- Investigators Telman Gdlyan and Nikolai Ivanov investigated one of the most high-profile criminal cases of the 80s - the “cotton case”
- One of the defendants in the "cotton case", the former first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan Sharaf Rashidov and Nikita Khrushchev
Launch of the first artificial Earth satellite into orbit. The launch date is considered the beginning of the space age of mankind.
Launch of the world's first manned spacecraft. Yuri Gagarin was the first person to go into space. Yu. Gagarin's flight became the most important achievement of Soviet science and space industry. The USSR for several years became the undisputed leader in space exploration. Russian word"satellite" has entered many European languages. Gagarin's name became known to millions of people. Many pinned their hopes on the USSR for a bright future, when the development of science would lead to the establishment of social justice and world peace.
The entry of Warsaw Pact troops (except Romania) into Czechoslovakia, which put an end to the reforms of the Prague Spring. The largest contingent of troops was allocated from the USSR. political goal The operation was a change in the political leadership of the country and the establishment of a regime loyal to the USSR in Czechoslovakia. Citizens of Czechoslovakia demanded the withdrawal of foreign troops and the return of party and government leaders who had been taken to the USSR. In early September, the troops were withdrawn from many cities and towns of Czechoslovakia to specially designated locations. Soviet tanks left Prague on September 11, 1968. On October 16, 1968, an agreement was signed between the governments of the USSR and Czechoslovakia on the conditions for the temporary stay of Soviet troops on the territory of Czechoslovakia, according to which part of the Soviet troops remained on the territory of Czechoslovakia "in order to ensure the security of the socialist community." These events had a great influence both on the domestic policy of the USSR and on the atmosphere in society. It became obvious that the Soviet authorities had finally chosen a hard line of government. The hopes of a significant part of the population for the possibility of reforming socialism, which arose during the Khrushchev "thaw", faded away.
01 Sep 1969
Publication in the West of a book by well-known dissident Andrei Amalrik “Will the Soviet Union Survive Until 1984?” A. Amalrik was one of the first who predicted the imminent collapse of the USSR. The late 1960s and early 1970s were in the USSR a time of stable economic growth and an increase in the standard of living of the population, as well as a time of relaxation of international tension. Majority Soviet people believed that they would always live under Soviet rule. It pleased some, horrified others, others just got used to this idea. Western Sovietologists also did not foresee the collapse of the USSR. Only a few have managed to see behind the façade of relative prosperity the signs of an inevitable impending crisis. (From A. Amalrik's book “Will the Soviet Union Exist Until 1984?” and From A. Gurevich's book “History of the Historian”).
02 Sep 1972
The beginning of the super series of eight ice hockey matches between the national teams of the USSR and Canada. The USSR was a great sports power. The leadership of the USSR saw sports victories as a means of ensuring the prestige of the country, which was supposed to be the first in everything. In sports, this was done better than in the economy. In particular, Soviet hockey players almost always won world championships. However, hockey players from professional clubs in Canada and the United States, who were considered by many to be the best in the world, did not participate in these competitions. The 1972 Super Series was watched by millions of television viewers around the world. In the first match, the USSR national team achieved a convincing victory with a score of 7:3. In general, the series ended almost in a draw: the Canadian team won 4 matches, the USSR team - 3, but in terms of the number of goals scored, the Soviet athletes were ahead of the Canadians (32:31).
Publication in Paris of Alexander Solzhenitsyn's book The Gulag Archipelago, a fictional study of Stalin's repressions and Soviet society as a whole. The book was based on the personal testimonies of many hundreds of former prisoners who spoke in detail about their experience of confronting the machine of state terror to A. Solzhenitsyn, who himself went through the Stalinist camps. Translated into many languages, the book made a strong impression on readers, showing a wide panorama of the crimes committed by the Soviet regime against the population of the country. The Gulag Archipelago is one of those books that changed the world. The most important idea of A. Solzhenitsyn was the idea that terror was not an accident, but a natural result of the establishment of the communist regime. The book dealt a blow to the international prestige of the USSR and contributed to the disappointment of the Western “left” in Soviet-style socialism.
Signing of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Signed in Helsinki (therefore often called the Helsinki Agreement) by representatives of 35 states, including the USSR, this treaty became highest point the détente of international tension that began in the late 1960s. The treaty established the principle of the inviolability of post-war borders in Europe and the non-interference of the signatory countries in each other's internal affairs, proclaimed the need for international cooperation and respect for human rights. However, the USSR was not going to respect the political and civil rights of its citizens. The persecution of dissidents continued. The Helsinki Agreement became a trap for the USSR: it made it possible to accuse the communist regime of violating international obligations and contributed to the development of the human rights movement. In 1976, the first Russian human rights organization, the Moscow Helsinki Group, was created, with Yuri Orlov as its first chairman.
The assault on the palace of Amin (leader of Afghanistan) in Kabul. Soviet troops, under the pretext of supporting the democratic revolution, invaded Afghanistan and installed a pro-communist puppet regime. The answer was the mass movement of the Mujahideen - partisans who acted under the slogans of independence and religious (Islamic) slogans, relying on the support of Pakistan and the United States. A long war began, during which the USSR was forced to maintain in Afghanistan the so-called "limited contingent" (from 80 thousand to 120 thousand military personnel in different years), who, however, could not take this mountainous country under control. The war led to a new confrontation with the West, a further decline in the international prestige of the USSR and overwhelming military spending. It cost the lives of many thousands of Soviet soldiers, and as a result of military operations and punitive expeditions against partisans, hundreds of thousands of Afghan civilians were killed (there is no exact data). The war ended in 1989 with the actual defeat of the USSR. It became a difficult moral and psychological experience for the Soviet people, and above all for the "Afghans", i.e. soldiers who went through the war. Some developed "Afghan Syndrome" - a form of mental illness generated by experiences of fear and cruelty. During the years of perestroika, rumors circulated in society about special forces made up of “Afghans” and ready to drown the democratic movement in blood.
Holding the XXII Olympic Games in Moscow. The USSR national team won the unofficial team standings, receiving 80 gold, 69 silver and 46 bronze medals. However, due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, many foreign athletes refused to attend the Moscow Olympics. The United States also boycotted the Olympics, which, of course, reduced the value of the victory of the Soviet team.
The funeral of Vladimir Vysotsky, an outstanding artist and singer-songwriter of songs that were very popular. Tens of thousands of fans of his talent came to the Taganka Theater to say goodbye to their favorite singer, and they came against the will of the authorities, who did everything to hush up the fact of the death of the artist, which occurred during the days of the Moscow Olympics. The funeral of V. Vysotsky became the same mass demonstration of oppositional sentiments, which was once seen off by A. Suvorov (1800) or L. Tolstoy (1910) - the people's funeral of great people, whom the ruling elite did not wish to arrange an honorary state funeral.
07 Mar 1981
March 7, 1981, in the Leningrad Inter-Union House of amateur art at the address "Rubinshteina, 13" a "rock session" authorized by the authorities took place.
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Death of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Leonid Brezhnev, who ruled the country after the removal of Nikita Khrushchev from power in 1964. The board of L. Brezhnev is divided into two stages. At its beginning, there were attempts at economic reforms, the rise Soviet economy and the growth of the international influence of the USSR, which achieved nuclear parity with the United States. However, the fear of "erosion" of socialism, intensified by the events of 1968 in Czechoslovakia, led to the curtailment of reforms. The country's leadership has chosen a conservative strategy to maintain the status quo (the status quo). With relatively high energy prices, this allowed the illusion of growth to be maintained for several years, but in the 1970s the country entered a period known as stagnation. The crisis of the Soviet economy was accompanied by a new confrontation with the West, which intensified especially with the outbreak of the war in Afghanistan, a catastrophic decline in the prestige of the authorities, and a massive disappointment of the Soviet people in socialist values.
09 Feb 1984
Death of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Yuri Andropov, who was elected to this post after the death of L. Brezhnev. The elderly and seriously ill Yu. Andropov, long years who was the chairman of the KGB, had extensive information about the situation in the country. He understood the urgent need for reforms, but was afraid of even the slightest manifestations of liberalization. Therefore, his attempts at reform were mainly reduced to "putting things in order", i.e. to investigate corruption in the highest echelons of power and improve labor discipline with the help of police raids on shops and cinemas, where they tried to catch people who skipped work.
29 Sep 1984
The "golden" docking of two segments of the Baikal-Amur Mainline under construction - the famous BAM, the last "great building of socialism". The docking took place at the Balbukhta junction in the Kalarsky district of the Chita region, where two groups of builders met, moving towards each other for ten years.
Mar 10, 1985
Death of General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Konstantin Chernenko, who became the leader of the party and state after the death of Yu. Andropov. K. Chernenko belonged to the same generation of Soviet leaders as L. Brezhnev and Yu. Andropov. A politician even more cautious and conservative than Yu. Andropov, he tried to return to the practice of the Brezhnev leadership. The obvious inefficiency of his activities prompted the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU to choose a representative of the next generation, Mikhail Gorbachev, as their new general secretary.
11 Mar 1985
Election of Mikhail Gorbachev as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU. The coming to power of a relatively young (fifty-four-year-old) leader aroused in Soviet society optimistic expectations of long overdue reforms. M. Gorbachev, as general secretary, wielded enormous power. Having created his team of liberal-minded party and state leaders of the new generation, he began to transform. However, it soon became clear that the new leadership did not have a specific program. M. Gorbachev and his team moved forward intuitively, overcoming the resistance of the conservative wing of the leadership and adapting to changing conditions.
The adoption of the resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On measures to overcome drunkenness and alcoholism", followed by a broad anti-alcohol campaign, conceived under Yu. Andropov. Restrictions were imposed on the sale of alcoholic beverages, administrative penalties for drunkenness were increased, and tens of thousands of hectares of unique vineyards were cut down in the Crimea, Moldova and other regions of the country. The result of the thoughtlessly conducted campaign was not so much a decrease in alcohol consumption, but a reduction in budget revenues (which depended on income from the wine trade) and the wholesale distribution of home brewing. The campaign damaged the reputation of the new leadership. The nickname "mineral secretary" stuck to M. Gorbachev for a long time.
27 Sep 1985
Appointment of Nikolai Ryzhkov head of the Soviet government - Chairman of the Council of Ministers. An engineer by education, in the past the general director of one of the largest industrial enterprises in the USSR - Uralmash (Ural Machine-Building Plant), N. Ryzhkov was appointed Secretary of the Central Committee for Economics in 1982 and joined the team created by Yu. Andropov to implement economic reforms. N. Ryzhkov became one of the main associates of M. Gorbachev. However, his knowledge and experience (in particular, in the field of economics) were insufficient to guide the reforms, which was revealed as economic crisis.
The accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is the most major accident for the history of nuclear energy. During a scheduled test, a powerful explosion of the fourth power unit occurred, accompanied by the release of radioactive substances into the atmosphere. The Soviet leadership tried first to hush up the catastrophe, and then to downplay its scale (for example, despite the danger of mass infection, the May Day demonstration in Kyiv was not cancelled). With a great delay, the resettlement of residents from the 30-kilometer zone around the station began. About a hundred people died during the accident and from its consequences, and more than 115 thousand people were evicted from the disaster area. More than 600 thousand people took part in the liquidation of the consequences of the accident (which are still felt in Belarus and Ukraine). The Chernobyl accident dealt a blow to the prestige of the USSR, showing the unreliability of Soviet technology and the irresponsibility of the Soviet leadership.
Soviet-American summit in Reykjavik. M. Gorbachev and US President R. Reagan reached an understanding on the elimination of intermediate and shorter-range missiles and the beginning of the reduction of nuclear stocks. Both countries experienced financial difficulties and had to limit the arms race. The corresponding agreement was signed on December 8, 1987. However, the unwillingness of the United States to abandon the development of a strategic defense initiative (SDI), colloquially referred to as the " star wars” (i.e., launching nuclear strikes from space), did not allow agreement on a more radical nuclear disarmament.
Landing near the Kremlin light aircraft German amateur pilot Matthias Rust. Taking off from Helsinki, the 18-year-old pilot turned off his instruments and crossed the Soviet border unnoticed. After that, he was discovered several times by the air defense service, but he again disappeared from the radar and evaded pursuit. M. Rust himself claimed that his flight was a call for friendship between peoples, but many Soviet military and intelligence officers saw this as a provocation by Western intelligence services. The flight of M. Rust was used by M. Gorbachev to update the leadership of the Ministry of Defense. The new minister was Dmitry Yazov, who was then a supporter of M. Gorbachev, but later supported the State Emergency Committee.
Airing of the first issue of the most popular TV program of the 1990s, Vzglyad. This program of Central Television (later ORT) was created on the initiative of A. Yakovlev as an information and entertainment program for youth by a group of young journalists (in particular, Vlad Listyev and Alexander Lyubimov). The program was broadcast live, which was new for the Soviet audience. This largely ensured the popularity of "Vzglyad", since earlier in the live broadcast one could only see sports matches and the first minutes of the speech of the General Secretary at the congresses of the CPSU.In December 1990, at a time of extreme escalation of the political struggle, Vzglyad was banned for several months, but soon again became the main political program that supported B. Yeltsin's democratic reforms. However, many Vzglyad journalists, including A. Lyubimov, did not support the president at the decisive moment of the conflict with the Supreme Soviet - on the night of October 3-4, 1993, urging Muscovites to refrain from participating in the demonstration organized by Ye. Gaidar.Since 1994, the program began to appear as an information and analytical one. Closed in 2001 (see articles "" and "").
Publication in the Pravda newspaper of an article about the "cotton case" - an investigation of embezzlement in Uzbekistan, in which representatives of the top leadership of the republic were involved. This article served as a signal for a wide campaign of exposing the corruption of the party and state apparatus.
Feb 27, 1988
Armenian pogrom in Sumgayit (Azerbaijan). Several dozen people were killed and several hundred were injured. This was the first case of mass violence motivated by ethno-national hatred during the perestroika years. The reason for the pogrom was the conflict over the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Okrug, predominantly populated by Armenians, as part of the Azerbaijan SSR. Both the Armenian majority in this district and the leadership of Armenia demanded that Karabakh be transferred to this republic, while the leadership of Azerbaijan categorically objected. Demonstrations began in Karabakh in the summer, and in autumn and winter the conflict continued to aggravate, accompanied by mass rallies and armed clashes. The intervention of the allied leadership, which called for calm, but on the whole supported the principle of the immutability of borders, i.e. position of Azerbaijan, did not lead to normalization of the situation. Mass emigration of Armenians from Azerbaijan and Azerbaijanis from Armenia began, murders motivated by ethno-national hatred took place in both republics, and new pogroms took place in November-December ("").
Mar 13, 1988
Publication in " Soviet Russia”(a newspaper of state-patriotic orientation) an article by Nina Andreeva, a teacher at the Technological Institute in Leningrad, “I can’t compromise my principles,” which condemned “excesses” in criticism of Stalinism. The author contrasted his position as "left-liberals", i.e. pro-Western intelligentsia, and nationalists. The article aroused public concern: is it not a signal that perestroika is over? Under pressure from M. Gorbachev, the Politburo decided to condemn N. Andreeva's article.
On April 5, the main party newspaper Pravda published an article entitled “Principles of Perestroika: Revolutionary Thought and Action” by Alexander Yakovlev, which confirmed the course towards democratization public life, and the article by N. Andreeva was characterized as a manifesto of anti-perestroika forces ( see articles "", "").
16 Sep 1988
Premiere of the film "Needle" in Alma-Ata (Kazakhfilm film studio, director Rashid Nugmanov, starring famous rock musicians Viktor Tsoi and Petr Mamonov). The film, dedicated to the problem of youth drug addiction, very quickly became a cult.
A powerful earthquake in the northwestern regions of Armenia (with a magnitude of 7.2 on the Richter scale), which affected about 40% of the territory of the republic. The city of Spitak was completely destroyed, partially - Leninakan and hundreds of other settlements. At least 25,000 people died and about half a million were displaced by the earthquake. For the first time since the Cold War, the Soviet authorities formally requested assistance from other countries, which readily provided humanitarian and technical support to deal with the consequences of the earthquake. Thousands of volunteers arrived at the scene of the tragedy to provide all possible assistance to the victims: people brought food, water and clothes, donated blood, searched for survivors under the rubble, evacuated the population in their cars.
Mar 26, 1989
Elections of the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR. These were the first partially free elections in the history of the USSR, when in most districts there were alternative candidates with different programs. Despite the fact that the law established numerous "filters" that allowed the authorities to weed out objectionable candidates, many democratically minded public figures were still elected. The elections were a triumph for B. Yeltsin, who received more than 90% of the vote in Moscow (with a turnout of almost 90%). This is how the future president of Russia returned to politics. On the contrary, many local party leaders lost the elections. A number of democratic candidates passed to the deputies from public organizations. But in general, most of the deputies were controlled by the party apparatus and stood on moderate or frankly conservative positions.
Conducting the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in Moscow, broadcast from the meetings of which were watched by tens of millions of viewers. At the congress, a sharp struggle unfolded between the democratically minded deputies and the "aggressively obedient majority," as historian Yuri Afanasiev, one of the leaders of the opposition, called it. Conservative deputies “slammed down” democratic orators (they were not allowed to speak with applause and noise and driven from the podium), such as Academician A. Sakharov. M. Gorbachev at the congress relied on the majority, while trying not to alienate the democratic opposition. The congress elected the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and appointed M. Gorbachev as its chairman. B. Yeltsin also got into the Supreme Soviet - he lacked one vote before the election, and then one of the elected deputies renounced his mandate, thus giving way to Yeltsin. During the congress, the organizational formation of the democratic opposition - the Interregional Deputy Group - took place.
Death of A. Sakharov, an outstanding Soviet scientist and public figure, one of the creators of the hydrogen bomb, the leader of the human rights movement in the USSR, the winner of the Nobel Peace Prize (1975). Tens of thousands of Muscovites took part in the funeral of A. Sakharov.
The fall of the regime of Nicolae Ceausescu - the most authoritarian of the communist regimes of Eastern Europe- after weeks of mass demonstrations and an unsuccessful attempt to suppress them with military force. On December 25, after a short trial, N. Ceausescu and his wife (who received Active participation organization of reprisals against opponents of the regime) were shot.
Opening of the first McDonald's fast food restaurant in the USSR in Moscow. On Pushkinskaya Square there were many hours of queues of people wishing to taste the classic American food - hamburgers. "McDonald's" struck with unusual cleanliness - even in the winter slush, its floors were always perfectly washed. The attendants - young men and women - were unusually diligent and helpful, trying to reproduce in their behavior the ideal image of the West, which was opposed to the Soviet ("Soviet", as they said then) way of life.
04 Feb 1990
Holding a demonstration in Moscow, which was attended by more than 200 thousand people, demanding the deepening of democratic reforms and the abolition of the 6th article of the Constitution of the USSR, which consolidated the leading role of the CPSU in Soviet society. On February 7, the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU voted for the abolition of the 6th article. M. Gorbachev managed to convince the party that it would be able to maintain its leading role even under a multi-party system.
Election by the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church of Metropolitan Alexy of Leningrad and Novgorod (1929-2008) as head of the Russian Orthodox Church - Patriarch of Moscow. Alexy II replaced Patriarch Pimen, who died in May, in this post. The period of Patriarchy of Alexy II was marked by decisive changes in the life of the country, the crisis of communist ideology, the cessation of the persecution of citizens for religious beliefs and the growth of religious sentiments in society. Under the leadership of the Patriarch, the Russian Orthodox Church made attempts to establish control over various spheres of public life and culture ( see article "").
The death in a car accident of Viktor Tsoi, the leader of the Kino group and the brightest figure in the Leningrad Rock Club. Tsoi belonged to the "generation of janitors and watchmen", as another famous musician, Boris Grebenshchikov, called the representatives of the forbidden culture ("underground") of the 70-80s. This generation was brightly revealed in the years of perestroika. V. Tsoi's albums and films with his participation were very popular. V. Tsoi's song "We are waiting for change" has become one of the symbols of perestroika: "Change! our hearts demand. // Change! our eyes demand. The death of an idol at the peak of fame caused an extraordinary resonance among young people. In many cities, "Tsoi's walls" appeared, covered with words from songs and statements "Tsoi is alive." Former location the work of V. Tsoi - a boiler room in St. Petersburg - has become a place of pilgrimage for fans of his work. Later, in 2003, the club-museum of V. Tsoi was opened there.
Mar 17, 1991
Holding a union referendum on the preservation of the USSR, as well as a Russian referendum on the introduction of the post of president of the RSFSR. 79.5% of citizens who had the right to vote took part in the union referendum, and 76.4% of them spoke in favor of preserving the USSR (Results in the union republics that supported the referendum on the preservation of the USSR on March 17, 1991). The Union leadership wanted to use the victory in the referendum to prevent the collapse of the Union and force the republics to sign a new Union Treaty. However, six union republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Armenia, Georgia, Moldova) boycotted the referendum on the grounds that they had already made decisions to secede from the USSR. True, in Transnistria, Abkhazia and South Ossetia (which sought to secede from Moldova and Georgia, respectively), the majority of citizens took part in the vote and spoke in favor of preserving the USSR, which meant an increase in internal conflict in these republics. 71.3% of the participants in the Russian referendum were in favor of creating the post of president.
Election of Boris Yeltsin as President of the RSFSR. He won already in the first round, ahead of the communist and nationalist candidates who opposed him. Simultaneously with B. Yeltsin, Alexander Rutskoi, an aviation general and one of the leaders of democratically minded communist deputies, was elected vice president. On the same day, the first direct elections of heads of regions took place. Mintimer Shaimiev was elected president of Tatarstan, and the chairmen of the democratic Moscow City Council and Lensoviet Gavriil Popov and Anatoly Sobchak were elected mayors of Moscow and St. Petersburg.
July 4, 1991 Chairman Supreme Council RSFSR Boris Yeltsin signed the law "On the privatization of housing stock in the RSFSR"
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On November 18, 1991, the Mexican television series "The Rich Also Cry" was released on the USSR television screens. It became the second "soap opera" shown on our television, after the huge success of "Slave Izaura".
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On December 25, 1991, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev announced the termination of his activities in this post "for reasons of principle."
The statement of the President of the USSR M. Gorbachev about his resignation and the transfer to the President of the RSFSR B. Yeltsin of the so-called "nuclear suitcase", with the help of which the head of state has the ability to control the use of nuclear weapons. From that day on, the RSFSR became officially known as the Russian Federation. Instead of the Soviet red flag, the tricolor Russian flag was raised over the Kremlin.
On January 2, 1992, price liberalization took place in Russia, marking the beginning of large-scale market reforms carried out by the government of Yegor Gaidar.
Feb 23, 1992
From February 8 to February 23, 1992, the XVI Winter Olympic Games were held in Albertville, France. They became the third in the history of France - the first were in Chamonix in 1924, the second in Grenoble in 1968.
Mar 31, 1992
On March 31, 1992, the Federal Treaty was signed in the Kremlin, one of the main sources of the constitutional law of the Russian Federation in the field of regulation of federal relations.
On April 6, 1992, the VI Congress of People's Deputies of the Russian Federation opened. It was the first sharp confrontation between the legislative and executive branches of power on two main issues - the course of economic reform and the draft of a new Constitution.
On August 14, 1992, Boris Yeltsin signed a decree "On the introduction of a system of privatization checks in the Russian Federation", which launched check privatization in Russia.
07 Sep 1992
On October 1, 1992, the issuance of privatization checks began in Russia, which were popularly called vouchers.
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Support for the president in the referendum by the majority of Russians who expressed confidence in the president (58.7%) and approved of his socio-economic policy (53%). Despite Boris Yeltsin's moral victory, the constitutional crisis was not overcome.
23 Sep 1993
Holding the X Extraordinary (Extraordinary) Congress of People's Deputies of the Russian Federation in connection with the decree of B. Yeltsin No. 1400. On the very first day of its work, the congress decided to depose B. Yeltsin. Vice-President A. Rutskoy was appointed acting president, who, along with the chairman of the Supreme Council R. Khasbulatov, was the leader of the opposition. The White House - the place of meetings of the Supreme Council, around which the events of the August putsch unfolded - was cordoned off by the police. As in August 1991, the White House was surrounded by barricades. Nationalist militants hastily gathered in Moscow to defend the Supreme Soviet.
The capture of the White House by troops loyal to the president. During this operation, the tanks, having warned about the opening of fire, fired several shots (and not live shells, but training blanks) at the upper floors of the White House, where, as it was known in advance, there was not a single person. In the afternoon, units loyal to the government occupied the White House and arrested the organizers of the coup. As a result of these events, there were no deaths, which, unfortunately, cannot be said about armed clashes in the street: from September 21 to October 4, from 141 (data from the Prosecutor General's Office) to 160 (data from a special parliamentary commission) people died in them. This was a tragic consequence of the October conflict, but it was he who made it possible to avoid an even more terrible development of events - a repetition civil war when more than 10 million people died.
Elections to the State Duma and a referendum on the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
Yegor Gaidar's resignation from the post of First Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation, to which he was appointed on September 18, 1993 - on the eve of decisive events related to the struggle between the president and the Supreme Council. On the night of October 3-4, when the militants of the Supreme Council were trying to seize the Ostankino television center, Y. Gaidar's televised appeal to Muscovites urging them to gather near the Moscow City Council building and express support for the president helped turn the tide in favor of B. Yeltsin. However, the electoral bloc "Russia's Choice" created by Ye. Gaidar failed to win a majority in the Duma in the elections in December 1993, which could have made it possible to continue radical market reforms. It became obvious that the government of V. Chernomyrdin would be forced to pursue the former policy of compromises. Under these conditions, E. Gaidar left the government and focused on work as the leader of the Duma faction "Russia's Choice". E. Gaidar did not work in the government anymore ( see articles "", "" and "").
Return to Russia of Alexander Solzhenitsyn. On this day, the writer flew to Magadan from the United States, where he had lived since 1974 after being expelled from the USSR. The writer, universally greeted as a triumphant, made a long trip around the country.
01 Mar 1995
Holding a military parade in Moscow in honor of the 50th anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany. The parade consisted of two parts - historical and modern. The historical part was held on Red Square. Veterans of the Great Patriotic War took part in it, marching along Red Square in columns of the fronts of the war era, with front banners in front; as well as military personnel dressed in the uniform of the Red Army of the 40s. The modern part of the parade took place on Poklonnaya Hill, where Russian army and modern military equipment. The reason for this division was the condemnation by the leaders of other countries of military operations on the territory of the Chechen Republic. They refused to attend the parade of troops participating in these events, and it was for this reason that only the historical part of the parade was held on Red Square.
The reforms, which consequently led to the democratization of public life, could not but affect interethnic relations. The Yakuts were the first to openly defend their national freedoms. In early 1986, a series of protests were held in Yakutsk, where demonstrators demanded that the massive closure of Yakut schools be cancelled.
The ruling elite of local self-government and state authorities gradually passed to the side of the common population. So, for example, M. Gorbachev was forced to change the chairman of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan, who actively supported and encouraged popular protests.
After G. V. Kunaev took the post, a wave of protests swept across the country, which for the first time began to be of a revolutionary nature. The Crimean Tatars, the Volga Germans, wanted to restore their autonomy, but Transcaucasia became the territory of the most acute conflict on a national basis.
Formation of national movements
Taking advantage of the beginning of conflicts in the Transcaucasus, popular fronts were actively created in the Baltic countries, the purpose of which was the withdrawal of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia from the USSR.
At the initial stages of their activities, the radical nationalist organizations of the Baltic states were able to get the Supreme Soviets of the republics to proclaim national languages the only state ones. Already in the middle of 1989, the Russian language was deprived of the status of the state language in these countries.
Following the example of the Baltic states, the demands to introduce national languages in state institutions were put forward by Moldova, Belarus and Ukraine. The populations of Tataria, Bashkiria and Yakutia demanded the immediate recognition of their republics as full members of the Union.
"Parade of sovereignties"
In the first half of 1990, national movements and government attempts to solve economic and social issues on their own without the participation of the Center led to the adoption of sovereignty in many union republics.
The Russian Federation, Ukraine, the Baltic countries, Georgia, Moldova, Uzbekistan and Belarus became sovereign states. The reaction of the top of the Central Committee of the CPSU was sharp and economic sanctions were applied to many states.
Much belatedly, Gorbachev began to develop a new union treaty, which still failed to save the Soviet state.
The government's attempt to save the collapsing state with the help of the State Emergency Committee led to the opposite result. In the period of August-October 1991, declarations of state independence were adopted in the Baltic States, Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, Armenia and Turkmenistan.
The existence of the Soviet state became possible only in the status of a confederation. In September 1991, the USSR State Council recognized the independence of the Union Republics, which marked the beginning of the end of the existence of the Soviet Union.
Already on December 8, at the official meeting of the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, the liquidation of the USSR as a subject of international law and the termination of its geopolitical existence was announced.
The final collapse of the USSR became apparent on December 27, 1991, when the last Soviet General Secretary, M. Gorbachev, resigned. So hastily ended the history of the once one of the most powerful world powers. The dreams of the fathers of communism were buried under the ruins of the state of the Soviets.
1. The death of the Russian empire and the formation of the USSR.
2. National politics in the USSR.
3. The collapse of the USSR.
Perestroika, which began in 1985, politicized all spheres of the country's public life. Gradually, the true history of the USSR as a multinational state was recognized, interest arose in questions of interethnic relations, in the practice of solving the national question in the Soviet state. One of the consequences of this process was an explosive surge of national self-consciousness. The charge of violence, once directed at the national regions, returned to the center, taking on a clear anti-Russian orientation. The long-term press of fear was leaving, and nationalist slogans became the most effective way not only to put pressure on the central authorities, but also to distance the increasingly stronger national elites from the weakening Moscow.
Developing in the USSR by the end of the 1980s. the socio-political atmosphere in many ways resembled the situation during the collapse of the Russian Empire. The weakening of autocratic power at the beginning of the 20th century, and then its elimination by the February Revolution, stimulated the centrifugal aspirations of the heterogeneous parts of the empire. The national question in tsarist Russia was long time"blurred": the differences between the peoples of the empire took place, rather, not on a national basis, but on a religious basis; national differences were replaced by class affiliation. In addition, in Russian society, the split along social sign which also muffled the acuteness of the national question as such. It does not follow from this that national oppression did not exist in Russia. Its most striking expression was Russification and resettlement policy. Solving with the help of the latter the problem of land shortage of European peasants, not only Russians, but also Ukrainians, Belarusians, some peoples of the Volga region, Orthodox by religion, tsarism significantly oppressed other peoples, primarily in Siberia, the Far East, Kazakhstan, in the foothills of the North Caucasus. In addition, some peoples of the empire, such as the Poles, could not come to terms with the lost by them in the second half of the XVIII century. own national statehood. Therefore, it is no coincidence that in the late XIX - early XX centuries. national and national liberation movements begin to gain strength, which in some cases acquire a distinctly religious coloring, the ideas of pan-Islamism find their adherents among the Muslim peoples of the empire: the Volga Tatars, the Transcaucasian Tatars (Azerbaijanis), in the Central Asian protectorates.
The usual border of the Russian Empire took shape only by the end of the 19th century. it was a “young” country that had just found its geographical boundaries. And this is its essential difference from the Ottoman or Austro-Hungarian empires, which at the beginning of the twentieth century. were on the verge of natural decay. But they were united by one thing - these empires had a military-feudal character, that is, they were created mainly by military force, and economic ties, a single market were already formed within the framework of the created empires. Hence the general looseness, weak connection between the regions of the empire and political instability. In addition, these empires included different peoples and cultures, for example, the Russian Empire included territories with completely different economic and cultural types, other spiritual landmarks. Lithuanians were still guided by Catholicism in its Polish version: long-standing ties with Poland and the memory of the once united Polish-Lithuanian state, the Commonwealth, affected. Naturally, in the Russian part of Poland itself, the historical memory of the local population was even stronger. Latvians and Estonians did not lose spiritual and cultural ties with the Balto-Protestant area - Germany and Scandinavia. The population of these territories still perceived itself as part of Europe, and the power of tsarism was perceived as national oppression. Although the centers of the Islamic world - Turkey and Persia - remained outside the Russian Empire, this did not lead to a significant change in the cultural and spiritual orientation of the Central Asian population and, in part, Caucasian regions, to the loss of their former preferences.
There was only one way out for the central government - the inclusion of the nobility of the conquered or annexed lands into the ruling elite. The all-Russian census of 1897 showed that 57% of the Russian hereditary nobility called Russian their native language. The rest - 43% of the nobility (hereditary!), Being in the ruling elite of Russian society and the state, still perceived themselves as Polish or Ukrainian gentry, Baltic barons, Georgian princes, Central Asian beks, etc.
Hence the main feature of the Russian Empire: it did not have a clear national (and geographical) distinction between the Russian metropolis proper and colonies of other ethnicities, as, for example, in the British Empire. The oppressive layer almost half consisted of representatives of the conquered and annexed peoples. Such a powerful inclusion of the local nobility in ruling structures The Russian state to some extent ensured the stability of the empire. The policy pursued by such a state, as a rule, did not have an overt Russophile orientation, that is, it did not proceed from the interests of the Russian part of the population of the empire proper. Moreover, all the forces of the people were constantly spent on military expansion, on the extensive development of new territories, which could not but affect the state of the people - the "conqueror". On this occasion, the famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: half of XIX in. the territorial expansion of the state is in inverse proportion to the development of the internal freedom of the people ... as the territory expanded, along with the growth of the external strength of the people, its internal freedom became more and more constrained. In the field, constantly increasing due to conquest, the scope of power increased, but the uplifting force of the people's spirit decreased. Outwardly, the successes of the new Russia resemble the flight of a bird, which the whirlwind carries and throws up beyond the strength of its wings. The state was plump, and the people were sickly ”(Klyuchevsky V.O. Course of Russian history. M., 1991. T. 3. S. 328).
After its collapse, the Russian Empire left a number of its unresolved problems to the Soviet Union that arose on its basis: the different economic and cultural orientation of the peoples and territories that were part of it, which ensured the permanently increasing influence of various cultural and religious centers on them; weakness of economic ties between their various parts, which gave impetus to the start of centrifugal processes, especially when the central government was weakened and the economic situation worsened; the unfading historical memory of the conquered peoples, capable of bursting into emotions at any moment; often hostile attitude towards the Russian people, with whom national oppression was associated.
But even in the summer of 1917, apart from the Polish, Finnish, part of the Ukrainian nationalists, not a single national movement raised the question of secession from Russia, limiting itself to the demands of national-cultural autonomy. The process of the collapse of the empire intensified after October 25–26, and especially after the adoption on November 2, 1917 by the Soviet government of the “Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia”. The main postulates of the document were: the equality of all peoples and the right of nations to self-determination, up to secession and the formation of independent states. In December 1917, the Soviet government recognized the state independence of Ukraine and Finland. The ideas of national self-determination were very popular in the international social-democratic movement, and were not supported by everyone, even by recognized leaders. According to Rosa Luxembourg, the translation of this provision into real politics threatened Europe with medieval anarchy if each ethnic group demanded the creation of its own state. She wrote: “From all sides, nations and small ethnic groups are claiming their rights to form states. Decayed corpses, filled with the desire for rebirth, rise from hundred-year-old graves, and peoples who did not have their own history, who did not know their own statehood, are filled with the desire to create their own state. On the nationalist Mount Walpurgis Night, leaders of national movements more often used this call for national self-determination to pursue their own political ambitions. Questions about whether national independence is useful for the people themselves, for their neighbors, for social progress, or whether there are economic conditions for the emergence of a new state and whether it is capable of pursuing its own state policy, not subject to the whims of other countries, as a rule, were not raised and weren't discussed.
For the Bolsheviks, the thesis about the right of nations to self-determination was an important argument for attracting to their side at least some of the leaders of various national movements. It sharply contrasted with the slogan of the white movement about "one and indivisible Russia" and became a successful tactic of Bolshevik propaganda in the national regions. In addition, the realization of the right of nations to self-determination not only shattered, but exploded from within the entire system of the administrative structure of Russia and dealt a final blow to the non-Bolshevik local authorities. Thus, the provincial principle of organizing the political space of the country, which provided equal rights to citizens regardless of their nationality and place of residence, was eliminated.
The empire collapsed. On its ruins in 1917-1919. independent states emerged, recognized by the world community as sovereign. In the Baltic States - Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia; in Transcaucasia - Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan; in Central Asia the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva restored their independence; Ukrainian and Belarusian republics emerged. Centrifugal processes affected not only the national outskirts. A phenomenon similar to national movements in the Russian regions proper was regionalism. Usually, it is understood as socio-political movements, expressed in the protest of individual regions against redistributive actions. central authorities or not supporting their political orientation. In 1917–1918 the territory of Russia was covered with a grid of "independent" republics independent of the Bolshevik Moscow: Orenburg, Siberian, Chita, Kuban, Black Sea, etc.
Thus, for the Soviet state, the outbreak of the civil war meant not only the struggle for the preservation of Soviet power, but also the policy of collecting the lands of the disintegrated empire. The end of the war on the territory of Great Russia proper and Siberia led to the concentration of the Fifth Army on the border with Central Asia, and the Eleventh Army approached the border with Transcaucasia. In January 1920, the Transcaucasian Regional Committee of the RCP(b) appealed to the working people of independent Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan to prepare armed uprisings against their governments and appeal to Soviet Russia and the Red Army in order to restore Soviet power in Transcaucasia. Accusing the governments of Georgia and Azerbaijan of cooperating with A.P. Denikin, the Eleventh Army crossed the border. In February 1920, an anti-government uprising broke out in Georgia at the call of the Military Revolutionary Committee, then the rebels turned to Soviet Russia for help, and the Red Army supported them. The democratic government of the independent Georgian Republic was overthrown. It was nationalistic in character, although it was covered by social-democratic (Menshevik) slogans. In the spring of 1920 in Baku, the Bolsheviks were able to raise an armed uprising against the Musavatist government formed by the bourgeois Muslim party. In Armenia, the pro-Bolshevik uprising was defeated, but the outbreak of war with Turkey created favorable conditions for the entry of the Red Army into Armenian territory and the establishment of Soviet power. Three Soviet republics arose in Transcaucasia, which in 1922 merged into the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (TSFSR).
Events developed in a similar way in Central Asia - the uprising of the working people and the help of the Red Army. After a successful anti-Khan uprising, troops of the Fifth Red Army were brought into Khiva, and in February 1920 the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic was formed. In August of the same year, there was an uprising against the Emir of Bukhara. In September Bukhara fell and the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic was proclaimed. Soviet power was finally established in Turkestan as well.
It should be noted that the Bolshevik leadership did not have a scientifically developed national policy as an independent program: all its actions were subordinated to the main task - building a socialist society. The national question was perceived by the leaders of the party and the state as a particular aspect of the class struggle, as its derivative. It was believed that with the solution of the problems of the socialist revolution, national problems would automatically be resolved.
Reflecting on the state structure of the future Soviet state, V. I. Lenin wrote to S. G. Shaumyan in 1913: “We are against the federation in principle, it weakens economic ties, it is an unsuitable type for one state.” V. I. Lenin stood on the positions of the unitary nature of the future state until the autumn of 1917, and only the search for allies of the proletariat in the socialist revolution pushed the leader to a compromise. At the III Congress of Soviets (January 1918) the "Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People" was adopted, which fixed the federal structure of the Russian Soviet Republic. Interestingly, in an interview given by I.V. Stalin in the spring of 1918, Poland, Finland, Transcaucasia, Ukraine, Siberia were among the possible subjects of the Russian Federation. At the same time, I. V. Stalin emphasized the temporality of federalism in Russia, when "... forced tsarist unitarism will be replaced by voluntary federalism ... which is destined to play a transitional role to future socialist unitarism." This thesis was fixed in the Second Party Program adopted in 1919: "The federation is a transitional form to the complete unity of the working people of different nations." Consequently, the Russian Federative Republic, on the one hand, was conceived as a new political form of unification of all the territories of the former Russian Empire, on the other hand, the federal structure was considered by the party and its leaders as a temporary phenomenon on the way to "socialist unitarism", as a tactical compromise with the national liberation movements.
The principles of the organization of the state became administrative-territorial and national-territorial, which laid the foundation for political, socio-economic inequality between different regions, ensuring the emergence of not only nationalism, but also regionalism in the future.
In the summer of 1919, V. I. Lenin came, as it seemed to him, to a compromise regarding the future state structure: to a combination of the unitary principle and federalism - the republics organized according to the Soviet type should form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics within which autonomy is possible. It turned out that the basis of the USSR was the federal principle, and the union republics were unitary entities. Later, in a letter to L. B. Kamenev, V. I. Lenin wrote that “... Stalin (who remained a supporter of a unitary Russian state, which would include the rest of the Soviet republics as autonomies) agreed to the amendment: “to say instead of“ joining the RSFSR "-" unification together with the RSFSR "into the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia." And further: “The spirit of concession is understandable: we recognize ourselves as equal in rights with the Ukrainian SSR and others, and together and on an equal footing with them we enter a new union, a new federation ...” (V. I. Lenin. Full. Collected works. Vol. 45 pp. 212).
On December 30, 1922, four republics - the Ukrainian SSR, the BSSR, the ZSFSR and the RSFSR signed a union treaty. In many ways, the electoral system, the principle of organizing power, the definition of the main authorities and their functions repeated the provisions of the Russian Constitution of 1918, and the agreement became the basis for the first Federal Constitution, approved by the II Congress of Soviets of the USSR on January 31, 1924. It stated a single simultaneous citizenship, voluntary the nature of the unification, the immutability of the borders, for the most part given without taking into account the real resettlement of peoples, and also the declarative right to “exit from the union state” was preserved, the mechanism for such an “exit” remained out of sight of the legislators and was not defined.
In the special committees and commissions involved in the preparation of the new document, opposing positions clashed on issues of the powers of the union and republican departments, the competence of the central people's commissariats, and the advisability of establishing a single Soviet citizenship. The Ukrainian Bolsheviks insisted that each individual republic should be given broader sovereign rights. Some Tatar communists demanded that the autonomous republics (Tataria, in the form of an autonomous Soviet socialist republic, was part of the RSFSR) should also be elevated to the rank of allied ones. Georgian representatives advocated that the three Transcaucasian republics join the USSR separately, and not in the form of a Transcaucasian federation. Thus, already at the stage of discussion of the first Union Constitution, its weaknesses were clearly identified, and unresolved contradictions served as a breeding ground for the aggravation of the interethnic situation in the second half of the 1980s.
According to the Constitution of 1924, the central government was endowed with very extensive prerogatives: five people's commissariats were only allied. The GPU also remained under central control. The other five people's commissariats had union-republican status, that is, they existed both in the Center and in the republics. The rest of the people's commissariats, such as agriculture, education, health, social security, etc., were initially exclusively republican in nature. The orientation laid down in party documents to give the union state a unitary content over time led to a gradual increase in the importance of the central (union) authorities, in particular through an increase in the number of the latter. On the eve of the collapse of the USSR, there were about 60 (instead of the original 5) union ministries. The latter reflected the process of centralization of power and the practice of solving virtually all the problems of the union republics in the Center. The reverse side of this phenomenon was the reduction of their real independence.
In 1923–1925 the process of national-territorial demarcation in Central Asia took place. The features of this region were, firstly, in the traditional absence of clear territorial boundaries between the khanates and the emirate; secondly, in the interspersed residence of the Turkic-speaking and Iranian-speaking ethnic groups. The main principles of the national-territorial delimitation were the process of identifying titular nations, whose name was given to the new national-territorial formation, and the geographical definition of the boundaries of the new Soviet republics. The Bukhara and Khorezm People's Republics, formerly part of the RSFSR and renamed "socialist", were merged, and the Uzbek SSR was formed on their basis. In 1925, she, as well as the Turkmen SSR, entered the USSR as union republics.
The national-territorial demarcation in Central Asia took the form of a mild "ethnic cleansing". Initially, the titular nations did not make up the majority of the population in "their" republics. For example, as part of the Uzbek SSR, the Tajik Autonomous Region was formed as an autonomy, but in such large cities as Bukhara and Samarkand, Tajiks (an Iranian-speaking ethnic group) made up the majority of the population. But already in the 1920s. in the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic, teaching in schools was translated from Tajik into Uzbek. In the commissariats and other authorities, a fine of 5 rubles was introduced for each case of appeal in the Tajik language. As a result of such actions, the proportion of Tajiks was rapidly decreasing. In Samarkand from 1920 to 1926. the number of Tajiks decreased from 65,824 to 10,700. Considering that the civil war had ended by this time, it can be assumed that most of the Tajiks switched to Uzbek language(which was easy to do, because there was bilingualism in Central Asia) and later, with the introduction of passports, she changed her nationality. Those who did not want to do this were forced to migrate from Uzbekistan to their autonomy. Thus, the principle of the forcible creation of mono-ethnic union republics was realized.
The extraction process itself autonomous entities was of an extremely arbitrary nature and often proceeded not from the interests of ethnic groups, but was subordinated to the political conjuncture. This was especially evident in the definition of autonomies in Transcaucasia. In 1920, the Revolutionary Committee of Azerbaijan recognized the territory of Nakhichevan and Zanzegur districts as part of Armenia in an Appeal and Declaration, and the right to self-determination was recognized for Nagorno-Karabakh. In March 1921, when the Soviet-Turkish agreement was signed, the Nakhichevan autonomy, where half of the population was Armenians and which did not even have a common border with Azerbaijan, was recognized as part of Azerbaijan under pressure from Turkey. At a meeting of the Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) on July 4, 1921, a decision was made to join the Nagorno-Karabakh autonomous region into the Armenian Republic. A little later, on the direct instructions of I.V. Stalin, Nagorno-Karabakh, in which Armenians made up 95% of the population, was transferred to Azerbaijan.
In the 1930s nation-building in the USSR continued. According to the Constitution of 1936, the USSR included 11 union republics and 33 autonomies. The Kazakh SSR and the Kirghiz SSR left the RSFSR; back in 1929, the Tajik autonomy was transformed into a union republic; the ZSFSR also collapsed, and three union republics emerged from it as independent ones - Armenian, Azerbaijan and Georgian. After the implementation of the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1939, the reunification of Western Ukraine and the Ukrainian SSR, Western Belarus and the BSSR took place. Bessarabia, torn away from Romania, merged with the Moldavian autonomy (which was part of the Ukrainian SSR), and in August 1940 the Moldavian SSR arose, which became part of the USSR. In the summer of 1940, the three Baltic republics did the same - the Lithuanian SSR, LatSSR, and the ESSR. In the autumn of 1939, the Soviet-Finnish war began, and in 1940 the Karelian-Finnish SSR was formed, which did not last long. After its elimination, the number of union republics (15) remained unchanged until the collapse of the USSR. In the early 1940s The USSR, with the exception of Finland and part of Poland, was restored within the framework of the collapsed Russian Empire.
Evaluating the Constitution of 1936, I.V. Stalin noted that such a state was created, the collapse of which is impossible, since the exit of one of its parts leads to the death of all. The role of original detonators was assigned to autonomies, which were part of many union republics. This forecast was fully justified in the second half of the 1980s, when it was the autonomies who raised the question of their equality with the union republics, and then the collapse of the USSR followed.
The thirties and forties passed in the national regions under the banner of collectivization, industrialization and cultural revolution. There was an alignment of national economies. This was accompanied by the destruction of the traditional way of life, the imposition of a single Soviet (not Russian!) standard. A system of redistribution of financial, material and human resources arose in favor of the least industrially developed regions and, above all, the national outskirts. For this, the map was even redrawn: Rudny Altai, traditionally developed by Russians since the 18th century, was transferred to the Kazakh SSR and became the basis for creating a local industrial base. Russia was a natural donor. Despite the massive assistance, industrialization in Central Asia and the North Caucasus hardly changed the economic and cultural way of the local population, which has thousands of years of tradition, their orientation towards the values of the Islamic world.
Collectivization, accompanied by the creation of monocultural economies and also the destruction of the usual way of life, in a short time caused a powerful psychological stress, impoverishment, hunger, disease. Economic leveling was accompanied by interference in the spiritual sphere: atheistic propaganda was carried on, the clergy were subjected to repressions. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the Russians, who also retained many features of the traditional way of life, were subjected to powerful pressure from the Soviet authorities, and were also forced to turn from a rural population into townspeople in a short time.
The war years were accompanied by mass deportations of peoples suspected of betrayal. The beginning of this process was laid in the summer of 1941, when, after accusing the two million German people of an alleged betrayal, the Republic of Germans - the Volga region was liquidated, and all Germans were deported to the east of the country. In 1943–1944 mass migrations of other peoples of the European and Asian parts of the USSR were carried out. The accusations were standard: cooperation with the Nazis or sympathy for the Japanese. They were able to return to their native places, and even then not all of them, after 1956.
The "carrot" of national policy was "indigenization", that is, the direction to leading, responsible posts of people whose nationality was listed in the name of the republic. The conditions for obtaining education were facilitated for national cadres. Thus, in 1989, there were 9.7 graduate students among Russians per 100 scientific workers; Belarusians - 13.4; Kyrgyz - 23.9; Turkmen - 26.2 people. National cadres were guaranteed successful promotion up the career ladder. Nationality "determined" the professional, mental, business qualities of people. In fact, the state itself introduced nationalism and fomented national strife. And even the appearance of a European-educated population in the national republics, the creation of modern industry and infrastructure, the international recognition of scientists and cultural figures from national regions was often perceived as something natural and did not contribute to the growth of trust between peoples, because totalitarian methods excluded the possibility of choice, were of a violent nature, and therefore rejected by society.
The logic of the development of perestroika processes raised the question of the pace of democratization of Soviet society, as well as the payment of each republic for socio-economic transformations. The question arose about the redistribution by the Center of federal revenues in favor of the least developed republics. At the I Congress of Deputies of the USSR (1989), the Baltic republics for the first time openly raised the issue of the relationship between the Central (Union) and republican authorities. The main requirement of the Baltic deputies was the need to provide the republics with greater independence and economic sovereignty. At the same time, options for republican cost accounting were being worked out. But the question of greater independence of the republics rested on the problem of the pace of economic and political reforms (perestroika) in different national-cultural regions of the USSR. The Center has been inflexible in trying to unify these processes. The accelerated course of perestroika transformations in Armenia and the Baltic states was held back by the Center's slowness in the Central Asian region. Thus, the persisting cultural and economic heterogeneity of Soviet society, the different mentality of the peoples that made it up, objectively determined the different pace and depth of economic reforms and democratization. Attempts by the Center to “average” this process, to create a single model of transformation for the entire state, failed. By the winter of 1991, the Baltic republics raised the question of political sovereignty. Forceful pressure on them: the events in Vilnius in January 1991, provocations in Latvia and Estonia called into question the ability of the central government to continue the course towards the democratization and openness of Soviet society, proclaimed in April 1985.
Even earlier, at the beginning of 1988, the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, which was part of Azerbaijan, announced national infringements. A week later, anti-Armenian pogroms in Sumgayit became a reaction to this. As a result, according to some reports, 32 people died, more than two hundred were injured. There was no serious reaction from either Baku or Moscow. This was the beginning of the ongoing Karabakh conflict. The next one, in 1989, brought new pogroms: in Novy Uzgen and Osh. Again, there was no response from the Center. Impunity provoked new massacres on ethnic grounds. The dynamics of the growth of hotbeds of interethnic tension shows that in December 1988 there were 15 of them in the Union, in March 1991 - 76, and a year later - 180. post-Soviet space. Gradually, a double standard began to manifest itself more clearly in resolving the issue of self-determination: this right became a privilege only for the union republics, but not for their autonomies. Although everyone recognized the arbitrary nature of the separation of union and autonomous entities, sometimes the artificiality of their borders, nevertheless, through the actions of the central and republican authorities, a conviction was formed in the public mind that the demands of autonomies were “illegal”. Thus, it became obvious that the equality of peoples declared in the Constitution and the right of nations to self-determination are subject to political conjuncture.
An attempt to save the Union can be considered the holding of the All-Union referendum on the integrity of the Union on March 17, 1991, which no longer had any real consequences. In the spring and especially the summer of 1991, almost all the union republics held their own referenda, and the population voted for national independence. Thus, the results of the all-Union referendum were annulled. Another attempt to save the Union can be considered a change in position regarding the signing of a new Union Treaty. MS Gorbachev held repeated consultations with the heads of the republics. It seemed that this process could end with the conclusion of a new union treaty, the essence of which would be to redistribute functions between the central and republican authorities in favor of the latter. Thus, the USSR from a de facto unitary state had a chance to become a full-fledged federation. But this did not happen: the fragile process was interrupted by the events of August 1991. For the union republics, the victory of the coup meant a return to the former unitary state and the end of democratic reforms. the limit of trust in the central government was exhausted, the Union collapsed.
The current collapse of the USSR, although in many ways reminiscent of the collapse of the Russian Empire, is qualitatively different. The Soviet Union was re-established within the empire through provocations and the use of military force, which is contrary to the principles of democracy, the adherence of which was declared by most of the new states. In the early 1920s the peoples that made up the former empire could still believe the new leadership of Moscow, who allegedly abandoned the imperial, unification policy. But the new existence within the framework of the Union did not solve the former national problems, it increased their number. The reasons for the explosion of nationalism in the USSR were also some results of the implemented national policy. The Soviet national policy led to the emergence of national self-consciousness and its strengthening among many ethnic groups that did not have it before. Having proclaimed the slogan of the destruction of the national division of mankind, the regime built and strengthened nations in the territories artificially defined by it. Nationality, enshrined in the passport, tied ethnic groups to a certain territory, dividing them into "indigenous people" and "strangers." Despite the subordinate position of the republics to the Center, they had the preconditions for an independent existence. During the Soviet period, a national elite was formed in them, national personnel were trained, “their own” territory was defined, and a modern economy was created. All this also contributed to the collapse of the USSR: the former Soviet republics could now do without cash receipts from the Center, especially since the Union treasury with the beginning of reforms very quickly became impoverished. In addition, some nations only during the years of Soviet power for the first time received their national statehood (first in the form of union republics, and after the collapse of the USSR - independent states: Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, etc.), not counting a short period of independence in 1917–1920 Their states are very young, there are no traditions of strong statehood, hence their desire to establish themselves and show their complete independence, primarily from Moscow.
The collapse of the Russian Empire, and later the USSR, quite logically fits into the general historical picture of global world changes: the 20th century. generally became a century of collapses of empires that arose in previous eras. One of the reasons for this process is modernization, the transition of many states to the rails of an industrial and post-industrial society. It is much easier to carry out economic and political transformations in culturally and mentally homogeneous societies. Then there are no problems of the pace and depth of transformations. our state, both in the early twentieth century and in the 1980s. was a conglomerate of various economic and cultural types and mentalities. In addition, although modernization in general enhances integration trends, they conflict with the growth of national self-consciousness, with the desire for national independence. In conditions of authoritarian or totalitarian regimes, infringement of national interests, this contradiction is inevitable. Therefore, as soon as the hoops of autocracy and totalitarianism were weakened and transformative, democratic tendencies intensified, the threat of the collapse of the multinational state also arose. And although the collapse of the USSR is largely natural, over the past 70 years, and over the previous centuries, the peoples living in the Eurasian space have accumulated a lot of experience life together. They have a lot of common history, numerous human connections. Under favorable conditions, this can promote natural, albeit slow, integration. And it seems that the existence of the CIS is a step towards the common future of the peoples of the once united country.
NATIONAL POLICY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. COLLAPSE OF THE USSR
Democratization of society and the national question. The democratization of public life could not but affect the sphere of interethnic relations. Problems that have been accumulating for years, which the authorities have tried to ignore for a long time, manifested themselves in sharp forms as soon as freedom wafted in.
The first open mass demonstrations took place as a sign of disagreement with the number of national schools decreasing from year to year and the desire to expand the scope of the Russian language. In early 1986, under the slogans "Yakutia - for the Yakuts", "Down with the Russians!" student demonstrations took place in Yakutsk.
Gorbachev's attempts to limit the influence of national elites caused even more active protests in a number of republics. In December 1986, in protest against the appointment of the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan instead of D. A. Kunaev, the Russian G. V. Kolbin, thousands of demonstrations that turned into riots took place in Alma-Ata. The investigation into the abuse of power that took place in Uzbekistan caused widespread discontent in this republic.
Even more actively than in previous years, there were demands for the restoration of the autonomy of the Crimean Tatars, the Germans of the Volga region. The zone of the sharpest national conflicts became Transcaucasia.
Interethnic conflicts and the formation of mass national movements. In 1987, in Nagorno-Karabakh (Azerbaijan SSR), mass unrest of the Armenians, who make up the majority of the population of this autonomous region, began. They demanded that Karabakh be transferred to the Armenian SSR. The promise of the allied authorities to "consider" this issue was taken as an agreement to meet these demands. All this led to the massacres of Armenians in Sumgayit (AzSSR). It is characteristic that the party apparatus of both republics not only did not interfere with the interethnic conflict, but also actively participated in the creation of national movements. Gorbachev gave the order to send troops to Sumgayit and declare a curfew there.
Against the backdrop of the Karabakh conflict and the impotence of the allied authorities in May 1988, popular fronts were created in Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. If at first they spoke "in support of perestroika", then after a few months they announced secession from the USSR as their ultimate goal. The most massive and radical of these organizations was Sąjūdis (Lithuania). Soon, under pressure from the popular fronts, the Supreme Soviets of the Baltic republics decided to declare the national languages the state languages and deprive the Russian language of this status.
The requirement to introduce the mother tongue in state and educational institutions sounded in Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova.
In the republics of Transcaucasia, interethnic relations have become aggravated not only between the republics, but also within them (between Georgians and Abkhazians, Georgians and Ossetians, etc.).
In the Central Asian republics, for the first time in many years, there was a threat of penetration of Islamic fundamentalism from outside.
In Yakutia, Tataria, Bashkiria, movements were gaining strength, the participants of which demanded that these autonomous republics be given union rights.
The leaders of the national movements, in an effort to secure mass support for themselves, placed particular emphasis on the fact that their republics and peoples were "feeding Russia" and the Union Center. As the economic crisis deepened, this instilled in the minds of people the idea that their prosperity could be ensured only as a result of secession from the USSR.
For the party elite of the republics, an exceptional opportunity was created to ensure a quick career and well-being.
"Gorbachev's team" turned out to be unprepared to propose ways out of the "national impasse" and therefore constantly hesitated and was late in making decisions. The situation gradually began to get out of control.
Elections of 1990 in the union republics. The situation became even more complicated after elections were held in early 1990 in the union republics on the basis of a new electoral law. Almost everywhere the leaders of the national movements won. The party leadership of the republics chose to support them, hoping to remain in power.
The "parade of sovereignties" began: on March 9, the Declaration of Sovereignty was adopted by the Supreme Council of Georgia, March 11 - Lithuania, March 30 - Estonia, May 4 - Latvia, June 12 - RSFSR, June 20 - Uzbekistan, June 23 - Moldova, July 16 - Ukraine , July 27 - Belarus.
Gorbachev's reaction was at first harsh. In relation to Lithuania, for example, economic sanctions were adopted. However, with the help of the West, the republic managed to survive.
In the conditions of discord between the Center and the republics, the leaders of the Western countries - the USA, the FRG, and France - tried to assume the role of arbitrators between them.
All this made Gorbachev belatedly announce the start of the development of a new Union Treaty.
Development of a new Union Treaty. Work on the preparation of a fundamentally new document, which was to become the basis of the state, began in the summer of 1990. The majority of members of the Politburo and the leadership of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR opposed the revision of the foundations of the Union Treaty of 1922. Therefore, Gorbachev began to fight against them with the help of B. N. Yeltsin, elected Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, and the leaders of other union republics, who supported his reform course. Soviet Union.
The main idea embodied in the draft of the new treaty was the provision on granting broad rights to the union republics, primarily in the economic sphere (and later even gaining economic sovereignty by them). However, it soon became clear that Gorbachev was not ready to go for that either. Since the end of 1990, the union republics, now enjoying great freedom, decided to act independently: a series of bilateral agreements were concluded between them in the field of the economy.
In the meantime, the situation in Lithuania became aggravated, the Supreme Council of which passed laws one after another, formalizing in practice the sovereignty of the republic. In January 1991, Gorbachev, in an ultimatum form, demanded that the Supreme Council of Lithuania restore in full the effect of the Constitution of the USSR, and after their refusal introduced additional military formations into the republic. This caused clashes between the army and the population in Vilnius, as a result of which 14 people were killed. The tragic events in the capital of Lithuania provoked a violent reaction throughout the country, once again compromising the Union Center.
On March 17, 1991, a referendum was held on the fate of the USSR. Each citizen who had the right to vote received a ballot with the question: "Do you consider it necessary to preserve the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics, in which the rights and freedoms of a person of any nationality will be fully guaranteed?" 76% of the population of a vast country spoke in favor of maintaining a single state. However, the collapse of the USSR could no longer be stopped.
In the summer of 1991, the first presidential elections in Russia took place. During the election campaign, the leading "democratic" candidate Yeltsin actively played the "national card", suggesting that Russia's regional leaders take as much sovereignty as they "can eat." This largely ensured his victory in the elections. Gorbachev's position weakened even more. Growing economic difficulties required speeding up the development of a new Union Treaty. The allied leadership was now primarily interested in this. In the summer, Gorbachev agreed to all the conditions and demands made by the Union republics. According to the draft of the new treaty, the USSR was supposed to turn into a Union of Sovereign States, which would include both former union and autonomous republics on equal terms. In terms of the form of association, it was more like a confederation. It was also planned to form new federal authorities. The signing of the agreement was scheduled for August 20, 1991.
August 1991 and its aftermath. Some of the top leaders of the Soviet Union perceived the preparations for signing a new union treaty as a threat to the existence of a single state and tried to prevent it.
In the absence of Gorbachev in Moscow, on the night of August 19, a State Committee State of Emergency (GKChP), which included Vice President G. I. Yanaev, Prime Minister V. S. Pavlov, Minister of Defense D. T. Yazov, Chairman of the KGB V. A. Kryuchkov, Minister of Internal Affairs B. K. Pugo and others. The State Emergency Committee introduced a state of emergency in certain regions of the country; declared disbanded power structures that acted contrary to the 1977 constitution; suspended the activities of opposition parties; banned rallies and demonstrations; established control over the funds mass media; sent troops to Moscow.
On the morning of August 20, the Supreme Soviet of Russia issued an appeal to the citizens of the republic, in which it regarded the actions of the State Emergency Committee as a coup d'état and declared them illegal. At the call of President Yeltsin, tens of thousands of Muscovites took up defensive positions around the building of the Supreme Soviet in order to prevent its assault by troops. On August 21, the session of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR began its work, which supported the leadership of the republic. On the same day, Soviet President Gorbachev returned from Crimea to Moscow, and members of the State Emergency Committee were arrested.
The collapse of the USSR. An attempt by members of the GKChP to save the Soviet Union led to the exact opposite result - the disintegration of the unified state accelerated. Latvia and Estonia declared independence on August 21, Ukraine on August 24, Belarus on August 25, Moldova on August 27, Azerbaijan on August 30, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan on August 31, Tajikistan on September 9, Armenia on September 23, and Turkmenistan on October 27 . The Allied Center compromised in August turned out to be of no use to anyone.
Now we could only talk about the creation of a confederation. On September 5, the 5th Extraordinary Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR actually announced its self-dissolution and the transfer of power to the State Council of the USSR, consisting of the leaders of the republics. Gorbachev as the head of a single state turned out to be superfluous. On September 6, the State Council of the USSR recognized the independence of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. This was the beginning of the real collapse of the USSR.
On December 8, President of the Russian Federation B.N. Yeltsin, Chairman of the Supreme Council of Ukraine L.M. Kravchuk and Chairman of the Supreme Council of Belarus S.S. Shushkevich gathered in Belovezhskaya Pushcha (Belarus). They announced the denunciation of the Union Treaty of 1922 and the cessation of the existence of the USSR. "The Union of the SSR as a subject of international law and geopolitical reality ceases to exist," the leaders of the three republics said in a statement.
The Commonwealth was created instead of the Soviet Union Independent States(CIS), which initially united 11 former Soviet republics (excluding the Baltic states and Georgia). On December 27, Gorbachev announced his resignation. The USSR ceased to exist.
What you need to know about this topic:
Socio-economic and political development Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Nicholas II.
Domestic policy of tsarism. Nicholas II. Strengthening repression. "Police socialism".
Russo-Japanese War. Reasons, course, results.
Revolution of 1905 - 1907 Character, driving forces and features of the Russian revolution of 1905-1907. stages of the revolution. The reasons for the defeat and the significance of the revolution.
Elections to the State Duma. I State Duma. The agrarian question in the Duma. Dispersal of the Duma. II State Duma. Coup d'état June 3, 1907
Third June political system. Electoral law June 3, 1907 III State Duma. The alignment of political forces in the Duma. Duma activities. government terror. The decline of the labor movement in 1907-1910
Stolypinskaya agrarian reform.
IV State Duma. Party composition and Duma factions. Duma activities.
The political crisis in Russia on the eve of the war. The labor movement in the summer of 1914 Crisis of the top.
The international position of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
Beginning of the First World War. Origin and nature of war. Russia's entry into the war. Attitude towards the war of parties and classes.
The course of hostilities. Strategic forces and plans of the parties. Results of the war. Role Eastern Front in the first world war.
The Russian economy during the First World War.
Workers' and peasants' movement in 1915-1916. Revolutionary movement in the army and navy. Growing anti-war sentiment. Formation of the bourgeois opposition.
Russian culture of the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country in January-February 1917. The beginning, prerequisites and nature of the revolution. Uprising in Petrograd. Formation of the Petrograd Soviet. Provisional Committee of the State Duma. Order N I. Formation of the Provisional Government. Abdication of Nicholas II. Causes of dual power and its essence. February coup in Moscow, at the front, in the provinces.
From February to October. The policy of the Provisional Government regarding war and peace, on agrarian, national, labor issues. Relations between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. The arrival of V.I. Lenin in Petrograd.
Political parties (Kadets, Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, Bolsheviks): political programs, influence among the masses.
Crises of the Provisional Government. An attempted military coup in the country. Growth of revolutionary sentiment among the masses. Bolshevization of the capital Soviets.
Preparation and conduct of an armed uprising in Petrograd.
II All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Decisions about power, peace, land. Formation of public authorities and management. Composition of the first Soviet government.
The victory of the armed uprising in Moscow. Government agreement with the Left SRs. Elections in constituent Assembly, its convocation and dissolution.
The first socio-economic transformations in the field of industry, Agriculture, finance, work and women's issues. Church and State.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, its terms and significance.
Economic tasks of the Soviet government in the spring of 1918. Aggravation of the food issue. The introduction of food dictatorship. Working squads. Comedy.
The revolt of the left SRs and the collapse of the two-party system in Russia.
First Soviet Constitution.
Causes of intervention and civil war. The course of hostilities. Human and material losses of the period of the civil war and military intervention.
The internal policy of the Soviet leadership during the war. "War Communism". GOELRO plan.
The policy of the new government in relation to culture.
Foreign policy. Treaties with border countries. Participation of Russia in the Genoa, Hague, Moscow and Lausanne conferences. Diplomatic recognition of the USSR by the main capitalist countries.
Domestic policy. Socio-economic and political crisis of the early 20s. Famine of 1921-1922 Transition to new economic policy. The essence of the NEP. NEP in the field of agriculture, trade, industry. financial reform. Economic recovery. Crises during the NEP and its curtailment.
Projects for the creation of the USSR. I Congress of Soviets of the USSR. The first government and the Constitution of the USSR.
Illness and death of V.I. Lenin. Intraparty struggle. The beginning of the formation of Stalin's regime of power.
Industrialization and collectivization. Development and implementation of the first five-year plans. Socialist competition - purpose, forms, leaders.
Formation and strengthening state system economic management.
The course towards complete collectivization. Dispossession.
Results of industrialization and collectivization.
Political, national-state development in the 30s. Intraparty struggle. political repression. Formation of the nomenklatura as a layer of managers. Stalinist regime and the constitution of the USSR in 1936
Soviet culture in the 20-30s.
Foreign policy of the second half of the 20s - mid-30s.
Domestic policy. The growth of military production. Extraordinary measures in the field of labor legislation. Measures to solve the grain problem. Armed forces. Growth of the Red Army. Military reform. Repressions against the command personnel of the Red Army and the Red Army.
Foreign policy. Non-aggression pact and treaty of friendship and borders between the USSR and Germany. The entry of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus into the USSR. Soviet-Finnish war. The inclusion of the Baltic republics and other territories in the USSR.
Periodization of the Great Patriotic War. The initial stage of the war. Turning the country into a military camp. Military defeats 1941-1942 and their reasons. Major military events Capitulation of Nazi Germany. Participation of the USSR in the war with Japan.
Soviet rear during the war.
Deportation of peoples.
Partisan struggle.
Human and material losses during the war.
Creation of the anti-Hitler coalition. Declaration of the United Nations. The problem of the second front. Conferences of the "Big Three". Problems of post-war peace settlement and all-round cooperation. USSR and UN.
Beginning of the Cold War. The contribution of the USSR to the creation of the "socialist camp". CMEA formation.
Domestic policy of the USSR in the mid-1940s - early 1950s. Restoration of the national economy.
Socio-political life. Politics in the field of science and culture. Continued repression. "Leningrad business". Campaign against cosmopolitanism. "Doctors' Case".
Socio-economic development of Soviet society in the mid-50s - the first half of the 60s.
Socio-political development: XX Congress of the CPSU and the condemnation of Stalin's personality cult. Rehabilitation of victims of repressions and deportations. Intra-party struggle in the second half of the 1950s.
Foreign policy: the creation of the ATS. The entry of Soviet troops into Hungary. Exacerbation of Soviet-Chinese relations. The split of the "socialist camp". Soviet-American relations and Caribbean crisis. USSR and third world countries. Reducing the strength of the armed forces of the USSR. Moscow Treaty on the Limitation of Nuclear Tests.
USSR in the mid-60s - the first half of the 80s.
Socio-economic development: economic reform 1965
Growing difficulties of economic development. Decline in the rate of socio-economic growth.
USSR Constitution 1977
Socio-political life of the USSR in the 1970s - early 1980s.
Foreign Policy: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Consolidation of post-war borders in Europe. Moscow treaty with Germany. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). Soviet-American treaties of the 70s. Soviet-Chinese relations. The entry of Soviet troops into Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan. Exacerbation of international tension and the USSR. Strengthening of the Soviet-American confrontation in the early 80s.
USSR in 1985-1991
Domestic policy: an attempt to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country. An attempt at reform political system Soviet society. Congresses of People's Deputies. Election of the President of the USSR. Multi-party system. Exacerbation of the political crisis.
Exacerbation of the national question. Attempts to reform the national-state structure of the USSR. Declaration on State Sovereignty of the RSFSR. "Novogarevsky process". The collapse of the USSR.
Foreign policy: Soviet-American relations and the problem of disarmament. Treaties with leading capitalist countries. The withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. Changing relations with the countries of the socialist community. Disintegration of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.
Russian Federation in 1992-2000
Domestic policy: "Shock therapy" in the economy: price liberalization, stages of privatization of commercial and industrial enterprises. Fall in production. Increased social tension. Growth and slowdown in financial inflation. The aggravation of the struggle between the executive and legislative branches. The dissolution of the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies. October events of 1993. Abolition of local bodies of Soviet power. Elections in Federal Assembly. The Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993 Formation of the presidential republic. Aggravation and overcoming of national conflicts in the North Caucasus.
Parliamentary elections 1995 Presidential elections 1996 Power and opposition. An attempt to return to the course of liberal reforms (spring 1997) and its failure. The financial crisis of August 1998: causes, economic and political consequences. "Second Chechen War". Parliamentary elections in 1999 and early presidential elections in 2000. Foreign policy: Russia in the CIS. The participation of Russian troops in the "hot spots" of the near abroad: Moldova, Georgia, Tajikistan. Russia's relations with countries far abroad. The withdrawal of Russian troops from Europe and neighboring countries. Russian-American agreements. Russia and NATO. Russia and the Council of Europe. Yugoslav crises (1999-2000) and Russia's position.
- Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. History of the state and peoples of Russia. XX century.
Education of the USSR. National relations and nation-state construction in the 1920s. At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia was a multinational empire. The national liberation movement was an important integral part revolutionary movement in the country. Various political forces developed their own programs for solving the national question - from a single indivisible unitary Russia to a federal one, etc.
In November 1917, the Soviet government adopted the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia", which proclaimed the equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia, their right to self-determination up to secession, the abolition of national-religious privileges and restrictions. This right was used by Ukraine, Finland, Poland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus. The program of the Bolshevik Party on the national question greatly contributed to their victory in the civil war. But, while proclaiming the right of nations to self-determination, the Bolsheviks did not seek to split Russia. On the contrary, they sought to preserve its integrity as much as possible.
During the years of the civil war and foreign military intervention, a military-political alliance was formed between the Soviet republics. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus also pooled their resources, transport, finances, economic bodies, while maintaining independence in matters relating to the internal life of the republics. This type of national-state structure is called a confederation. The republican communist parties were included in the RCP(b) as regional party organizations.
At the end of the civil war, all Soviet republics concluded bilateral agreements on economic and diplomatic union among themselves and with the RSFSR. The number of all-Union departments has increased. In March 1922 Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia formed the Transcaucasian Soviet Socialist Federation.
The tasks of restoring and developing the economy and socialist reorganization required the improvement of the existing treaty-federative relations. The absence of legal norms regulating relations between central and local authorities caused conflicts between them. In the spring of 1922, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine and Belarus raised the issue of contractual relations.
The Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) created a commission to prepare a draft law on new form state association. I. Stalin, People's Commissar for Nationalities, became the chairman of the commission. He owned the idea of "autonomization", i.e. the entry of the Soviet republics into the RSFSR and their subordination to a single center. Some republics rejected this idea, because. it infringed on their sovereignty. The proposal of V.I. Lenin on the creation of a federal state.
On December 30, 1922 in Moscow, the First All-Union Congress of Soviets approved the Declaration and the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR as part of the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR and the Transcaucasian SFSR. The Declaration proclaimed the principles of voluntary association, equality of the republics and the right of their free secession from the Union. The treaty defined the system of federal authorities, their competence and relations with the republican administrative structures.
The legal basis of the USSR was the Constitution adopted in January 1924. II Congress of Soviets of the USSR. It proclaimed the creation of a single union state as a federation of sovereign Soviet republics. The republics were in charge of domestic policy, justice, education, health and welfare. Questions foreign policy, transport, communications were decided at the union level. Supreme legislature became the All-Union Congress of Soviets, and in the intervals between congresses - the bicameral Central Executive Committee: the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities. Executive power belonged to the Council People's Commissars THE USSR. Moscow was declared the capital of the USSR. The Constitution of the USSR retained the principles of the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 in the field of electoral law. The multi-stage system of elections, open voting, the advantages of the working class, the deprivation of voting rights of exploitative elements and ministers of religious cults were preserved.
The national policy in the USSR was aimed at overcoming the historically established inequality of peoples in the economic, social and cultural spheres.
The Union included new republics: in 1924-1925. on the territory of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, the Bukhara and Khorezm People's Republics, the Uzbek and Turkmen SSRs were created. In 1929, the Tajik ASSR was transformed into a union republic.
The territorial and administrative division of the country has changed: provinces, counties, volosts were transformed into regions, districts, village councils. National regions, districts, districts were created. Boundaries were clarified. The not always well-thought-out national-state delimitation carried out in the 1920s gave rise to hotbeds of future ethnic conflicts.