What is a map by geography definition. What are the types of geographic maps

Why is it needed, what types of maps are there, and in particular, about the map of Russia and the world.

Ancient times

The wide development of the continents and the discovery of new lands began in the Middle Ages and continued until the beginning of the 20th century. The last "surrendered" to people was Antarctica, which became the grave for many researchers. But with the development of navigation and travel in general, an urgent need for maps gradually arose. After all, new lands or the path traveled had to be somehow marked for followers. The first maps were very approximate and schematic images. Due to the poor development of navigation equipment and, as a result, the low accuracy of maps, their compilers, compensating for the latter, competed in decoration. But, fortunately, cartography has reached its heights in our time, especially with the launch of thousands of satellites into orbit. So what is a map? What are they and what are they for? In this we will understand.

Definition

According to the dictionary, a geographic map is an image of the Earth's surface with a coordinate grid, respect for proportions relative to its scale and the application of conventional signs.

If we take this definition as a general one, then a map can be called a generalized, smaller image of the Earth's surface, another planet, a celestial body or space as a whole, which shows all objects in one or another system of conventional signs. we figured it out, but what is it for?

The answer is very simple - for orientation. By finding some specific objects or an array of them on the ground and doing the same on the map, you can accurately determine your location. In fact, it is absolutely impossible to do without maps in our time, even an abundance of pointers will not help, moreover, they are not everywhere.

Maps are used by tourists and geologists, captains of ships, military and civilian pilots, after all, in a big city one cannot do without guidebooks, since anyone can get lost in the interweaving of streets. Now we know what maps are. But what are their types?

Kinds

The first and most basic is geographical. It accurately shows the outlines of the continents, all proportions are observed in one scale or another and are indicated natural objects, - rivers, seas, mountains, lakes, forests, etc. But similar ones can be found not so often, and general geographical ones are more in use, on which roads, cities and other settlements.

The second type is thematic maps. They are dedicated to some one object, - natural park, forest or tourist route. Socio-political can also be attributed to this type. Their goal is not just to reliably show the area, but to display this or that state - maps of states, their natural resources, political system or population.

Map of Russia

The territory of this country ranks first in the world in terms of area. And its map itself is also large, and on all scales. It includes many natural and climatic mountains. Over the past centuries, it has changed many times due to wars and political regimes, and the map with the largest scale was created in the Soviet Union. Of course, it also includes those territories that in our time do not belong to Russia, but it is suitable for orientation.

World map

Final and complete image the globe managed to get only with the discovery of all the continents. But for a long time it was supplemented by new objects, such as islands. Now everyone can get acquainted with a map of the world, and for this you do not need to look for an atlas - high-quality satellite images are available to all Internet users.

So now we know what a map is and what it is for.

The purpose of our work is to consider the types and types of geographical maps.

The purpose of our work is to consider the types and types of geographical maps. But we will begin our article with an answer to main question: what is a geographic map? This is a way of depicting the surface of our planet, as well as natural or socio-economic phenomena.

A map is a kind of model that has the following features:

distraction from the whole;
simplification;
summary and so on.

It is also important to note that cards are used in almost all spheres of human activity.

Map classification

Before considering in detail some types of geographical maps, let's look at the way they are divided into groups. Classification is a system that connects ordered (by some criterion) all possible varieties. This systematization serves several purposes:

inventory;
storage;
Search;
scientific systematization;
compiling lists and catalogues;
creation of a data bank and cartographic information and reference systems.

As mentioned above, there are various principles division into types of geographical maps. The classification of cards according to their certain characteristics is one of them.

These signs include:

scale;
subject matter;
era of creation;
language;
design method;
edition and so on.

Any systematization must satisfy certain requirements. These include the following:

classification by essential feature;
consistent;
one level - one base;
complete;
backup system (this requirement implies the ability to include new types of cards).

Now let's move on to a more detailed consideration of the types and types of maps that currently exist.

Types and types of geographical maps

First, consider the types of maps by scale. They are divided into:

plans;
large scale;
medium scale;
small scale;
mainland;
oceans map.

It is also possible to classify territorial division, natural areas, economic regions, historical regions.

The following types of geographical maps are distinguished by content:

general geographical;
thematic;
special.

The special group includes tactile maps. They are designed specifically for blind people. This also includes: globe, atlas, relief, digital, electronic and anaglyphic maps.

If we talk about types, we can distinguish the following:

analytical cards;
complex;
synthetic.

Let's take a quick look at each type separately. A striking example of an analytical group is a map of the angle of inclination of the relief. Such cards do not aim to show general idea about the object. They isolate any one indicator and are dedicated only to him.

Complex maps include those that depict elements of a specific theme. Examples are: the image of isobars and vectors, the plowing of the territory and the yield of any crop, the water content of the river and its potential resources. Despite the fact that all elements are given each in their own number system, their joint image on one map helps to consider everything in a complex and the relationship of one indicator with another.

An example of a synthetic map: geomorphological, reflecting the type of relief, but it does not say a word about the steepness of the slopes. A few more examples: climate map, landscape, agricultural zoning, and so on. They allow you to see a holistic image of an object.

Atlases

We mentioned earlier that many types of geographical maps are contained in special atlases. They are often used by schoolchildren in geography lessons. The Atlas is not a separate map, but a whole complex of them. They, as a rule, are all interconnected with each other, which is achieved by a number of factors:

use of comparable projections;
monotonous symbols;
approximately the same scale;
the presence of general principles of design, images, and so on.

Few people know that the inventor and compiler of the first atlas is Claudius Ptolemy. The ancient Greek scholar compiled such a collection in the second century.

What does the atlas include?

general geographical map of the world and individual regions;
population and climate map;
economic and other thematic.

Topographic maps

We have already talked about what types of geographical maps are. Now we propose to consider in detail the topographic map. They are showing:

hydrography;
relief;
artificial structures (including communications and settlements).

There are topographic maps that are quite detailed, they show objects on a scale (1:50 thousand). If translated into meters and centimeters, then 1 cm of the image reflects 500 m of the real area. There are also large scales that reflect the plans of cities (you can see buildings, private houses, gardens, and so on on them).

Here we note that topographic maps are used in such sports as, for example, orienteering.

Thematic maps

Now there is little information about another type of geographical maps. In the classification of types of maps, they are called thematic. They contain completely different information:

building information earth's crust;
allocation of natural resources;
population distribution;
weather and so on.

Here we can distinguish isolinear ones containing different kinds lines (they connect to points of the same size). For example, a synoptic map - isotherms connect areas with the same temperature; isobars - with the same pressure; isohyets - with the same amount of precipitation.

Almost all thematic cards contain conditional coloring. An example is a population map (concentration and approximate number are depicted by circles of different colors). If we look at the level of crime, birth rate or population density, we can notice the coloring of certain areas. They differ not only in colors (red, blue, green), but also in the level of saturation.

Some facts about cards

We considered the types of geographical maps, but said almost nothing about their scale. But this factor matters. The scale of the map does not make it possible to indicate small elements; for this reason, only the main characteristic outlines of objects are depicted. If we take the rivers, then in fact they would need to be depicted with such small lines that they could only be seen under a microscope. The maps do not show all the bends of the rivers, the wrong thickness of some objects, and so on.

As you know, the map originated before our era. Since then, geography has consolidated the accumulated information on it. The information on the map is "recorded" in a special way. Cartographic language is a language of symbols of different shapes, sizes and colors. It allows you to convey geographical facts, descriptions, patterns in short, graphically. But this does not prevent the map from being convenient for discovery - for understanding the placement of objects in space. So maps "tell" about the structure of the earth's crust, the distribution of animals, the location of industry. Therefore, they are called the second language of geography. The language of the map is understood without translation by people who speak different languages. Any geographical exploration terrain begins with a thorough study of it on maps. That is why the geographer needs to understand them well. It is equally important for every educated person to learn how to read a map in order to be able to use it for their own needs.
It is quite difficult to define the concept of "map", primarily because maps are very diverse in types, forms, and, therefore, in their properties. They display all sorts of objects and are designed for a variety of purposes, and defining them is as difficult as, for example, defining what a book is, although it is so familiar to everyone. In modern cartography, maps are called reduced, generalized symbolic images of the Earth, other celestial bodies or the celestial sphere, built according to a mathematical law and showing the location, properties and relationships of various natural and socio-economic objects and phenomena. Such a definition is somewhat cumbersome, but nevertheless it is convenient, since it combines an indication of the main properties of the map: projection, generalization, conventional signs. This definition can be supplemented with a description of the main purpose of the cards, indicating that they serve as a means of cognition, practical activities and transmission of information.
In the definition of the map, three of its main properties are noted: mathematical certainty, generalization and sign. Let us analyze these properties in more detail and try to show what new achievements of modern cartography bring to them.
Mathematical law of construction is a way to move from the real, complex and geometrically irregular physical surface of the globe to the plane of the map. To do this, they first go to the correct mathematical figure of an ellipsoid or ball, and then unfold the image into a plane, again using strict mathematical dependencies.
In other words, each point on the globe with longitude λ and latitude φ corresponds to only one point on the map with rectangular coordinates x and at

x = f 1 (φ, λ);
y=f 2 (φ, λ)

In this case, the cartographic image must be continuous, i.e., not have gaps, which means that it is necessary to artificially compress the image in some places, and stretch it in others. It is impossible to avoid distortions, but one should strive to ensure that they are distributed on the map in the most advantageous way. For example, on the map, on which the size of land is to be estimated, there should be no distortion of areas, and on the map where the routes of ships or aircraft will be laid, directions should not be distorted. In other cases, it is desirable that distortions be minimal in the central part of the map sheet, or be adapted to the outlines of the mapped state, or remain unchanged along some directions, etc.
Since ancient times, in the development of cartographic projections, auxiliary surfaces have been used, as if projecting an image from a ball onto a cylinder, onto a cone, onto many cones, onto a plane, etc. Hence the names of the projections: cylindrical, conical, polyconic, azimuth. But the matter does not end there. Dozens of arbitrary projections have been created for which there is no such obvious geometric analogue, but they are necessary to satisfy the various requirements of map users in terms of visibility, measurements, navigation, etc.
In modern cartography, a fairly large fund of projections has been created for maps of any territorial coverage (the planet as a whole, continents and oceans, countries, etc.), for various purposes (scientific, educational, navigation and other maps), of different scales. When compiling a new map, the cartographer now rarely deals with the calculation of projections. It is enough for him to turn to special atlases, where cartographic grids of any choice are presented. Still, there are times when new projections are needed. For example, in recent decades, when interest in the study of the oceans has increased, special projections have been required in which water areas are not distorted at all or are distorted to a very small extent.
Previously, when geographers focused on the study of land, cartographic projections were built so that distortions within the continents were minimal. Sometimes they even resorted to discontinuing the image within the oceans (Fig. 3.1).

Rice. 3.1. Projection for a world map with image breaks on the oceans

Now the situation has changed, and this is reflected in the development of new map projections. On fig. 3.2. an example of an unusual projection for a map of the World Ocean is given.

Rice. 3.2. Projection for a map of the World Ocean with image breaks on the continents

It depicts water areas without distortion of areas, and this is very convenient for measuring the size of shelves, underwater ridges, and various elements of the ocean floor. But in order to achieve an equal image of the ocean, it was necessary to “sacrifice” the accuracy of the image of the continents. Their outlines are strongly distorted, torn. The map has an unusual appearance, but it is convenient for solving specific problems of marine geology, geomorphology, and oceanography.
The search for new projections or the modification of old versions is carried out analytically with the help of a computer. Currently, special programs and algorithms have been created that allow you to calculate any cartographic grid with a predetermined type of meridians and parallels, with the desired distribution of distortions. To do this, first draw approximate sketches, and then look for exact equations that describe exactly the given grid. Having debugged once the algorithm for any type of projections, it is possible to build any of their variants in the future.
About the creation of the mathematical basis of the map, one can say with good reason that now this is a "matter of technology." Such a judgment is all the more true since the drawing of the cartographic grid is also carried out by automatic coordinate recorders - drawing devices with program control.
Cartographic generalization - this is the selection on the map of the main, essential and its purposeful generalization in accordance with the scale and purpose of the map. Generalization is the most important property of the map. It is possessed by any, even the largest-scale, map, since in large scale it is impossible (and hardly necessary) to show the object with all the details and details. We have to get rid of some of them, to carry out simplifications. But generalization is not reduced only to simplification, it is also the selection of the main thing. That is why the map is different from many other images of the area, such as photographs, aerial photographs, space images.
The problems of generalization will be discussed in detail in Topic 8.
Significance of the cartographic image - this is the property that distinguishes the map from many other graphic models. Signs on the map are visually perceived elements of the image. They conditionally represent objects, phenomena and processes, show their location, qualitative and quantitative characteristics. The set of signs forms a cartographic image, and the set of images makes up a complete cartographic image.
The role of signs on the map is determined by those the functions they perform. First of all, with the help of signs, the problem is solved communication, the transfer of information between different groups of people (the task of communication). Cartographic signs allow the exchange of knowledge between specialists working in different branches of the earth and social sciences, compilers and users of maps belonging to different professional groups. Cartographic signs are international. People who speak different languages understand them without translation.
Systematic approach to displaying reality - transfer of elements and links between them. Always when drawing up a map, all objects are plotted in sequence from the main to the secondary, from the largest to the smallest.
The map also has cognitive properties, the most important of which are:
- visibility - the ability to quickly review and perceive the most important elements of the content of the map. No literary or graphic material can provide as much information as can be obtained by studying a map. For a map to be illustrative, it is necessary to carefully perform the generalization of content elements and correct selection symbols and card design
- measurability - provides the ability to use the map to solve scientific and industrial issues, make calculations and measurements;
- informative - the ability to store and transmit to the reader a variety of information about objects and phenomena. On all maps, information is transmitted using icons and their combinations. We read information from cards using conventional signs. But there is also hidden information on the map that can be extracted by reasoning logically. For example, we can determine from a map that a given settlement is located on the right bank of a river; the ridge is elongated from north to east or the road descends steeply (flat) to the river, etc.;
- readability - the visibility of the details of the elements of the cartographic image;
- reliability - the correctness of the information given by the card on a certain date;
- accuracy - the degree to which the location of points on the map corresponds to their location in reality.

How the map will be readable, visual, informative depends on the cartographer who will compile this map. He selects signs and methods of representation, decides what and how will be shown on the map, determines which objects are important for this map and which can be left out. “A map, unlike a photograph, is not a copy of the area, it is an image of reality passed through the head and hands of the cartographer” (A.M. Berlyant).

The famous Soviet geographer-cartographer K.A. Salishchev singled out main functions maps as models of reality: communicative, operational, cognitive and prognostic.
Communication, i.e. the transfer of information is carried out by means of maps when they are used as a source of information; maps also act as a repository of information.
Operational the function of maps is expressed in solving various practical problems with their help, for example, in navigation, when planning communication routes, developing plans for the development of the territory, etc.
Cognitive the function of maps is used both by specialists in various branches of science (and other activities) and by students to acquire knowledge.
predictive the function of cartographic models is carried out in identifying the direction of the future development of the phenomena studied by them.

The study of any phenomena based on the analysis and use of geographical maps is called cartographic research method I am. The development of this method is the content of a special section of cartography, which studies the use of maps for the knowledge of the phenomena depicted on them. At the same time, this is one of the main tasks of modern cartography.

3.2. ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL MAP

The elements of the map are its constituent parts, which include mathematical
base, cartographic image, auxiliary equipment and additional data (Fig. 3.3).

Rice. 3.3. Scheme of elements of a general geographical map

The mathematical framework includes the map projection and its associated grid(s), scale, and geodetic datum.
map projection - a mathematically defined way of displaying the surface of an ellipsoid on a plane.
Map grid - a network of parallels and meridians on the map.
Scale - the degree of reduction of the line on the map relative to its horizontal location on the ground.
Geodetic map base - a set of geodetic data necessary to create a map. These include a certain coordinate system and coordinates of control points defined in this system.
Geodetic base is given only on topographic maps up to a scale of 1:500,000 inclusive. On small-scale and thematic maps, the geodetic base is not shown. The layout of the map is closely related to the mathematical basis.
Map layout - this is the mutual placement within the frame of the depicted territory itself, the name of the map, legend, inset maps and other data.
cartographic image - the main part of any geographical map. Consists of a display of physical-geographical (natural) and socio-economic phenomena. So, the physiographic (natural) elements include hydrography, vegetation and soils, relief, and the socio-economic elements include settlements, communication routes, borders. All these elements are available on general geographical maps and are closely interconnected.
On thematic maps, these elements form the geographic base that serves to plot and link the thematic content elements, and the thematic content itself (for example, economics, animal world etc.) (Fig. 3.4).

Rice. 3.4. Scheme of thematic map elements

Map accessories necessary for convenient use of the map and includes cartometric graphs, materials used, schemes of knowledge, and various reference information. On any map there is a legend of conventional signs with the necessary explanations for them. For topographic maps, special mandatory tables of conventional signs have been compiled. On thematic maps, the legend is mostly printed on the map sheet itself. It can be formatted as text or as tables.
Additional information explain and supplement the content of the map. These include inset maps, charts, graphs, profiles, text data.
Accessories and additional data is needed primarily by map users, as it makes it easier to read and use them.

3.3. CLASSIFICATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL MAP

Currently, there is a huge number of different cards, the number of which is constantly growing. The increase in the number of cards is due to the introduction of new technologies and computer technology. The classification of maps is of great importance when carrying out cartographic work, as well as when using maps. The classification of maps and atlases according to various criteria is necessary for their accounting, storage, and information retrieval.
Maps can be divided according to several criteria: scale, content, purpose, area coverage, number of colors and sheets, nature of use, etc.

3.3.1. Classification of maps by scale

The division of maps by scale depends, first of all, on the size of the mapped area. And the scale, in turn, affects the content of the map and the detail of the image. There are four main groups:
1) plans - 1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000 1:500;
2) large-scale - 1:10,000, 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000 (topographic maps);
3) medium-scale - 1:200,000, 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000 (overview and topographic maps);
4) small-scale - smaller than 1:1,000,000 (survey).
V different countries there are other divisions, this is primarily due to the size of the country itself.

3.3.2. Classification of maps by territorial coverage

According to the coverage of the territory proposed by A.M. Berlyant, the cards can be divided:

solar system;
planets (Earth);
hemispheres;
continents and oceans;
countries;
republics, regions and other administrative units;
industrial, agricultural areas;
separate (local) territories (reserves, resort areas, etc.);
settlements (cities, towns);
urban areas, etc.

3.3.3. Classification of maps by content

This classification of maps distinguishes between general geographical, thematic and special.
General geographic maps - detailed maps of the area, which show the main elements of the area. The main elements of the terrain include physical and geographical (hydrography, vegetation cover and soils, relief) and socio-economic (settlements, roads and borders).
Features of the content of general geographical maps mainly depend on the scale of the map. Among them are topographic maps- detailed maps of the area, allowing you to determine the planned and high-altitude position of points. They are published in scales from 1:10,000 to 1:1,000,000 inclusive. Cards larger than 1:5,000 are called topographic plans.
Thematic maps , the main content of which is determined by the particular topic being displayed. They are subdivided:

on the cards natural phenomena(physico-geographical): geological, climatic, oceanographic, zoological, soil, etc.;
cards social phenomena(socio-economic): population maps, political, economic, historical, science and culture, etc.

Special cards are designed to solve a certain range of tasks or are designed for certain circles of users. Most often these are technical cards.
Navigation maps:
- aerospace navigation;
- marine navigation;
- pilotage;
- road, road.
Cadastral maps:
- land cadastre;
- city cadastre;
- water cadastre;
- forest cadastre, etc.
Technical cards:
- underground communications;
- engineering and construction.
Design cards:
- ameliorative;
- forest management;
- land management, etc.

3.3.4. Classification of cards by purpose

The purpose of the cards is very diverse and it is impossible to list all the areas of their application. Let us name only the main types of maps according to their purpose: scientific and reference, educational, tourist, sports, propaganda, flight, etc.
Scientific reference cards are intended for reference purposes, as well as for a deep and complete study of the features of the depicted territory. These maps display the relationships between objects and phenomena, the features of their placement. The main purpose of these cards is to conduct scientific research and solutions for them practical issues.
Learning cards intended for educational purposes. Their content must be consistent with the relevant programs and textbooks. Maps for elementary school have the most simple content, bright, colorful and visual design. Cards for universities are close in content to scientific reference cards, as a rule, they have a strict and concise design.
propaganda cards designed to illustrate political, scientific, economic and other knowledge and the rise common culture people. Most often they are made in the form of posters or diagrams.
tourist cards designed for tourists and meet the needs of tourism. They show various objects of interest to tourists - camp sites, campsites, historical monuments, catering places, etc. There are survey, automobile maps, water tourism maps, etc.
Sports cards designed for athletes and meet their needs. An orienteering athlete knows exactly where in the terrain he needs to run, as he works with detailed map terrain. For example, sports radio direction finding (“fox hunting”) is a type of competition that consists in the operational detection of radio transmitters (“foxes”) camouflaged on the ground. In order to find each of the "foxes", the athlete has a map of the search area, on which the start and finish points are plotted.
According to secondary features, cards are divided: by the number of colors - into multi-color and single-color, by the number of sheets - into multi-sheet (the number of sheets is indicated) and single-sheet, by the nature of use - wall and desktop, etc.

3.4. OTHER CARTOGRAPHIC WORKS

Cartographic images of the Earth also include topographic plans, relief maps, block diagrams, and globes. They differ from geographical maps in that instead of cartographic projections, other methods of mathematical construction are used on them.
Topographic plans - a cartographic image on a plane in an orthogonal projection on a large scale of a limited area of the terrain, within which the curvature of the level surface is not taken into account.
When depicted on a plane small area the earth's surface, the curvature of this surface can be neglected. In this case, all the lines of the site are measured on the ground, reduced to the accepted scale and applied to paper without introducing corrections for the curvature of the Earth - such a drawing is called a plan.
Atlases - systematic collections of maps, made according to the general program as integral works. In the atlas, all the maps are thematically interconnected and complement each other. This is not just a set of cards under a common binding, but a system of interconnected and complementary cards. In addition to maps, atlases contain explanatory texts, graphics, photographs, and reference data (Fig. 3.5).

Rice. 3.5. Atlas of the World

globes - rotating spherical models of the Earth, planets or celestial sphere with a cartographic image printed on them. Compared with a geographical map, the globe has a number of advantages: the dimensions, outlines, and relative position of the contours are correctly conveyed on the globe. The globe maintains the correct ratio of the areas of objects. Globes are subdivided by scale, subject (geological, historical, political), purpose (educational, reference, navigational), size (large office, desktop, small and miniature). Modern globes are made of plastic with internal illumination, they can be detachable for demonstration internal structure the earth's crust, as well as relief. Most often, globes are made on a scale of 1:30,000,000 - 1:80,000,000. They are used as indispensable visual aids for educational purposes.

Rice. 3.6. geographic globe

Relief cards provide a three-dimensional image of the area. The vertical scale of such maps is always several times exaggerated compared to the horizontal scale for clarity. All other content on relief maps is shown with conventional symbols. Used as a teaching aid for solving various practical problems.

Rice. 3.7. Relief map of Ukraine

Rice. 3.8. Relief map of Russia

block diagrams - three-dimensional flat cartographic drawings that combine the image of any surface with longitudinal and transverse vertical sections (Fig. 3.9, 3.10). Block diagrams can be: geological, geomorphological, soil, etc. Electronic block diagrams can be rotated and rotated on display screens to best view from different sides.

Rice. 3.9. block diagram

Rice. 3.10. 3D digital model of the earth's surface

Anaglyph maps - maps printed in two complementary colors (for example, blue-green and red) with a parallax shift so that both images form a stereo pair. Designed for viewing through special stereo glasses. Used as teaching aids.
Photocards - maps combined with a photographic image. Aerial and space photographs are used to create photographic maps. Photomaps are the basis for thematic mapping, orientation, engineering work. There are photographic maps of the surface of the planets. Used as teaching aids.

Rice. 3.10. Photomaps of the two hemispheres of Mars

Banner cards - cards printed on transparent film and designed to be projected onto a screen. Typically, sets of slides are made with different content for one area. When demonstrating, you can combine several banner cards, getting a comprehensive picture. Used as a visual study guides.
microfiche cards - miniature copies from maps or atlases on photo and film. Microfilming allows compact storage of a large number of different cartographic products. Information from these maps can be entered into a computer when compiling and analyzing maps.

Questions and tasks for self-control

Give a definition of cartography and the main scientific and technical disciplines of cartography.
What branches and scientific and technical disciplines is modern cartography associated with?
Explain the relationship of cartography with geodesy and geosciences.
How is cartography related to photogrammetry and remote sensing data?
Explain the relationship of modern cartography with the socio-economic sciences.
What is the relationship between cartography and geoinformatics?
How is modern cartography related to mathematical sciences, technology and automation of production?
What is the history of the appearance of the first cards?
Define a geographic map.
List and describe the main distinctive features geographic maps.
List and define the main properties of geographical maps.
How is a map different from a plan?
What properties does a globe have?
Explain the difference between general geographic maps and thematic maps?
List the elements of a geographic map.
Name and define the mathematical elements of the map.
List and describe the cartographic elements of the map.
How are geographical maps classified by scale.
How are maps classified by content? Give examples.
How are maps classified by area? Give examples.
How are cards classified by purpose? Give examples.
What are special cards for? Give examples.

Each of us had to deal with geographical maps at school, but not everyone knows how to use them, and some do not even know the purpose of the map at all. The most surprising thing is that the younger generation, spoiled by electronic devices, considers knowledge of maps to be superfluous, since now even in mobile phone there is a GPS navigator with voice prompts, which means that there is no need to understand the maps.

A bit of history

A map is a reduced image of the globe, built in a map projection. For modern man the main thing is to be able to use cards and distinguish them by type. An interesting fact is that mankind did not yet know how to write, but already possessed cartographic abilities, having the need to navigate the terrain and realizing what a geographical map is and why it is needed. This is evidenced by archaeological finds that testify to the existence of maps in ancient times. Moreover, they were made on rocks, wood, bone plates, stone tablets. The ancient map, which looks like a modern geographical one, is about 15 thousand years old. It was found by archaeologists on the territory of Ukraine.

Classification of geographical maps

Modern maps and atlases of geography are the result of the studies of ancient people, because all knowledge is passed down from generation to generation. Without primitive knowledge, cartographers of the present time would not have been able to achieve such an accurate execution of geographical maps. The achievement of contemporaries is that they were able to classify cards:

By territory: a map of the world, a map of the continents and a map of countries and regions.
Sizes: large scale, medium scale and small scale.
By appointment: scientific and reference, cultural and educational, educational, technical, tourist, navigational.

In addition, all modern geographical maps are divided into types. Each map of a particular type only shows information relevant to the type of map, such as a landscape map showing the results of landscape research. A topographic map has the highest accuracy of placement of objects and is designed to solve technical problems.

People who have to deal with cards in their life know what type of card and what information they need on it. In addition, experienced drivers who have mastered the system of satellite navigation on the roads continue to carry road maps and communication routes with them on long trips. So, just in case, because electronics tend to break down, and the card will never let you down if you know how to use it correctly.

WITH early childhood I remember I had such a hobby - I studied on maps various cities. Most of all, it took me to look at maps of my native Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, and, believe it or not, Vilnius. Relatives lived in this Lithuanian city. View distant Moscow, any other city, without leaving your home - well, isn't it magic!

What is the meaning of geographic maps

Imagine that you have a large sheet on your table that allows you to see the whole world at once, or a specific corner of our earth. Magic? Not! Graphic image the surface of the earth using special symbols - this is the map. We look as if at a model of our beloved Earth or region, city. At the same time, the cards are different in their purpose:

political;
physical;
technical;
tourist;
topographic.

Each person can choose a card that is suitable specifically for his purposes.

Scale magic

Imagine - you soar over your city like a bird. And suddenly they saw an interesting object, decided to get closer and take a closer look. In the language of geography, this would be called zooming in.

In general, the scale is the ratio of the size of the image and the depicted object. Usually it's a fraction. By the way, when you go down to the object from a bird's eye view, the scale increases, but the coverage of the surface displayed on the map, on the contrary, decreases.

Coordinates will help not to wander around the map

If you notice, almost all globes are surrounded by vertical and horizontal lines. They are on many maps. Well, someone took our Earth and put it in a grid?

No, these lines allow you to determine the landmark of any object on a map or diagram. Meridians stretch from north to south, but parallels hug the Earth horizontally on the globe.

And if a traveler moves from north to south, say, by train, the degree of latitude changes in the coordinates of his location, and outside the window - climatic zones that differ from each other weather conditions, fauna and flora. Well, what if his path lies, say, from Moscow to Vladivostok? This is where the east longitude will begin to change.

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Once I read a very interesting phrase: the map is the “second language” of geography. These were the words of the Soviet geographer Nikolai Baransky. Now I completely agree with the scientist. True, today there is no earth science that does not use maps.

The concept of a geographical map

I think that the map is one of the most interesting ways of knowing the world. It is customary to call maps a reduced generalized image of the Earth on a plane. When compiling maps, cartographers use projections, scales and conventional signs, which can be used to easily "read" the same map. Maps also model certain territories, geological structure Lands, landscapes, demographic situations, etc., contribute to the understanding of their "essence" and allow making predictions for the future.

Basic properties of a geographical map

Of all the models used in geography, maps are the most common and familiar. They are built on a strict mathematical basis, have a special sign system, but at the same time are quite visual. I believe that visualization is the most important, since a person receives 90% of information about the world around him with the help of vision. The main properties of the cards are:

geometric similarity (maps convey the exact position of objects, their shapes, sizes);
metricity (measurements can be made using maps, data can be obtained and mathematical models can be built);
visibility and visibility (maps allow you to look at large spaces, identify global patterns);
informative (the amount of information per unit area is many times greater than the information capacity of the printed text).

The evolution of cartographic images

It is worth noting that the millennia of the development of cartography have transformed maps. Handwritten paper maps replaced rock paintings and then evolved into printed engravings. The last outlived polygraphic prints and electronic images. There are also digital maps. Strictly speaking, these are not maps, since they cannot be seen, they represent only digital data for the construction of electronic maps.

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As a child, I wanted to have both a globe and a map of the world in my room. So my room full of toy animals would look more solid. But it didn't work out. And now I use geographical maps mainly in digital format. Comfortable, but does not affect the style of the interior at all.

Maps of the "flat" world

Geographic maps are images of the Earth's surface on a plane. They can depict objects of different areas: from small areas to the whole world.

Geographic maps are used for different purposes:

household;
educational and reference;
scientific.

Maps differ in scale and purpose. Physical, i.e. displaying natural features terrain, maps are used in physical geography.

For socio-economic geography, maps are relevant that display not only territories, but also human influence on them. Political maps, for example, show state borders, main cities, etc.

In most cases, north corresponds to the top of the map, south to the bottom, west and east, respectively, to the left and right.

Creation of geographical maps

They say mathematics is the mother of all sciences. And it's hard to argue with that. Without mathematical knowledge, it would be impossible to create any kind of reliable maps.

To create a map you need:

select scale;
study geodetic data;
create a map projection.

The first and third are mathematics. Creating projections is the most difficult, perhaps. I won't even try to explain how (smart) people do it.

Geodetic data helps to understand the size and shape of the Earth (and it is not a perfect sphere), how it moves in space, and also to estimate its gravitational field.

All this trouble is needed to convey reality as accurately as possible and avoid distortion. After all, what looks like a small distortion on a paper map of the world, in reality will be hundreds and thousands of kilometers.

However, there are no maps completely without distortion. It is absolutely impossible to depict a spherical Earth on a plane, but the situation is saved by globes and different types projections.

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Once I was bought a magazine about dogs, in the binding of which for some reason there was a geographical map. The first thing that caught my eye was the size. Russian Federation, because I used to think that Russia, Ukraine and Belarus are approximately the same size. In addition to countries, continents and islands, there were lines and some numbers on the map. About what they are needed for, I learned already in geography lessons.

What is a geographical map

What a geographical map is is studied by a whole science (cartography). The maps show the scale, placement, height, relief, coordinate grid and much more. This can be seen most clearly on the thematic maps. From the mineral map you will learn in detail about the location of coal and oil deposits, and from the economic one - the level of GDP. We ourselves colored thematic maps in atlases in order to pass homework by geography.

Everyone knows that the borders of countries are also placed on the map. Some states have some disagreements about where these borders are supposed to be. In order not to cause discontent among the inhabitants of a certain state, even electronic cards"going towards"
and show the ownership of the disputed territories depending on the location. An example is the border cities of India and China.

How is a globe better than a map?

Everyone knows that our planet has the shape of a ball, slightly flattened at the poles. But maps, in turn, are flat. Try to take the wrapper off easter egg, and then flatten it on the table. Folds will appear on it, if you cut them off, the picture on the egg wrapper will change. The same is with the image of the Earth on the world map. There are also distortions on the globe, but to a lesser extent than on a geographical map. Among such errors, deformations are distinguished:

lengths;
corners;
forms;
areas.

The smaller the scale, the smaller this distortion. In addition, not all of their types will necessarily be present on the map. On equiangular maps, for example, there are no errors in the representation of angles, and on equal maps - areas.