata. In addition, in many cases, for each structural element the legislature is assigned other specific functions. For example, the lower house may be responsible for financial questions in the state, and the upper one, in turn, appoints people to certain positions, ratifies, impeaches, etc.

It should be noted that all the points presented may differ depending on the particular state. As practice shows, there are no parliaments identical in their functions and powers.

Bicameral structures today mostly exist in federal states. Given this form of territorial structure, a parliament consisting of two elements is simply necessary. Indeed, in a federation, the second chamber, as a rule, represents the interests of the subjects in the first place. Such states include Australia, the Russian Federation, India, Mexico, the United States of America, Great Britain, etc.

However, bicameral parliaments can also be found in unitary countries. As a rule, even in such cases, the legislature is organized according to the principle of territoriality, which makes it possible to take into account the interests of individual elements of the state.

Internal organs of the legislative center

It should be noted that the parliament, whose functions will be presented below, uses internal special-purpose bodies to implement its main tasks. In most cases, the organization of the structure of these parliamentary departments has common features in many states. It is worth highlighting the main tasks of parliamentary bodies:

1. Coordination of the work of the legislative center.
2. Organization of all necessary conditions for the parliament to exercise its direct functions.

These tasks are key in the activities of the legislature. Their execution, as mentioned earlier, rests on the shoulders of internal departments. The key parliamentary body is the speaker or the chairman. As a rule, the activity of this element is embodied in a separate person, that is, specific person. At the same time, the role of the speaker is quite important for all the activities of the parliament of a particular state. It performs a number of special functions, which include the following:

• representation of the legislature in the international arena;
• ensuring consideration of certain important issues;
• setting the agenda;
• ensuring consideration of bills;
• determination of specific types of procedures for discussing draft laws or other issues;
• leading parliamentary deliberations;
• giving the floor to deputies;
• determining the type of voting and its results, etc.

A fairly important function of the parliamentary chairman is to manage the funds of this body, as well as the parliamentary police departments. To facilitate the work of the speaker, as a rule, he is provided with deputies - vice-chairmen.

This form of organization of the governing parliamentary body is most often found in bicameral parliaments. In addition, the role of the speaker is far from being so important in all states. For example, in the Swiss Parliament, the chairman and his deputies are elected only for the duration of the respective sessions. In this case, the speaker is not an important political figure at all.

Another important element internal organization legislature are parliamentary committees. They are specialized bodies created from deputies. Their main goal is the evaluation and direct creation of legislative acts, control over the activities of the executive branch, as well as the solution of specific tasks.

At the same time, there are two main types of commissions, namely: temporary and permanent. The latter are created for the period of activity of the respective parliamentary chamber. In the overwhelming majority of cases, permanent commissions are created on issues of defense, finance, legislation and lawmaking, international cooperation, etc.

As for the provisional bodies, as a rule, they deal with specific tasks. Such commissions are investigative, special, audit, etc. It should be noted that parliamentary bodies have wide range powers. Most often, they manifest themselves in the process of lawmaking, because it is in the composition of the commissions that draft laws are developed, as well as their scientific regulations.

Factions of Parliament

The internal activities of many legislatures are provided by its factions. In fact, they are parliamentary associations. The numerical number of each individual faction, as a rule, affects the political program of the state.

After all, the deputies of one party or another in the legislature are trying to pass the bills that interest them. As for the formation of fractions, this process, as a rule, takes place on the basis of regulations in each individual state.

Parliament: functions, powers

As the main legislative center of any state, the body presented in the article is endowed with certain powers, and also has a number of specific functions. These categories essentially show him real opportunities in one state or another.

But if the main functions of the parliament, as a rule, are the same almost everywhere, then the powers are both full and limited. As a rule, the specific possibilities of parliament are determined by the main state law, that is, the constitution. Based on this, without exception, the powers of the main legislative body can be distributed among three groups:

1. Not all parliaments are endowed with unlimited powers. In this case, the legislature can deal with even those issues that are not enshrined in the constitution.
2. The opposite of the first type of bodies are parliaments with limited powers. As a rule, their possibilities are clearly listed in the constitution of the state. These include the parliaments of France, Senegal, and others.
3. The most specific kind of parliamentary power is the advisory power of the legislature. Similar structures, most often, arise in the countries of Islamic law. The bottom line is that in them the head of state is the monarch, and the parliament exists to help in the process of his reign. In other words, this body only advises the head of the country on certain issues and does not perform its primary function.

In addition to the classification presented earlier, the functions of the parliament can also be divided depending on the areas of activity of this body. For example, legislatures in many countries are endowed with a number of universal possibilities for regulating financial, tax system, defense, international relations, etc.

In addition to the mentioned powers, it is also necessary to consider the main activities of the legislature. What are the functions of parliament? In the scientific community, there are many approaches to the consideration of this problem. But in most cases, the main powers of this body are distinguished, consisting of four elements. These include the following:

1. The most important function of the parliament, no doubt, is the function of lawmaking. After all, this body was originally created precisely for the creation of normative acts of higher legal force. The function allows you to take into account the opinion of the majority, and also excludes the possibility of issuing anti-social laws that would oppress the rights of a particular group of people. At the same time, the legislative function of the parliament consists of a number of specific stages, namely: the creation of a bill, discussion, amendments and adoption, coordination of interests and signing. Thus, the process of creating normative acts of higher legal force has a professional character. In addition, the legislative function of the parliament, in fact, approves the legal system of the state. Since it is the laws that regulate the most important social relations.
2. The representative function of the parliament is that the deputies elected to this body must protect the interests of that part of the population that voted for them.
3. The feedback function is based on the fact that deputies hold briefings, round tables and parties to discuss pressing state problems that need to be addressed.
4. One of the most important parliamentary functions is budgeting. In fact, it is the legislature that is responsible for creating an adequate standard of living for the population of the country.

Functions of the Parliament of the Russian Federation

The Federal Assembly is the legislature Russian Federation. In accordance with the current Constitution of the state, the Parliament of the Russian Federation performs the following functions:

1. Creation of legislative acts.
2. Appointment and dismissal of the Chairman of the Accounts Chamber and the Central Bank.
3. Conducting impeachment.
4. Amnesty announcement.
5. Exercising control over the executive authorities.
6. Representation of the people.

Thus, the functions of the Russian parliament as a whole have a common character with the classical trend in the functioning of legislative bodies in the world. This is quite a positive factor. After all, it testifies, first of all, that the functions of the Russian parliament embody the best European trends. But these are far from all the positive aspects of the presented structure. After all, the parliament itself, its features and functions allow us to talk about real democracy in the state. If there is no represented body in the country, or if it does not act properly, then there is no point in talking about democracy.

Conclusion

So, in the article we found out what a parliament is and its functions. We briefly reviewed the key powers of legislative bodies, their structure, as well as the history of the formation of parliamentarism and the principle of separation of powers in the world.

It should be noted that the functioning of the body presented in the article is of key importance for many powers, therefore the development of theoretical concepts about the activities of the parliament is necessary for the development of all states without exception.

Definition of parliament

The essential expression of representative democracy is the parliament - a nationwide representative body of power that exists on a permanent basis and has the titular function of lawmaking. The functioning of the parliament is real only under a democratic political regime.

The term "parliament" comes from medieval Latin. In France, the word parliamentum first used to refer to any assembly. Subsequently, in the XV century. Parliaments were called royal judicial chambers (courts), which ceased to exist with the beginning of the revolution of the XVIII century.

In England in the same XV century. Parliament began to be called class-representative institutions. However, during the period of the estate-representative monarchy, the term "parliament" was not used to refer to the corresponding institutions in other countries, therefore it did not become generic. This situation did not change until the end of the 18th century.

In the next century, the term "parliament" as its own legislative body was used only in certain countries. The legislature was called differently - the national congress, the national assembly, legislative assembly etc. In Spain and the Netherlands, such a body was historically called a class-representative institution - the Cortes General and the States General, respectively.

Now all such names are also used in constitutions, although the generic and most commonly used proper name of the legislature is parliament.

In Soviet literature, the term "parliament" was associated with the transcription of the verb "speak" (from fr. parier) and proclaimed the thesis that parliament is a "talking shop". Such a thesis is an ideologeme and in its meaning does not correspond to the realities of democratic countries.

The names of the parliament usually reflect its representative nature. The most common such name for a parliament or its lower house is the national assembly. The word "assembly" and its correspondences in other languages ​​(assembly, congress, assembly, council, etc.) are also used in other names, which indicate the collegiate nature of the parliament. Collegiality is also evidenced by the presence of the word "council" in the name of the parliament.

In Cyprus, Malta and New Zealand the parliament is called the House of Representatives, in Australia, Belgium, Ireland, the USA, Japan and in a number of other countries the lower house of the Parliament is called so.

On the character of Parliament representative body may indicate its constitutional definitions. For example, in Lithuania the parliament is defined as such, which includes representatives of the people, in Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Uzbekistan - as a representative body. In Andorra, Spain and the Netherlands, the parliament is constituted as a body representing the people or citizens, in Portugal - as a representative assembly of the people, and the like.

Some basic laws formulate the definition of parliament as the supreme or highest representative body (Georgia, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Tajikistan, Hungary, Uzbekistan).

Such a definition can be perceived as a statement of the existence of a system of representative bodies of power, similar to the "system of councils" that existed in the Soviet period. In the theory and practice of constitutionalism, which are based on the idea of ​​separation of powers, the corresponding system is contested.

The character of the parliament as a representative body is reflected in the title of its members as deputy. The term "deputy" means that a member of parliament is elected (literally - sent, sent) for the purpose of appropriate political representation.

Since ancient times, people have been addicted to the use of tobacco. Some smoke because it calms their nerves, others because of fashion, others are so accustomed to acrid smoke that no longer represent a single day without a cigarette smoked.

Harm from tobacco smoking

Everyone knows that smoking does not bring any health benefits. Many doctors strongly recommend not to consume tobacco smoke. During a person not only spoils his health, but also poisons everything around. After the research, it became clear that a passive smoker suffers much more than a smoker.

Parliament: all about cigarettes

The manufacturer of this tobacco product is quite a popular Philip Morris factory. She has been producing tobacco products for a long time, which managed to win the recognition of many smokers.

Cigarettes "Parliament" types are very diverse. All of them differ in the content of nicotine in them. Also, different types of Parliament cigarettes have different sizes. You can choose the one that is right for you.

The manufacturer claims that this brand of tobacco products brings minimal harm human health. The cigarette has a filter mouthpiece that cools the smoke coming out of the cigarette and deprives it of harmful resins and impurities.

Types of cigarettes "Parliament": description and characteristics

As mentioned above, these tobacco products have several various kinds. All of them have individual characteristics. Consider each option offered to the consumer.

Cigarettes "Parliament Night Blue"

They are the strongest of all that the manufacturer offers. For some people, smoking one cigarette at a time is not enough. They use a double portion of tobacco. If you are just like that, then Parliament Night Blue cigarettes are made just for you. Due to the high content of nicotine, you will only need to smoke one cigarette in order to satisfy the needs of the body.

These tobacco products are produced in standard cardboard packaging. Inside there are 20 cigarettes, each of which has a filter mouthpiece. One Parliament Night Blue tobacco product contains 8 milligrams of tar and 0.6 milligrams of nicotine. Other types of cigarettes "Parliament" have a lower content of nicotine and tar.

"Parliament Aqua Blue"

This type is the most popular. These cigarettes are used by both men and women. Due to the fact that the content of nicotine in them is low, less harm is caused to health, while it is possible to satisfy the body's need for nicotine. This product is produced in a standard carton containing 20 units. One Parliament Aqua Blue cigarette contains 5 milligrams of tar and 0.4 milligrams of nicotine.

Cigarettes "Parliament Silver Blue"

This product is even lighter than the previous one. Such cigarettes are in great demand among the fairer sex. "Parliament Silver Blue" is rarely bought by men, as they do not have enough of the nicotine content that is present in one cigarette.

Tobacco products are produced in 20 pieces per pack. The packaging has a standard size and is made of cardboard. One Parliament Silver Blue cigarette contains 3 milligrams of tar and 0.3 milligrams of nicotine.

Cigarettes "Parliament Platinum Blue"

This type of product is the lightest. Other types of Parliament cigarettes are much stronger and contain more nicotine. Due to the lack of a strong taste of the smoke, these tobacco products are less in demand. They are more often bought by women than men.

Cigarettes are produced in 20 pieces in one pack. The form of packaging is standard. One piece contains 1 milligram of resin and 0.1 milligrams of nicotine.

Cigarettes "Parliament Karat"

These tobacco products have the same tar and nicotine content as Parliament Silver Blue. They differ only in size. One cigarette "Parliament Karat" looks a little longer than the "Silver Blue", and also has a smaller thickness. Each unit contains 4 milligrams of tar and 0.4 milligrams of nicotine.

Cigarettes "Parliament Reserve"

These tobacco products are popular with the fair sex. They have a thin base and a greater length than the previous form. Products are produced in cardboard thin packaging. One cigarette contains 4 milligrams of tar and 0.4 milligrams of nicotine.

Cigarettes "Parliament Super Slims"

These tobacco products are the thinnest of all presented to the buyer. One cigarette contains 3 milligrams of tar and 0.3 milligrams of nicotine. This type is bought mainly by women. Tobacco products are produced in a cardboard thin package of 20 pieces.

Conclusion

Decide for yourself which kind of "Parliament" (cigarettes) is the best. However, it is better to stop using tobacco altogether or at least reduce its dose. Take care of the health of your body!