Ege without error. Historical quiz about Russia. Milestones of Russian history. Patriotic education of children and schoolchildren. Extracurricular work. open lessons. Children's and school holidays

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

The emergence and development of the Old Russian state (IX - beginning of the XII century)

The emergence of the Old Russian state is traditionally associated with the unification of the Ilmen and Dnieper regions as a result of a campaign against Kiev by the Novgorod prince Oleg in 882. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned in Kiev, Oleg began to rule on behalf of the young son of Prince Rurik, Igor.

The formation of the state was the result of long and complex processes that took place in the vast expanses of the East European Plain in the second half of the 1st millennium AD.

Nestor's story proves that among the Eastern Slavs by the middle of the 9th century. there were bodies that were the prototype of state institutions (the prince, the squad, the assembly of representatives of the tribes - the future veche);

The Varangian origin of Rurik, as well as Oleg, Igor, Olga, Askold, Dir is indisputable, but the invitation of a foreigner as a ruler is an important indicator of the maturity of the prerequisites for the formation of a state. The tribal union is aware of its common interests and is trying to resolve the contradictions between the individual tribes by calling the prince who stands above local differences. The Varangian princes, surrounded by a strong and combat-ready squad, led and completed the processes leading to the formation of the state;

Large tribal superunions, which included several unions of tribes, were formed among the Eastern Slavs already in the 8th-9th centuries. - around Novgorod and around Kiev;

In the formation of the Old Russian state, an important role was played by external factors: threats coming from outside (Scandinavia, Khazar Khaganate) pushed for unity;

The Varangians, having given Russia a ruling dynasty, quickly assimilated, merged with the local Slavic population;

As for the name "Rus", its origin continues to cause controversy. Some historians associate it with Scandinavia, others find its roots in the East Slavic environment (from the Ros tribe that lived along the Dnieper). There are other opinions on this matter as well.

At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 11th century. The Old Russian state was going through a period of formation. The formation of its territory and composition was actively going on. Oleg (882-912) subjugated the tribes of the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichi to Kiev, Igor (912-945) successfully fought with the streets, Svyatoslav (964-972) - with the Vyatichi. During the reign of Prince Vladimir (980-1015), the Volhynians and Croats were subordinated, the power over the Radimichi and Vyatichi was confirmed. In addition to the East Slavic tribes, the Finno-Ugric peoples (Chud, Merya, Muroma, etc.) were part of the Old Russian state. The degree of independence of the tribes from the Kiev princes was quite high.

The period of formation of the Old Russian state ended with the reign of Prince Vladimir I of the Holy, or Vladimir the Red Sun. Under him, Christianity was adopted from Byzantium (see ticket No. 3), a system of defensive fortresses was created on the southern borders of Russia, and the so-called ladder system of transfer of power finally took shape. The order of succession was determined by the principle of seniority in the princely family. Vladimir, having taken the throne of Kiev, planted his eldest sons in the largest Russian cities. The most important after Kiev - Novgorod - the reign was transferred to his eldest son. In the event of the death of the eldest son, his place was to be taken by the next in seniority, all other princes moved to more important thrones. In life Kiev prince this system worked flawlessly. After his death, as a rule, there was a more or less long period of struggle between his sons for the reign of Kiev.

The heyday of the Old Russian state falls on the reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) and his sons. It includes the oldest part of Russian Truth - the first monument of written law that has come down to us ("Russian Law", information about which dates back to the reign of Oleg, was not preserved either in the original or in the lists). Russian Truth regulated relations in the princely economy - the patrimony. Its analysis allows historians to talk about the established system of state administration: the Kiev prince, like the local princes, is surrounded by a retinue, the top of which is called the boyars and with whom he confers on the most important issues (a duma, a permanent council under the prince). Of the combatants, posadniks are appointed to manage cities, governors, tributaries (collectors of land taxes), mytniki (collectors of trade duties), tiuns (managers of princely estates), etc. Russkaya Pravda contains valuable information about ancient Russian society. It was based on free rural and urban population(people). There were slaves (servants, serfs), farmers dependent on the prince (purchases, ryadovichi, serfs - about the situation recent historians do not have a consensus).

Political fragmentation in Russia. Specific Russia (XII-XIII centuries)

Political fragmentation was inevitable. During the 11th century Russian lands developed in an ascending line: the population grew, the economy grew stronger, large princely and boyar land ownership increased, cities grew rich. They were less and less dependent on Kiev and were burdened by his guardianship. To maintain order within his "fatherland", the prince had enough strength and power. Local boyars and cities supported their princes in their quest for independence: they were closer, more closely connected with them, better able to protect their interests. External reasons were added to the internal ones. The Polovtsy raids weakened the southern Russian lands, the population left the restless lands for the northeastern (Vladimir, Suzdal) and southwestern (Galic, Volyn) outskirts. The princes of Kiev were weakening in the military and economic sense, their authority and influence in solving all-Russian affairs were falling.

The negative consequences of the political fragmentation of Russia are concentrated in the military-strategic area: the defense capability has weakened in the face of external threats, inter-princely feuds have intensified. But fragmentation also had positive aspects. The isolation of the lands contributed to their economic and cultural development. The collapse of a single state did not mean a complete loss of principles that united the Russian lands. The seniority of the Grand Prince of Kiev was formally recognized; ecclesiastical and linguistic unity was preserved; the basis of the legislation of the destinies was the norms of Russian Truth. In the popular mind up to the XIII-XIV centuries. lived ideas about the unity of the lands that were part of Kievan Rus.

At the end of the XII century. there were 15 independent lands, essentially independent states. The largest were: in the southwest - Galicia-Volyn principality; in the northeast - the Vladimir-Suzdal principality; in the northwest - the Novgorod Republic.

The Galicia-Volyn principality inherited the political system of Kievan Rus. The princes, when solving important issues, had to take into account the opinion of the boyar-druzhina nobility and city assemblies (veche). This feature reflected the peculiarity of the socio-economic development of the Galicia-Volyn land: boyar estates and cities were traditionally strong here.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality separated from Kiev under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157). Its mass settlement took place in the XI-XII centuries. Settlers from the southern regions of Russia were attracted by the relative safety from raids (the region was covered with impenetrable forests), fertile lands Russian opolya, navigable rivers, along which dozens have grown.

The Vladimir-Suzdal Principality became the cradle of the formation of the Great Russian people and in the near future the center of rallying the Russian lands into a single Russian state.

Other type state structure formed in Novgorod. One of the oldest Russian cities was at the same time one of the richest and most influential. The basis of its prosperity was not agriculture (Novgorod depended on the supply of bread from the neighboring Vladimir-Suzdal principality), but trade and handicrafts. The local merchants were a full participant in trade operations in the north-west of Europe, they traded with the German Hansa (the representative office of this powerful trade union of German cities was in Novgorod), Sweden, Denmark, the countries of the East with cloth, salt, amber, weapons, jewelry, furs, wax. Power and influence were concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod veche. Historians argue about its composition. Some believe that the entire urban population and even residents of nearby villages participated in it. Others argue that the so-called "five hundred golden belts" - people from large boyar families - were full participants in the veche. Be that as it may, the influential boyar and merchant families, as well as the clergy, played a decisive role. Officials were elected at the veche - the posadnik (governor of Novgorod), the thousand (leaders of the militia), the governor (maintaining law and order), the bishop (later the archbishop, the head of the Novgorod church), the archimandrite (the elder among the abbots of the Novgorod monasteries). The veche resolved the issue of inviting the prince, who, under the supervision of the council of gentlemen and the posadnik, performed the functions of a military leader. This order developed after 1136, when the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod from the city.

Culture of Ancient Russia (X-XIII centuries). Significance of adopting Christianity

The culture of Ancient Russia is a unique phenomenon. According to the researcher, "Old Russian art is the fruit of the feat of the Russian people, who defended their independence, their faith and their ideals on the edge of the European world." Scientists note the openness and synthesis (from the word "synthesis" - bringing together into a single whole) of ancient Russian culture. The interaction of the heritage of the Eastern Slavs with the Byzantine and, therefore, ancient traditions created an original spiritual world. The time of its formation and first flourishing - X - the first half of the XIII century. (pre-Mongol period).

We note, first of all, the influence of the baptism of Russia on the historical and cultural process. Christianity became the state religion of Kievan Rus in 988, during the reign of St. Vladimir I (980-1015). Princely power received in the new religion and the church that professed it a reliable support - spiritual and political. The state was strengthened, and intertribal differences were overcome with it. A single faith gave the subjects of the state a new sense of unity and community. All-Russian self-consciousness gradually took shape - an important element in the unity of the ancient Russian people.

Christianity, with its monotheism, the recognition of God as the source of power and order in society, made a serious contribution to the consolidation of the feudal relations that were taking shape in Kievan Rus.

The baptism of Russia turned it into an equal partner of medieval Christian states and thereby strengthened the foreign policy position in the then world.

Finally, about the spiritual and cultural significance acceptance of Christianity. It is huge. Liturgical books in the Slavic language came to Russia from Bulgaria and Byzantium, and the number of those who spoke Slavonic writing and literacy increased. The immediate consequence of the baptism of Russia was the development of painting, icon painting, stone and wooden architecture, ecclesiastical and secular literature, and the education system. Orthodoxy, having attached Russia to the ancient Greco-Roman and Christian tradition, at the same time became one of the factors that predetermined the features of the economic, social, political, religious, cultural, and spiritual history of our country.

Pagan antiquity was preserved primarily in oral folk art - folklore (riddles, charms, spells, proverbs, fairy tales, songs). A special place in the historical memory of the people was occupied by epics - heroic tales about the defenders of their native land from enemies. Folk storytellers sing the exploits of Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Volga, Mikula Selyaninovich and other epic heroes (in total, more than 50 main characters act in epics). They turn their appeal to them: “You stand up for the faith, for the fatherland, you stand up for the glorious capital city of Kiev!” It is interesting that in the epics the motive of defending the fatherland is supplemented by the motive of defending the Christian faith. The Baptism of Russia was the most important event in the history of ancient Russian culture.

With the adoption of Christianity, the rapid development of writing began. Writing was known in Russia in pre-Christian times (the mention of "features and cuts", the middle of the 1st millennium; information about agreements with Byzantium drawn up in Russian; a clay vessel found near Smolensk with an inscription made in Cyrillic - the alphabet created by the enlighteners of the Slavs Cyril and Methodius at the turn of the X-XI centuries). Orthodoxy brought liturgical books, religious and secular translated literature to Russia. The oldest handwritten books have come down to us - the Ostromir Gospel (1057) and two Izborniks (collection of texts) of Prince Svyatoslav (1073 and 1076). They say that in the XI-XIII centuries. 130-140 thousand books of several hundred titles were in circulation: the level of literacy in Ancient Russia was very high by the standards of the Middle Ages. There is other evidence: birch bark letters(archaeologists discovered them in the middle of the 20th century in Veliky Novgorod), inscriptions on the walls of cathedrals and handicrafts, the activities of monastic schools, the richest book collections of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra and St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.

There was an opinion that the ancient Russian culture was "mute" - it was believed that it had no original literature. This is not true. Old Russian literature is represented by various genres (chronicles, lives of the saints, journalism, teachings and travel notes, the wonderful "Tale of Igor's Campaign", which does not belong to any of the known genres), it is distinguished by a wealth of images, styles and trends.

The oldest of the chronicles that have come down to us - "The Tale of Bygone Years" - was created around 1113. monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor. The famous questions that open The Tale of Bygone Years: “Where did the Russian land come from, who in Kiev began first to reign, and how the Russian land began to eat” - they already speak of the scale of the personality of the chronicle’s creator, his literary abilities. After the collapse of Kievan Rus, independent chronicle schools arose in isolated lands, but all of them, as a model, turned to The Tale of Bygone Years.

Among the works of the oratorical and journalistic genre, the “Sermon on Law and Grace” stands out, created by Hilarion, the first Russian-born metropolitan, in the middle of the 11th century. These are thoughts about power, about the place of Russia in Europe. Wonderful is Vladimir Monomakh's Teaching, written for his sons. The prince must be wise, merciful, just, educated, indulgent and firm in protecting the weak. Strength and valor, faithful service to the country demanded from Prince Daniil Zatochnik, the author of the “Prayer”, brilliant in language and literary form.

The unknown author of the greatest work called for the consent and reconciliation of the princes ancient Russian literature"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" (end of the 12th century). The real event - the defeat of the Seversky prince Igor from the Polovtsy (1185--1187) - was only an occasion for the creation of the "Word", amazing with the richness of the language, the harmony of the composition, the power of the figurative system. The author sees the Russian land from a great height, embraces vast spaces with his mind's eye, as if "flies with his mind under the clouds", "prowls through the fields to the mountains" (D.S. Likhachev). Danger threatens Russia, and the princes must forget the strife in order to save her from destruction.

The art of Ancient Russia is primarily architecture and painting. Byzantine traditions of stone architecture came with Christianity. The greatest buildings of the XI-XII centuries. (Death Church, which died in 1240, cathedrals dedicated to Hagia Sophia in Kiev, Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk) followed Byzantine traditions. A cylindrical drum rests on four massive pillars in the center of the building, connected by arches. On it firmly stands the hemisphere of the dome. Following the four branches of the cross, the remaining parts of the temple adjoin them, ending with vaults, sometimes with domes. In the altar part - semicircular ledges, apses. This is the cross-domed composition of the church building developed by the Byzantines. Internal, often external walls temples are painted with frescoes (painting on wet plaster) or covered with mosaics. A special place is occupied by icons - picturesque images of Christ, the Mother of God, saints. The first icons came to Russia from Byzantium, but Russian masters quickly mastered the strict laws of icon painting. Honoring traditions and diligently studying with Byzantine teachers, Russian architects and painters showed amazing creative freedom: ancient Russian architecture and iconography are more open to the world, cheerful, decorative than Byzantine ones. By the middle of the XII century. the differences between the art schools of Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, and South Russian lands also became apparent. Joyful, light, lavishly decorated churches in Vladimir (Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, etc.) contrast with the squat, solid, massive churches of Novgorod (the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa on the Market, etc.). The Novgorod icons “Angel of Golden Hair”, “The Sign” differ from the icons “Dmitry of Thessalonica” or “Bogolyubskaya Mother of God” painted by the Vladimir-Suzdal masters.

Among the greatest achievements of ancient Russian culture is the artistic craft, or patterning, as it was called in Russia. Gold jewelry covered with enamel, silver items made using filigree, granulation or niello techniques, patterned decoration of weapons - all this testifies to the high skill and taste of ancient Russian artisans.

The struggle of Russia against external invasions in the XIII century.

The 13th century in the history of Russia is the time of armed opposition to the onslaught from the east (Mongol-Tatars) and northwest (Germans, Swedes, Danes).

Mongol-Tatars came to Russia from the depths of Central Asia. Educated in 1206. an empire led by Khan Temuchin, who took the title of Khan of all Mongols (Genghis Khan), by the 30s. 13th century subjugated northern China, Korea, Central Asia, Transcaucasia. In 1223, in the Battle of Kalka, the combined army of Russians and Polovtsy was defeated by a 30,000-strong Mongols detachment. Genghis Khan refused to advance to the southern Russian steppes. Russia received an almost fifteen-year respite, but could not take advantage of it: all attempts to unite, stop civil strife were in vain.

In 1236, the grandson of Genghis Khan, Baty, began a campaign against Russia. Having conquered the Volga Bulgaria, in January 1237 he invaded the Ryazan principality, ruined it and moved on to Vladimir. The city, despite fierce resistance, fell, and on March 4, 1238, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich was killed in the battle on the Sit River. Having taken Torzhok, the Mongols could go to Novgorod, but the spring thaw and heavy losses forced them to return to the Polovtsian steppes. This movement to the southeast is sometimes called the "Tatar raid": along the way, Batu plundered and burned Russian cities, which courageously fought against the invaders. Especially fierce was the resistance of the inhabitants of Kozelsk, nicknamed by the enemies of the "evil city". In 1238-- 1239. Mongol-Tatars conquered Murom, Pereyaslav, Chernigov principalities.

North-Eastern Russia was devastated. Batu turned south. The heroic resistance of the inhabitants of Kiev was broken in December 1240. In 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality fell. The Mongolian hordes invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, went to Northern Italy and Germany, but exhausted by the desperate resistance of the Russian troops, deprived of reinforcements, retreated and returned to the steppes of the Lower Volga region. Here, in 1243, the state of the Golden Horde (the capital of Saray-Vatu) was created, the dominion of which was forced to recognize the devastated Russian lands. A system was established that went down in history under the name of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The essence of this system, humiliating in the spiritual and predatory in economic relations, consisted in the fact that: the Russian principalities were not included in the Horde, they retained their own reigns; princes, especially the Grand Duke of Vladimir, received a label to reign in the Horde, which confirmed their stay on the throne; they had to pay a large tribute ("exit") to the Mongol rulers. Population censuses were carried out, norms for collecting tribute were established. The Mongolian garrisons left the Russian cities, but before the beginning of the XIV century. the collection of tribute was carried out by authorized Mongolian officials - the Baskaks. In case of disobedience (and anti-Mongol uprisings often broke out), punitive detachments - rati - were sent to Russia.

Get up two important issues: why did the Russian principalities, having shown heroism and courage, fail to repulse the conquerors? What consequences did the yoke have for Russia? The answer to the first question is obvious: of course, the military superiority of the Mongol-Tatars mattered (tough discipline, excellent cavalry, well-organized intelligence, etc.), but the disunity of the Russian princes, their strife, and inability to unite even in the face of a deadly threat played a decisive role.

The second question is controversial. Some historians point to the positive consequences of the yoke in terms of the formation of prerequisites for the creation of a unified Russian state. Others emphasize that the yoke did not have a significant impact on the internal development of Russia. Most scholars agree on the following: the raids caused the heaviest material damage, were accompanied by the death of the population, the devastation of villages, the ruin of cities; the tribute that went to the Horde depleted the country, made it difficult to restore and develop the economy; Southern Russia actually separated from the North-Western and North-Eastern, their historical destinies on for a long time dispersed; Russia's ties with European states were interrupted; won tendencies to arbitrariness, despotism, autocracy of princes. “In the devastated public consciousness, there was only room for the instincts of self-preservation and capture” (V. O. Klyuchevsky).

Having been defeated by the Mongol-Tatars, Russia was able to successfully resist the aggression from the northwest. By the 30s. 13th century The Baltic region, inhabited by the tribes of Livs, Yotvingians, Estonians, and others, was at the mercy of the German crusader knights. The actions of the crusaders were part of the policy of the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy to subjugate the pagan peoples to the Catholic Church. That is why the main instruments of aggression were spiritual and knightly orders: the Order of the Sword (founded in 1202) and the Teutonic Order (founded at the end of the 12th century in Palestine). In 1237 these orders merged into the Livonian Order. A powerful and aggressive military-political formation was established on the borders with Novgorod land, ready to take advantage of the weakening of Russia to include its northwestern lands in the zone of imperial influence.

July 1240. Nineteen-year-old Novgorod prince Alexander in a fleeting battle defeated Birger's Swedish detachment at the mouth of the Neva. For the victory in the Battle of the Neva, Alexander received the honorary nickname of Nevsky. In the same summer, the Livonian knights became more active: Izborsk and Pskov were captured, the border fortress of Koporye was erected. Prince Alexander Nevsky managed to return Pskov in 1241, but the decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242 on the melted ice of Lake Peipsi (hence the name - Battle on the Ice). Knowing about the favorite tactics of the knights - building in the form of a narrowing wedge ("pig"), the commander applied a flank coverage and defeated the enemy. Dozens of knights died, falling through the ice, unable to withstand the weight of heavily armed infantry. The relative safety of the northwestern borders of Russia, Novgorod land was ensured.

The unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the formation of a single Russian state in the XIV-XV centuries. Opposition to the Horde

In the XIV-XV centuries. specific Russia persistently collected its “crushed parts into something whole. Moscow became the center of the state formed in this way” (V. O. Klyuchevsky). The process of gathering Russian lands led to the formation of a single Russian state. Devastated, bled dry by the Mongol-Tatar yoke, divided into dozens of specific principalities, the country for more than two centuries consistently, difficultly, overcoming obstacles, went to state and national unity.

Association background. The features of the process of unification of the Russian lands consisted in the fact that its economic and social prerequisites matured gradually, as the process itself gained strength, lagging behind it. The growth of the population, the restoration of the ruined economy, the development of abandoned and new lands, the spread of the three-field system, the gradual revival of cities and trade - all this contributed to the unification, but hardly made it really necessary. The decisive prerequisites have developed in the political sphere. The main impetus was the ever more insistent striving for liberation from the Horde yoke, from patronage and prodding, to gaining complete independence, to abandon humiliating trips to the Horde for a label for the great Vladimir reign, from paying tribute, from exactions. The struggle for unification merged with the struggle against the Horde. It demanded the exertion of all forces, unity, and a rigid guiding principle. This beginning could only be the grand ducal power, ready to act firmly, resolutely, recklessly, even despotically. The princes relied on their servants - the military in the first place - and paid them off with land transferred to conditional possession (the nobility, the estate system, serfdom would later grow out of these servants and this land ownership).

The prerequisites for unification include the presence of a single church organization, a common faith - Orthodoxy, language, the historical memory of the people, who kept memories of the lost unity and the "bright bright and beautifully decorated" Russian Land.

Why did Moscow become the center of the association? Objectively, two “young” cities, Moscow and Tver, had approximately equal chances to lead the process of unification of Russian lands. They were located in the north-east of Russia, relatively far from the borders with the Horde (and from the borders with Lithuania, Poland, Livonia) and therefore were protected from sudden attacks. Moscow and Tver stood on the lands where, after the Batu invasion, the population of Vladimir, Ryazan, Rostov and other principalities fled, where demographic growth was observed. Important trade routes passed through both principalities, and they knew how to take advantage of their location. The outcome of the struggle between Moscow and Tver was therefore determined by the personal qualities of their rulers. Moscow princes in this sense surpassed Tver competitors. They weren't outstanding. statesmen, but the ~V4ine of others knew how to adapt to the character and juvia of their time.” To them, “people are not large. , had to "do great things", the mode of their actions "was based not on the legends of antiquity, but on a prudent consideration of the circumstances of the current moment." “Flexible, quick-witted businessmen”, “peaceful masters”, “hoarding, thrifty organizers of their lot” - this is how V. O. Klyuchevsky saw the first Moscow princes.

Association stages. The process of creating a unified Russian state took a long period from the end of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century. until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century.

Late XIII - first half of the XIV century:

The formation of the Moscow principality under Prince Daniil Alexandrovich (end of the 13th century) and its territorial growth (Pereslavl, Mozhaisk, Kolomna), the beginning of rivalry with Tver for a shortcut to the great Vladimir reign and the first success of Moscow (1318, the assassination of Prince Mikhail of Tver in the Horde and the transfer of the label to the Moscow prince Yuri, who owned it until 1325);

The reign of Ivan Danilovich Kalita (Kalita is a big wallet; the origin of the prince's nickname is connected not so much with his stinginess, but with the fact that he was famous for his generosity in distributing alms to the poor). Ivan Kalita took part in the punitive campaign of the Mongol-Tatars against Tver, whose population rebelled in 1327 and killed the Khan's Baskak Cholkhan. The result was the weakening of Tver and the acquisition by Moscow of a label for a great reign (since 1328). Ivan Kalita convinced Metropolitan Peter to move his residence from Vladimir to Moscow. From that moment on, the Orthodox Church firmly supported the Moscow princes in their efforts to unite the country. Kalita managed to accumulate considerable funds, which were spent on buying up new lands and on strengthening the military power of the principality. Relations between Moscow and the Horde were built during this period on the same basis - with the correction of tribute payments, frequent visits to the Khan's capital, with ostentatious humility and readiness to serve. Ivan Kalita managed to save his principality from new invasions. “Forty years of great silence,” according to Klyuchevsky, allowed two generations to be born and grow up, “on whose nerves the impressions of childhood did not instill the unaccountable horror of grandfathers and fathers before the Tatar: they went out to Kulikovo Field.”

Second half of the 14th century In the 60-70s. 14th century Prince Dmitry, the grandson of Ivan Kalita, managed to solve a number of long-standing and very important problems in favor of Moscow. Firstly, the claims of neighboring princes to a great reign were repulsed. The label remained in Moscow. Secondly, it was possible to avert the military threat from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, whose ruler, Prince Olgerd, actively participated in domestic Russian politics and organized three campaigns against Moscow. Thirdly - and this is especially important - Moscow has achieved a decisive advantage over its traditional rival, the Tver Principality. Twice (in 1371 and 1375) Prince Mikhail of Tver received a label in the Horde for a great reign, and twice Prince Dmitry refused to recognize him as a Grand Duke. In 1375, Moscow organized a campaign against Tver, in which almost all the princes of North-Eastern Russia took part. Mikhail was forced to recognize the seniority of the Moscow prince and abandon the label for a great reign. Fourthly, for the first time in more than a century, the Moscow prince felt strong enough to go into open conflict with the Horde, to challenge it, relying on the support of the majority of Russian principalities and lands.

In the same years, the Golden Horde was going through processes of crushing and disintegration. Khans changed on the throne with fantastic frequency, the rulers of the isolated "hordes" sought their fortune in predatory raids on Russia. Moscow provided support to neighboring principalities in repelling aggression. The battle on the Vozha River in 1378 gained particular fame. The army of Murza Begich, which invaded the Ryazan land, was defeated by the Moscow detachment, commanded by Prince Dmitry.

An event of great historical importance was the victory of the Russian army (princely squads of almost all the lands of North-Eastern Russia were represented in it, only Ryazan and Novgorod detachments did not come) in 1380. on the Kulikovo field over the army of the Tatar temnik Mamai.

The reasons for the victory in the battle, which apparently lasted more than ten hours, are generally understandable: Dmitry showed undeniable military leadership skills (gathering troops in Kolomna, choosing a battle site, disposition of troops, actions of an ambush regiment, etc.). The Russian soldiers fought bravely. There was no agreement in the Horde ranks. But the following are recognized as the main factors of victory: for the first time, a single Russian army fought on the Kulikovo field, made up of squads from almost all Russian lands, under the unified command of the Moscow prince; Russian soldiers were seized by that spiritual upsurge, which, according to L. N. Tolstoy, makes victory inevitable: "The battle is won by the one who firmly decided to win it." The Battle of Kulikovo brought the honorary nickname Donskoy to Prince Dmitry of Moscow. The victory was difficult. The bitterness of the battle lives on in the words of a contemporary: “O bitter hour! Oh, the time of blood is filled!

The significance of the victory on the Kulikovo field is enormous: Moscow has strengthened its role as the unifier of the Russian lands, their leader; in relations between Russia and the Horde, a turning point occurred (the yoke will be lifted in 100 years, in 1382 Khan Tokhtamysh will burn Moscow, but the decisive step towards liberation was taken on August 8, 1380); the amount of tribute that Russia now paid to the Horde has significantly decreased; The Horde continued to weaken, from the blow received in the Battle of Kulikovo, she never managed to recover. The Battle of Kulikovo became an important stage in the spiritual and moral revival of Russia, the formation of its national identity.

First half of the 15th century The main event of this stage was the feudal war of 1425-1453. between the Moscow prince Vasily II the Dark and the coalition of specific princes, which was headed by his uncle Yuri, and after the death of Yuri, his second cousins Vasily Kosoy and Ivan Shemyaka. The long turmoil ended with the victory of the Moscow prince.

The second half of the XIV - the beginning of the XV century. The final stage of the unification process is associated with the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and the first years of the reign of his son Vasily III (1505-1533):

The collection of Russian lands around Moscow was basically completed. Novgorod (1477), Tver (1485), Pskov (1510), Ryazan (1521), Smolensk (1514) were annexed to Moscow;

- "Standing on the Ugra" (1480) ended the struggle of Russia for liberation from the two hundred and forty-year-old Mongol yoke. For more than two months, the Russian army of Ivan III and the Tatar army of Khan Akhmat stood on different banks of the Oka tributary of the Ugra River. Akhmat did not dare to join the battle and withdrew his troops, recognizing, in essence, the independence of Russia;

The process of forming a unified Russian state was also completed. Ivan III took the title of "Grand Duke of Moscow and All Russia", marriage to the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleolog and the fall of Constantinople under the blows of the Ottoman Turks (1453) gave him reason to accept the Byzantine double-headed eagle as the coat of arms of the Russian state (adding the coat of arms of the Moscow principality to it - - George the Victorious - symbolized the role of Moscow as the capital of the state). Gradually, the system of government bodies also took shape: the Boyar Duma (a council of the nobility under the Grand Duke), the Treasury (the central administrative body, from which the central government bodies - orders were later separated; the concept of "order" was first used in 1512), Palaces (bodies management of the newly annexed territories). The country was divided into counties (ruled by governors), volosts and camps (ruled by volosts). The governors and volostels lived at the expense of feeding - dues from the local population. In 1497, the Sudebnik was adopted - the first legislative act of the unified Russian state. In particular, it contained a new norm on a single period for the transition of peasants from one landowner to another (two weeks before and after November 26 - St. George's Day). From the end of the XV century. the new term "Russia" was used more and more widely.

Moscow Russia in the era of Ivan the Terrible

Ivan IV the Terrible came to the throne as a three-year-old boy (1533). At the age of seventeen (1547), for the first time in Russian history, having been married to the kingdom, he began to rule independently. In June of the same year, a grandiose fire burned down almost all of Moscow; the rebellious townspeople came to the tsar in the village of Vorobyevo with a demand to punish the guilty. “Fear entered my soul and trembling into my bones,” Ivan wrote later. Meanwhile, a lot was expected from the tsar: the years of his early childhood, especially after the death of his mother, Elena Glinskaya, passed in a difficult atmosphere of enmity between boyar groups, conspiracies and secret murders. Life has given him difficult challenges. The process of creating a unified Russian state has basically been completed. It was necessary to centralize it - to create a unified system of central and local governments, to approve a single legislation and courts, troops and taxes, to overcome the differences inherited from the past between individual regions of the country. It was necessary to carry out important foreign policy measures aimed at ensuring the security of the southern, eastern and western borders of Russia.

The first period of the reign of Ivan IV - until the end of the 50s. - passed under the sign of the activities of the Chosen Rada, the circle of the closest advisers and like-minded tsar - the Kostroma landowner A. Adashev, Prince A. Kurbsky, Metropolitan Macarius, Archpriest Sylvester, clerk I. Viskovaty and others. The direction of the transformations was determined by the desire for centralization, and their spirit - convocation in 1549. the first body in Russian history representing various social strata (boyars, clergy, nobility, service people, etc.) - the Zemsky Sobor. Historians call the cathedral of 1549 the "cathedral of reconciliation": the boyars swore to obey the tsar in everything, the tsar promised to forget past grievances. Until the end of the 50s. the following reforms were carried out: a new Code of Laws (1550) was adopted, designed to become the basis of a unified legal system in the country; feeding was canceled (the order in which the boyars-governors lived at the expense of funds collected in their favor from subject territories); the state administration system gained harmony through orders - central authorities executive power (Discharge, Posolsky, Streletsky, Petition, etc.); localism was limited (the principle of holding positions according to the nobility of origin); a streltsy army was created, armed with firearms; the "Code of Service" was adopted, which strengthened the local noble army; the order of taxation has been changed - a unit of taxation (“plow”) and the amount of duties levied from it (“tax”) have been established. In 1551, the Church Council adopted the "Stoglav" - a document that regulated the activities of the church and was aimed at unifying (establishing unity) rites.

The success of reform efforts was reinforced by foreign policy successes. In 1552 Kazan was conquered, and in 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate. At the end of the 50s. the Nogai Horde recognized its dependence. Significant territorial growth (almost twice), the security of the eastern borders, the prerequisites for further advancement in the Urals and Siberia were important achievements of Ivan IV and the Chosen One.

From the end of the 1950s, however, the tsar's attitude towards the plans of his advisers and towards them personally changed. In 1560, cooling took the form of enmity. The reasons can only be guessed at. Ivan IV dreamed of true "autocracy", the influence and authority of his associates, who had and, moreover, defended their own opinion, annoyed him. Disagreements on the question of the Livonian War were the last straw that overflowed the cup: in 1558 war was declared on the Livonian Order, which owned the Baltic lands. At first, everything went well, the order collapsed, but its lands went to Lithuania, Poland and Sweden, with which Russia had to fight until 1583. By the mid-60s. the difficulties of the outbreak of the war were clearly revealed, the military situation was not in favor of Russia. In 1565, Ivan the Terrible left Moscow for Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, demanded the execution of traitors and announced the establishment of a special inheritance - the oprichnina (from the word "oprich" - outside, except). This is how it started new era in the history of his reign - bloody and cruel. The country was divided into oprichnina and zemshchina, with their own Boyar Dumas, capitals, and troops. Power, moreover, uncontrolled, remained in the hands of Ivan the Terrible. An important feature of the oprichnina is terror, which fell upon the ancient boyar families (Prince Vladimir Staritsky), and against the clergy (Metropolitan Philip, Archimandrite German), and against the nobles, and against the cities (pogrom in Novgorod in the winter of 1569/70, terror in Moscow in the summer of 1570). In the summer of 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey burned Moscow: the oprichnina army, which was mad in robberies and robbery, showed complete military failure. On the next year Ivan the Terrible abolished the oprichnina and even forbade the use of this word in the future.

Historians have long and fiercely argued about the reasons for the oprichnina. Some tend to see in it the embodiment of the delusional fantasies of the mentally ill tsar, others, reproaching Ivan IV for using the wrong means, highly appreciate the oprichnina as a form of struggle against the boyars who opposed centralization, others admire both the means and the goals of the oprichnina terror. Most likely, the oprichnina was a policy of terror aimed at establishing what Ivan the Terrible himself called autocracy. “And we have always been free to favor our serfs, we were also free to execute,” he wrote to Prince Kurbsky, by serfs he meant subjects.

The consequences of the oprichnina are tragic. The Livonian War, despite the desperate efforts of the tsar, the courage of the soldiers (for example, during the defense of Pskov in 1581), ended in the loss of all conquests in Livonia and Belarus (Yam-Zapolsky truce with Poland in 1582 and Plyussky peace with Sweden in 1583) . Oprichnina weakened the military power of Russia. The country's economy was devastated, in order to keep the peasants who fled from violence and unbearable taxes, laws on reserved years were adopted, abolishing the St. George's Day rule and forbidding peasants to change their masters. Having killed his eldest son with his own hand, the autocrat doomed the country to a dynastic crisis, which came in 1598 after the death of his heir, Tsar Fedor, who ascended his father's throne in 1584. The Troubles of the beginning of the 17th century. considered a distant but direct consequence of the oprichnina.

Russia at the end of the XVI - early XVI 1st century Time of Troubles and its consequences

Late 16th - early 17th centuries - the time of the Time of Troubles, the most severe political, social, spiritual, moral crisis that engulfed Russian society and brought it to the brink of collapse.

The most significant causes of the Time of Troubles are associated with the tragic consequences of the oprichnina and the Livonian War: the ruin of the economy, the growth of social tension, the dull unrest of almost all segments of the population. The Russian historian S. F. Platonov found the exact words to describe the mood that arose in the country: “There was not a single social group that was satisfied with the course of affairs ... Everything was shocked ... everything lost its stability.” The reign of Ivan the Terrible's son Fyodor Ioannovich (1584-1598) did not change the situation for the better: the tsar was sickly and weak, he could not contain the enmity of the boyar groups. The death in Uglich of the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible Dmitry in 1591 (according to many, the actual ruler of the country, Boris Godunov, was stabbed to death by henchmen) deprived the throne of the last legitimate heir from the Rurik dynasty. Fyodor Ioannovich (1598), who died childless, was its last representative. The Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov (1598-1605) as tsar, who ruled vigorously and, according to historians, wisely. But he failed to stop the intrigues of the disgruntled boyars. Rumors about the involvement of the king in the murder of Dmitry excited the country. The most severe crop failure of 1601-1603. and the resulting famine made the explosion of social discontent inevitable.

External reasons were added to internal ones: the neighboring Rzeczpospolita was in a hurry to take advantage of the growing weakness of Russia. The appearance in Poland of a young Galich nobleman, a monk of the Kremlin Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepyev, who declared himself “Tsarevich Dmitry, who miraculously escaped”, was a real gift for King Sigismund III and many magnates. At the end of 1604, having converted to Catholicism, having achieved the tacit support of Sigismund III, with the help of the Polish magnate Mnishek (whose daughter Marina was declared his bride), False Dmitry entered the southern regions of Russia. The confusion has begun. Her main events are listed below. The end of 1604 - May 1606: many cities of southern Russia go over to the side of the impostor, he is supported by Cossack detachments and thousands of disgruntled peasants. In April 1605, Boris Godunov suddenly died, and the boyars did not recognize his son Fyodor as king; the army under the command of the tsarist governor Basmanov and Golitsyn goes over to the side of False Dmitry, Fedor and his mother are strangled. In June, the impostor becomes Tsar Dmitry I. further fate was predetermined: he could not fulfill the promises given to the Poles (convert Russia to Catholicism, give Poland significant territories). The boyars no longer needed Otrepyev. On May 17, 1606, dissatisfied with the arrogance of the Poles, who had come to the wedding of False Dmitry and Marina Mnishek, and even the wedding itself, which presented the royal crown to a Catholic, the boyars revolted. Grigory Otrepyev is killed.

May 1606-1610: the boyar Vasily Shuisky is “shouted out” as the tsar, who gives a crucifixion note with a promise to rule together with the Boyar Duma, not to impose disgrace and not to execute without trial. Again, rumors are spreading about a new miraculous rescue of Dmitry. In the summer of 1606, an uprising broke out in Putivl, which was joined by very different sections of the population - peasants, townspeople, archers, nobles. The uprising is led by a runaway military serf Ivan Bolotnikov. The rebels reach Moscow, besiege it, but are defeated (one of the reasons is the defection to the side of the king of the nobility, led by the Ryazan governor Prokopy Lyapunov). Bolotnikov with his loyal supporters retreats to Tula and resists the tsarist regiments for several months. In the summer of 1607, the rebels surrendered, Bolotnikov was captured, exiled to Kargopol and killed there.

Meanwhile, the confusion is growing. A new impostor False Dmitry II appears (there is no exact information about who he was), the surviving participants in the Bolotnikov uprising, the Cossacks led by Ivan Zarutsky, and Polish detachments unite around him. Recognizes the impostor of her husband and Marina Mnishek. Since June 1608, False Dmitry II settles in the village of Tushino near Moscow (hence his nickname - “Tushinsky Thief”) and besieges Moscow. The turmoil leads to the actual split of the country: two kings, two Boyar Dumas, two patriarchs (Germogene in Moscow and Filaret in Tushino), territories that recognize the authority of False Dmitry II, and territories that remain loyal to Shuisky.

The successes of the Tushinites forced Shuisky in February 1609 to conclude an agreement with Sweden, which was hostile to Poland. In exchange for the Russian fortress of Korela, the tsar receives military assistance, the Russian-Swedish army liberates a number of cities in the north of the country. But the participation of the Swedish corps in the Russian events gives the Polish king Sigismund III a reason to start an open intervention: in the fall of 1609, Polish troops besiege Smolensk. Meanwhile, the actions of the Tushins (siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, robberies, looting) deprive False Dmitry II of the support of the population. The impostor flees from Tushin, and the Tushinians who left him conclude at the beginning of 1610. an agreement with the Polish king on the election of the eldest son of the prince Vladislav to the Russian throne. The Poles, having inflicted a crushing defeat on the tsarist army near the village of Klushino, are rapidly approaching Moscow. In July 1610 the boyars force Vasily Shuisky to renounce the throne and announce that power is transferred to the government of seven boyars - the Seven Boyars.

Seven Boyars in August 1610 signs an agreement with Sigismund III on the election of Vladislav as king, provided that he accepts Orthodoxy. In September, Polish troops enter Moscow.

1611-1612: The Troubles are not overcome, the Seven Boyars have no real power, Vladislav refuses to fulfill the terms of the contract and accept Orthodoxy. Patriotic sentiments are growing, calls are intensifying for an end to strife and the restoration of unity. The center of attraction for patriotic forces is the Moscow Patriarch Hermogenes, who calls for a fight against the interventionists.

In 1611, the First Militia was created. Noble detachments of P. Lyapunov, Cossacks D. Trubetskoy and I. Zarutsky, former Tushino people take part in it. A temporary body of power is established - the Council of All the Earth. But it is not possible to liberate Moscow. The contradictions between the nobles and the Cossacks lead to a conflict between the leaders of the militia - Zarutsky and Lyapunov. In July 1611, Lyapunov was killed by the Cossacks. The first militia breaks up.

Meanwhile, the Poles manage to capture Smolensk after a two-year siege, the Swedes occupy Novgorod. In the autumn of 1611, on the initiative of the merchant headman of Nizhny Novgorod, Kuzma Minin, the Second Militia was created, headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In August 1612 militia approaches Moscow, in October the Polish garrison capitulates.

1613-1618: In January 1613, the Zemsky Sobor, one of the most representative in the history of this authority, is convened to elect a new tsar. Of the many candidates, the Cathedral chooses 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, a representative of an old and popular boyar family among various segments of the population, with whom hopes are associated for a return to order, peace and antiquity. The beginning of a new dynasty of Russian tsars was laid. The main forces are thrown at stopping the Troubles, eradicating robbery and robbery, restoring the normal functioning of the state apparatus. In 1617 Stolbovsky peace was signed with Sweden, which received the fortress of Korela and the coast of the Gulf of Finland. In 1618, the Deulino truce was concluded with Poland: Russia cedes Smolensk, Chernigov and a number of other cities.

The long and severe crisis was finally resolved. According to many historians, the Time of Troubles was the first civil war in the history of Russia.

Palace coups in Russia in the middle of the 18th century.

The time after the death of Peter I is called the era of palace coups. From 1725 to 1761, Peter's widow Catherine I (1725-1727), his grandson Peter II (1727-1730), his niece Anna Ioannovna Duchess of Courland (1730-1740) and her sister's grandson baby Ivan Antonovich (1740-1741), his daughter Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761). This list is closed by the successor of Elizabeth Petrovna, the paternal grandson of the Swedish King Charles XII and the maternal grandson of Peter I, Duke of Holstein Peter III. “These people had neither the strength nor the desire to continue or destroy the work of Peter; they could only spoil it ”(V. O. Klyuchevsky).

Almost each of these rulers came to the throne as a result of a palace intrigue or a palace coup. Peter I died without naming an heir (he had to do this according to his own decree of 1722, which left the issue of succession to the decision of the ruling monarch). Catherine I became empress at the behest of the guards, who supported A.D. Menshikov and rejected the proposals of the old well-born aristocracy, grouped around Prince D.M. Golitsyn and the Dolgorukov brothers. After the death of Catherine and the accession to the throne of Peter II, supported by Menshikov, the finest hour of the Dolgorukovs came. The "semi-power ruler" was arrested, deprived of wealth and titles, exiled to Berezov. Created by him in 1726, the Supreme Privy Council ended up in the hands of the Dolgorukovs and Golitsyns. The sudden death of fifteen-year-old Peter II gave the leaders a chance to fulfill their old dream: to put the autocrat under the control of the aristocracy, not only in fact (as under Peter II), but also legally. That is why they opted for the Duchess of Courland Anna, the daughter of Peter I's half-brother Ivan. She was asked to sign the terms: the new queen was ordered to rule jointly with the Supreme Privy Council, not daring to start a war without his consent, make peace, impose taxes, not grant new lands, not promote to the highest military and court ranks. Punishment for non-fulfillment of the conditions was deprivation of the throne. Anna Ioannovna signed the conditions, but, having arrived in Moscow and sorted out the moods of the nobility (“instead of one, they composed a crowd of sovereigns”), they tore them up and announced her intention to rule autocratically. The ten-year reign of Anna Ioannovna is usually defined by the concept of "Bironism" (on behalf of her favorite of the Courland German E.I. Biron). The dominance of the Germans in the highest government positions resented the Russian nobility. The Cabinet of Ministers, created instead of the banned Supreme Privy Council, brought confusion into the activities of state institutions. The Secret Chancellery - the main organ of political investigation - worked hard and cruelly, encouraging denunciations and tortured to obtain confessions in non-existent conspiracies. The execution of A.P. Volynsky, an experienced courtier who rallied around him those dissatisfied with the "German arbitrariness."

Russia in the 19th century

1. When was the Patriotic War?

The Patriotic War was in 1812.

2. What is the name of the biggest battle Patriotic War?

Battle of Borodino.

3. Who won the Patriotic War?

Russian victory; almost complete destruction of Napoleon's army.

4. Who was the commander-in-chief of the Russian army during the war years?

Kutuzov M.I.

5. Who are the Decembrists?

Russian revolutionaries who raised an uprising in December 1825 against the autocracy and serfdom.

6. When was serfdom abolished in Russia?

The abolition of serfdom took place in 1861.

7. At what Russian emperor abolished serfdom?

under Alexander II.

8. When did Central Asia join Russia?

In 1880.

9. Who was A.S. Pushkin?

A.S. Pushkin is a Russian poet, playwright and prose writer.

10. Which Russian scientist discovered the periodic law of chemical elements in the second half of the 19th century?

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev.

11. Who was Leo Tolstoy?

Russian writer and thinker, revered as one of the world's greatest writers. Member of the defense of Sevastopol.

12. Who was P.I. Tchaikovsky?

Russian composer, conductor, teacher, musical and public figure, music journalist.

13. Who was F.M. Dostoevsky?

Great Russian writer, thinker, philosopher and publicist. Dostoevsky is a classic of Russian literature and one of the world's best novelists.

Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century

1. What major religions were represented in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century?

The main religions represented in Russia are Christianity (mainly Orthodoxy, but also Catholics and Protestants), as well as Islam and Buddhism.

2. Representatives of what religion made up the majority of the population of the Russian Empire?

The predominant religion of the Russian Empire was Orthodoxy.

3. When did the First Russian Revolution take place?

In 1905.

4. What was the main result of the First Russian revolution?

New government bodies- the beginning of the development of parliamentarism; some limitation of autocracy; democratic freedoms were introduced, censorship was abolished, trade unions and legal political parties were allowed; the bourgeoisie got the opportunity to participate in the political life of the country; the situation of workers has improved, wages have been raised, the working day has decreased to 9-10 hours; redemption payments of peasants were canceled, their freedom of movement was expanded; limited the power of zemstvo chiefs.

5. Who was the leader of the Bolshevik Party?

Lenin Vladimir Ilyich.

6. When was the First World War?

7. Who was A.P. Chekhov?

A.P. Chekhov is a Russian writer, a universally recognized classic of world literature. Doctor by profession. Honorary Academician of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in the category of fine literature. One of the most famous playwrights in the world.

8. What was the name of the Russian scientist and inventor of radio?

Popov Alexander Stepanovich.

9. What is the name of the theater in Moscow, famous all over the world for its performances of opera and ballet?

Attention! The session is approaching, and, accordingly, tests and exams in history. In this material, I publish questions that will be presented to students in the test. The same questions, divided into tickets (2 questions each) will be at the exams in those groups where the final tests in history are provided in the form of an oral exam.

Good luck to all!

History questions:

Human Origins. Paleolithic people. Sources of knowledge about ancient man. Problems of anthropogenesis. Ancient species of man. The emergence of modern man. Paleolithic. Living conditions and occupations of primitive people. Social relations. Ancestral community. Achievements of the people of the Paleolithic. Reasons for the birth and features of primitive religion and art.
Neolithic revolution and its consequences. The concept of "Neolithic revolution". Causes of the Neolithic Revolution. The origin of the producing economy, the emergence of agriculture and animal husbandry. The emergence of crafts and trade. The evolution of social relations, increasing inequality. Neighborhood community. Tribes and alliances of tribes. Strengthening the power of leaders. The emergence of elements of statehood. Ancient cities.
The oldest states - Mesopotamia. States of Sumer and Akkad. Babylonian kingdom and Assyria. Political and social structure of the states of Ancient Mesopotamia.
Ancient states - Egypt. The origin of the Egyptian civilization. ancient kingdom. Middle Kingdom. New kingdom.
The oldest states - India. Origin of ancient Indian civilization. Periodization of the High culture of ancient India. Cultural and religious structure of ancient India.
The oldest states are China. Formation of the State in Ancient China. Reforms of the Shang, Zhou, Qin dynasties. The development of technology, writing and philosophy in ancient China.
Ancient Greece. The origin and division of the polis world. Empire of Alexander the Great. Stages cultural development Ancient Greece.
Ancient Rome. Formation of the Roman Republic. Rome's pursuit of world domination. The rise of the monarchy in Rome.
The great migration of peoples and the formation of barbarian kingdoms in Europe. Empire of Charlemagne and its collapse
The rise of Islam. Arab conquests. Arabs. Muhammad and his teachings. The rise of Islam. Fundamentals of the Muslim faith. Formation of the Arab Caliphate. Arab conquests.
Feudal fragmentation in Europe. The main features of Western European feudalism. Feudalism: concept, main features. Feudal landownership, vassal relations. The structure and estates of medieval society.
Medieval Western European city. communal revolutions. Cities of the Middle Ages, the reasons for their occurrence. Development of crafts and trade. Communes and lords. city republics. Artisans and workshops. social movements. Significance of medieval cities.
Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. Crusades. Christian division of churches, Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Cluniac reform, monastic orders. The struggle of popes and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. The Crusades and their consequences. Heresies in the Middle Ages: the causes of their occurrence and spread.
The emergence of centralized states in Europe. Strengthening royal power. Creation of estate representation bodies. The Hundred Years' War, peasant uprisings and national identity. Feudal fragmentation in Central Europe.
Medieval culture of Western Europe. The beginning of the Renaissance of humanism in Western Europe. The invention of printing and the consequences of this event. Humanism. Beginning of the Renaissance (Renaissance).
Formation of the Old Russian state. Baptism of Russia and its meaning. Society of Ancient Russia. East Slavs: origin, resettlement, occupation, social structure. Prerequisites and reasons for the formation of the Old Russian state. Varangian problem. Formation of princely power. The first Russian princes, their domestic and foreign policy.
Fragmentation in Russia. Political fragmentation: causes and consequences. The largest independent centers of Russia, features of their geographical, socio-political and cultural development. Novgorod land. Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
Mongol conquest and its aftermath. Mongol invasion. Battle on Kalka. Mongols' campaign against North-Western Russia. Campaigns of the Mongolian troops in South-Western Russia and the countries of Central Europe. Significance of Russia's opposition to the Mongol conquest. Russia's struggle against expansion from the West. Alexander Yaroslavich. Neva battle. Battle on the Ice. Dependence of Russian lands on the Horde and its consequences.
The beginning of the rise of Moscow. Formation of a unified Russian state. Moscow princes and their politics. Dmitry Donskoy. Battle of Kulikovo, its meaning. Russia under the successors of Dmitry Donskoy. Relations between Moscow and the Horde, Moscow and Lithuania. Feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century, its results. Ivan III. Annexation of Novgorod. Completion of the unification of Russian lands. Termination of Russia's dependence on the Golden Horde. Strengthening of the princely power. Sudebnik of 1497.
New time. Economic development and changes in Western European society. The origin of early capitalist relations. Manufactory. Revolutions in shipbuilding and military affairs. Improving firearms. Development of trade and commodity-money relations.
Great geographical discoveries. Formation of colonial empires. Prerequisites Great geographical discoveries.. The search for a way to India and the discovery of the New World. Sections of spheres of influence and the beginning of the formation of the colonial system. Spanish and Portuguese colonies in America. Political, economic and cultural consequences of the Great geographical discoveries.
Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The concept of Protestantism. Martin Luther. Reformation in Germany, Lutheranism. Religious Wars. Features of the process of the Reformation in the states of Europe. Religious Wars.
The rise of absolutism European countries. Reasons for the formation of absolutism and the crisis of feudalism. The main features of European absolutism. English bourgeois revolution. Causes and beginning of the revolution in England. Democratic currents in the revolution. Republic proclamation. O. Cromwell's protectorate. Restoration of the monarchy. Results, character and significance of the English Revolution. "Glorious Revolution".
Oriental countries in the 16th-18th centuries and the colonial expansion of Europeans. Colonial conquests of England, Holland and France. colonial rivalry. The formation of the colonial system. Colonists and local population. The value of the colonies for the development of the countries of Western Europe.
Russia under Ivan the Terrible. Ivan IV. Elected Rada. Reforms of the 1550s and their significance. The formation of the command system. Strengthening the army. Accession of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, conquest of Western Siberia. Livonian war, its results and consequences. Oprichnina. Enslavement of the peasants.
Time of Troubles at the Beginning of the 17th Century. The reign of B. Godunov. Troubles: causes, participants, consequences. Impostors. The uprising led by I. Bolotnikov. The intervention of the Commonwealth and Sweden in the Time of Troubles. The militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky. Liberation of Moscow. The beginning of the reign of the Romanov dynasty.
The rise of absolutism in Russia. Foreign policy Russia in the seventeenth century. Popular movements. Economic consequences of the Troubles. Restoration of the economy. New phenomena in the country's economy. The uprising led by S. T. Razin.
The Age of Enlightenment. enlightened absolutism. Enlightenment: era and ideology. Voltaire, C. Montesquieu, J. J. Rousseau. Representatives and politics of enlightened absolutism.
The War of Independence and the Formation of the United States. Causes of the struggle of the English colonies in North America for independence. The beginning of the liberation movement. US Declaration of Independence. US education.
French Revolution at the end of the 18th century. Background and causes of the revolution. The beginning of the revolution. The beginning of the revolutionary wars. The overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic. Jacobin dictatorship. Terror. Fall of the Jacobins. Establishment of the power of Napoleon Bonaparte. results of the revolution.
Russia in the era of Peter's reforms. The beginning of the reign of Peter I. The reign of Princess Sophia. Azov campaigns. Great Embassy. First transformations. Northern war: causes, main events, results. Significance of the Poltava battle. Proclamation of Russia as an empire. State reforms of Peter I. Reorganization of the army. Public administration reforms (establishment of the Senate, collegiums, provincial reform, etc.). Table of ranks.
Russia in 1725 - 1801. The era of palace coups. Palace coups: causes, essence, consequences. Domestic and foreign policy of the successors of Peter I.
Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the middle - second half of the XVIII century. Popular movements. Russia in the Seven Years' War. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. Peasant war E. Pugacheva. Russian-Turkish wars. Partitions of Poland
The industrial revolution and its aftermath. Major inventions. Technological revolution in industry. From manufactory to factory. Machine production. The emergence of new modes of transport and means of communication. The economic development of England in the nineteenth century. Monopolies and their forms.
International relations in the era of the industrial revolution. Political development of the countries of Europe and America in the era of the industrial revolution.
Russia's domestic and foreign policy in early XIX century. Economic development and social structure of the Russian Empire. Reforms of Alexander I. Patriotic War of 1812. Foreign campaign of the Russian army.
Decembrist movement. Government reaction and the formation of constitutional ideas in Russia. The evolution of secret noble societies. The course and results of the uprising.
Domestic policy of Nicholas I. The reign of Nicholas I. Codification of laws. Reform of the management of state peasants P. D. Kiseleva. The beginning of the industrial revolution, its economic and social consequences. Financial reform E. F. Kankrina. The theory of official nationality.
Social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. Slavophiles and Westernizers. Revolutionary socialist currents (A. I. Herzen, N. P. Ogarev, V. G. Belinsky). Society of Petrashevists.
Foreign policy of Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. Crimean War. Eastern question. Caucasian war. The Crimean War of 1853-1856: causes, stages of hostilities, results. Heroic defense of Sevastopol.
The abolition of serfdom and the reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century. Necessity and prerequisites for reforms. Plans and projects for the reorganization of Russia. Preparation of the peasant reform. Key points Peasant reform 1861 and the conditions for the liberation of the peasants. Zemstvo, city, judicial and military reform"The Constitution of M. T. Loris-Melikov".
Counter-reforms of Alexander III. Alexander III. Causes of counter-reforms, their main directions and consequences.
Social movement in the second half of the XIX century. Populists. Populist movement: ideology (M. A. Bakunin, P. L. Lavrov, P. N. Tkachev). The activities of "Land and Freedom" and " People's Will". Hunt of the Narodnaya Volya for the king. The crisis of revolutionary populism. The main ideas of liberal populism. Spread of Marxism.
Economic and political development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. The course for the modernization of industry. Economic and financial reforms(S.Yu. Witte). Overcoming the consequences of defeat in the Crimean War. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
The World at the Beginning of the 20th Century. Formation of two political blocs in Europe. Features of the socio-economic development of the largest capitalist countries. Crisis of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia on turn of XIX- XX centuries. Features of the economic development of the Russian Empire. State structure of the Russian Empire. Russo-Japanese War. Political parties and movement. Agrarian Bonapartism and P.A. Stolypin.
Revolution of 1905-1907 in Russia. The beginning of parliamentarism in Russia. Causes of the Revolution. "Bloody Sunday" and the beginning of the revolution. The development of revolutionary events and the policy of the authorities. Soviets as a form of political creativity of the masses. Manifesto October 17, 1905. Moscow uprising. Fall of the revolution. The formation of a constitutional monarchy and elements of civil society. legal political parties.
World War I. The fighting of 1914-1917. Features and participants of the war. The initial period of hostilities (August-December 1914). Eastern front and his role in the war. Successes and defeats of the Russian army. Stabilization. The main battles in Europe in 1915-1917. Brusilovsky breakthrough and its significance. US entry into the war and Russia's withdrawal from it. Defeat of Germany and its allies.
Russia in 1917. February bourgeois-democratic revolution. Dual power system and crises of the provisional government. The Great October Socialist Revolution and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Civil war in Russia. Causes of the civil war, military-political camps and methods of warfare. The main stages of the war. War communism.
Europe and the USA in the 20-30s of the XX century. The economic rise of the United States in the 1920s and the beginning of the Great Depression. "New Deal" F.D. Roosevelt. Economic and political development of Great Britain. "Political swing" in France.
Non-democratic regimes in Europe in the 20-30s of the XX century. Specific traits fascism. Formation of the fascist regime in Italy. The revival of the military-industrial potential of Germany. Establishment of the Nazi dictatorship. Japan's political plans.
New economic policy in Soviet Russia. Education of the USSR. Economic and political crisis. Transition to a new economic policy. The essence of the NEP. Achievements and contradictions of the NEP, the reasons for its curtailment. Formation of the USSR: prerequisites for the unification of the republics, alternative projects and practical solutions.
Industrialization and collectivization in the USSR. Industrialization dispute. Beginning of industrialization. Industrialization: goals, methods, economic and social results and consequences. The first five-year plans: tasks and results. . Collectivization of agriculture: forms, methods, economic and social consequences.
The Soviet State and Society in the 1920s-1930s. Intraparty struggle. Formation of Stalin's personality cult. Manifestations of the command-administrative system. Features of the repressions of the 30s.
The world on the eve of World War II. Escalation of conflicts in Asia. Problems collective security in Europe. Civil War in Spain. Munich agreement. Soviet-German relations on the eve of World War II. "Winter (Soviet-Finnish) War"
First period of World War II. "Strange War" Causes, participants and goals of World War II. Attack on Poland. Attack on Norway and France. Air war against England. military action in North Africa. Capture of Yugoslavia, Greece and about. Crete.
The initial period of the Great Patriotic War (1941 - 1942). The goals of the parties, the balance of power. The main battles and their results at the first stage of the war (June 22, 1941 - November 1941). Moscow Battle and its historical significance. The activities of the Soviet leadership in organizing the defense of the country. Military campaigns of 1942-1943. The battle of Stalingrad and the beginning of a radical change in the course of the war.
The end of the Great Patriotic War (1943 - 1945). Military campaign in 1943. The Battle of Kursk and the completion of a radical change. Occupation regime and partisan movement in the USSR. Military campaigns of 1944-1945. Defeat of Germany. Soviet-Japanese war.
Post-war order of the world. Start " cold war". Arms race. "Marshall Plan", the folding of NATO, the CMEA and the Warsaw Pact.
USSR in the postwar years. Creation of atomic weapons in the USSR. Industrial recovery. Post-war society, the spiritual rise of people. Strengthening the role of the state in all spheres of society. Repression.
Leading capitalist countries in the second half of the 20th century. United States in the late 1960s and early 2000s. IV and V republics in France. "Thatcherism" in Great Britain. German and Japanese economic miracle.
Eastern European countries in the second half of the 20th century. Transition to a totalitarian model of development. Crises Soviet systems in Eastern Europe. "Prague Spring".
International relations in the second half of the XX century. The collapse of the colonial system. War in Korea. War in Vietnam. Arab-Israeli war. European integration, its causes, goals, course, consequences.
USSR in the 1950s - early 1960s. "Thaw". Changes after the death of IV Stalin. The struggle for power, the victory of N. S. Khrushchev. XX Congress of the CPSU and its significance. Contradictions in the internal political course of N. S. Khrushchev ..
USSR in the second half of the 1960s - early 1980s. "Age of Stagnation". The concept of developed socialism. Power and society. Strengthening the position of the party-state nomenklatura. Social policy, the growth of the welfare of the population.
USSR in the years of perestroika. Acceleration. Economic restructuring. political development. The collapse of the CPSU.
Formation Russian statehood. Prerequisites for the collapse of the USSR. "Parade of Sovereignties". The political crisis of August 1991. The foreign policy of the USSR in the late 80s - present. 90s Folding the territory of the Russian Federation. The choice of the form of statehood. Economic reforms 1990s

Ege without error. Historical quiz about Russia. Milestones of Russian history. Patriotic education of children and schoolchildren. Extracurricular work. open lessons. Children's and school holidays

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Similar Documents

Russia in the 19th century

Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century