Constructing sentences using someone else's speech. Speech norms of the Russian language

There are two ways to convey someone else's speech in a text: direct speech and indirect speech.

Direct speech- this is a literal (without changing the form) reproduction in the text of the statements or thoughts of a person.

Direct speech consists of two constituent elements: someone else's speech and the words of the author. The author's words introduce the speech text and indicate who owns the statement. The position of the author's words, with rare exceptions, is free (before someone else's speech, in the middle of it and after someone else's speech). Someone else's speech is in quotation marks.

The teacher said: “Class is over. You are free".

“The class is over. You are free,” said the teacher.

“The class is over,” the teacher said. - You are free".

If the content of someone else’s speech is preserved, but the form of its transmission changes, then a construction is used that is called indirect speech. Indirect speech, therefore, is not a direct quotation, but to a certain extent a retelling of the speech of another person. Indirect speech is formalized in the form of a complex sentence, in which the author’s words are the main one, and someone else’s speech is a subordinate clause.

The teacher said that the lesson was over.

In sentences with direct speech, the words of the author and someone else’s speech are grammatically independent parts. Sentences with indirect speech are complex sentences with a main clause (the author’s words) and a subordinate clause (someone else’s speech). In this regard, in order to avoid mistakes in the process of replacing direct speech with indirect speech, you must remember the following rules:

2. If in direct speech the author’s words are in the middle or after someone else’s speech, then in indirect speech they are usually at the beginning of the sentence. Only in certain cases, according to the requirements of the logic of the statement, is it possible to reverse the order of the parts.

Compare: The director said there would be no meeting.

That there will be no meeting, the director said(it is emphasized that the source of information is the director).

3. Most often, in the process of converting direct speech into indirect speech, conjunctions are used what, so, as if, whether and etc.

4. Personal and possessive pronouns and 1st and 2nd person present/future verb forms are converted to the 3rd person form. They are no longer used on behalf of the one who pronounces these words, but on behalf of the one who is the author of the text. However, here too you should be extremely careful.

Compare: The teacher said that the lesson was over and they(someone, the author of the text is not part of this group) may be free.

The teacher said that the lesson was over and we(the author of the text is part of the “we” group) we can be free.

5. Addresses, introductory words, interjections, means of emotional assessment that are in direct speech, in indirect speech go down.

6. Please note that in indirect speech you are not supposed to put question mark at the end of someone else's speech. The question mark refers to the entire text of the sentence at the end of which it is placed, and the words “he asked” do not contain a question.

It is forbidden: He asked if I would go to the cinema?

Need to: He asked if I would go to the cinema.

3. Mixing direct indirect speech: “Grandfather said that in childhood they had such a law: on birthdays we gave only what was made with our own hands.”

4. Errors when introducing quotes: “K. Paustovsky said that “A person who loves and knows how to read is a happy person.”

Among the shortcomings and errors associated with consumption complex sentences , direct and indirect speech, the most common are the following: incorrect construction the design of the proposal itself, the use of unnecessarily cumbersome structures.

1. One of the most common shortcomings is cluttering a complex sentence with subordinate clauses.

Here's an example:
Statement by the chairmen of the notary office commission, ignoring the fact that business relationship, which have been steadily fading over the past month and are trending towards further declines, suggests that someone is still interested in preserving the atmosphere " cold war"and the elimination of the massive desire for friendship that has gripped the residents of America and Asia, and this cannot but affect the actions of our state,

which continues to count on the success of the negotiations, although it understands that achieving progress in such negotiations will not be easy, but we are accustomed to overcoming difficulties.

It is also inappropriate to string together the same type of syntactic constructions of a compound or complex sentence.

Here's an example:
Oleg tried to unhook the sled, but it seemed to be stuck, and the rider turned and shook his head, and Alena just looked after her friend.

2. In a number of cases, the same situation can be expressed using both compound and complex sentences.

Here's an example:
She came in and we all jumped up;
When she came in, we jumped up.

At the same time, cases of “structure failure” are often observed in speech: a sentence that begins as a complex sentence ends as a complex sentence, and vice versa. It is unacceptable!

Here's an example:
When Konstantin got tired of messing with the puppies, he went somewhere to rest.

3. Grammatical errors also include the use of different types of parts of a complex sentence.

4. A speech defect when constructing a complex sentence is the so-called construction shift.

5. Errors and shortcomings associated with the incorrect use of conjunctions and allied words are very common in speech:

A) the use of several conjunctions, allied words at the same time, an extra particle in the conjunction so.

For example:

1. Father fell ill, but, nevertheless, he did not rest at home.
Correct design:
The father fell ill, but nevertheless did not stay at home.

2. She wondered if life was over at forty.
Correct design:
She wondered if life was over at forty.

3. She needs to come to him.
Correct design:
She needs to come to him;

B) inappropriate insertion opposite, or illegal omission of demonstrative words: that, that, such and others.

For example:

1. Our mistake is that you are in too much of a hurry to publish your poems - the index word is omitted.
The correct design is that...

2. It is necessary that you come to me - the demonstrative word is mistakenly used with an adverb that does not require such extension;

C) inappropriate use of one conjunction or allied word instead of another:

You cannot put up with a situation where work is done hastily - you should: You cannot put up with the fact that work is done hastily;

D) inappropriate use of both a conjunction and a conjunction word when homogeneous subordination:

Antoshka realized that Eroshik had been running after him for 20 kilometers and what a devoted friend he had - he should have:
Antoshka realized that Eroshik, who ran 20 kilometers behind him, was a devoted friend; The writer realized that Eroshik had been running after him for 20 kilometers and that the dog was a devoted friend.

6. In some types of complex sentences, infinitive sentences can be used (the predicate is expressed in them by an independent infinitive). This is only possible if the main and subordinate clauses talk about the same thing acting person:

To avoid missing the train, I had to take a taxi.

7. The lack of expression of an essential link of thought associated with the perception of a phenomenon or its assessment often leads to speech defects that look like logical errors:

It's hot in the office because there's a blanket on the chair.

8. When using attributive clauses, the following errors and omissions are typical:

A) subordinate clauses are torn off from the word being defined:

Cold rain wetted the fields, which the crops so needed;

B) allied words mistakenly agree with the wrong noun, which is being defined:

Rabbit is an animal that lives in the forest;

C) a conjunctive word that is unlawfully transferred to the middle of the subordinate clause:

Gogi is a Georgian boy who was captured by Russian special forces as a child;

D) the defined word in the main clause is illegally omitted.

Here's an example:
The commander invited who saved the girl.
In this case subordinate clause must refer to either a noun or a pronoun:
The commander invited the man who saved the girl;
The commander invited the one who saved the girl.

9. When translating direct speech into indirect speech, it is often not taken into account that these are different constructions.

In particular, typical mistake is to preserve the first person form of the subject and the predicate verb.

Here's an example:
Anton said I'll be back next month.
Correct design:
Anton said that he would return next month.

Quite often in indirect speech the construction of direct speech is mistakenly preserved without changing.

Here's an example:
She asked if I knew about my father’s illness.
Correct design:
She asked if I knew about my father's illness.

Lecture 68 Constructing sentences with someone else's speech

This lecture discusses the rules for placing punctuation marks in sentences with foreign speech and various types of grammatical errors encountered when constructing such sentences

Constructing sentences using someone else's speech

This lecture discusses the rules for placing punctuation marks in sentences with foreign speech and various types of grammatical errors encountered when constructing such sentences.

Lecture outline

68.1. Punctuation in sentences with direct and indirect speech.

68.2. Punctuation errors when quoting.

68.3. Grammatical errors when transmitting someone else's speech.

68.1. Punctuation in sentences with direct and indirect speech

Punctuation marks in sentences with direct speech

The basic rules for placing punctuation marks in direct speech are most conveniently presented in the form of diagrams. Let us denote the author’s words in them with the letters “A” (if the author’s words are written with a capital letter) and “a” (if the author’s words are written with a small letter); direct speech - “P” (if it is written with a capital letter) and “p” (if it is written with a small letter)

Let us first consider the cases when direct speech comes before the words of the author

Cases when direct speech comes after the words of the author

Cases when direct speech is broken by the words of the author

"P, - a, - p."	“If you run for more than a minute, of course, certain death, they can’t help but kill,” he thought, “unless they are crushed by the musketeers...”
“P, - a, - p?(!)”	“I wonder,” he thought, “how it ended?”
“P, - a. - P".	“There is also a flask in the box... It’s a pity that there is no box. Well, he’ll give it back tomorrow, he thought. “After the Devil’s Bridge he will give it up if they don’t kill either me or him.”
“P?(!) - ah. - P?(!)"	“Shouldn’t we go there, to the Capuchins? - Staal asked himself, his teeth chattering from the cold. “Maybe they’ll let me in?”
“P?(!) - ah. - P".	“Why not accept it temporarily? - thought Staal. “If I don’t like it, I’ll leave and go back to the regiment.”

Punctuation when formatting dialogue

Dialogue can be done in two ways:

enclose each statement in quotation marks and put a dash between them:

“Was this house built long ago?” - “For a long time, already a year, Atria has been standing”

Start each line on a new line, do not use quotation marks, put a dash before each line:

Now, now it will be. The wondrous one will come and tell us to move forward, and we’ll take the Devil’s Bridge in an instant.

Where is he? - asked Staal, obeying the confident tone of the officer.

They say it's not more than a mile from here.

Can't be! But there’s nothing scary here: no abysses, no waterfalls, and there’s no hole. Just a cheerful meadow in the sun,” Staal said with bewilderment.

Of course, it’s okay... Masters, I’ll tell you, our whiners are telling lies.

Punctuation marks in sentences with indirect speech

[He thought] (that Nastenka was not Nastenka, but the Koenigsberg German woman Gertrude).

A question that is conveyed in indirect speech is called an indirect question. It should be remembered that after an indirect question a question mark is not placed:

We asked the teacher when the essay should be submitted.

68.2. Punctuation errors when quoting

Usually in writing, quotations are highlighted with quotation marks. Both complete sentences and their parts and even individual words can be quoted. Basically, punctuation marks when quoting depend on this:

The wise Solomon speaks about the most ancient and mysterious science: “Hark, I speak a royal word”...

Talking about the reaction of the townspeople to the sudden death of the prosecutor, Gogol ironically notes how “it was only then with condolences that they learned that the dead man definitely had a soul, although out of his modesty he never showed it.”

Leo Tolstoy thought that main feature the artist is that “he sees objects not as he wants to see them, but as they are.”

4) if the quotation is given partially, then an ellipsis is placed in place of the missing words:

Leo Tolstoy thought that the main characteristic of an artist is that “he sees objects... as they are.”

5) quotes from poems are not enclosed in quotation marks if the poetic line is followed, for example:

He threw the book on the floor and suddenly made a few steps out of minaveta a-laren, singing not quite correctly:

Tell me, mine is beautiful

What should I expect?

68.3. Grammatical errors when transmitting someone else's speech

Very often, when constructing sentences with direct or indirect speech, grammatical errors are made. Let's look at the main ones.

The most common mistake when constructing sentences with indirect speech is the use of 1st and 2nd person pronouns in the subordinate part. This is only permissible when transmitting direct speech.

Incorrect option: Condemning his contemporaries, M.Yu. Lermontov writes that “I look sadly at our generation.”

Correct options:

Condemning his contemporaries, M.Yu. Lermontov writes: “I look sadly at our generation”.

Condemning his contemporaries, M.Yu. Lermontov writes that he sadly looks at his generation.

Also one of the common mistakes is the use of the conjunction "What" in the subordinate clause if available "li".

Incorrect option: I didn’t notice that he was in the room.

Correct option: I didn’t notice, it’s located whether he is in the room.

You cannot format a sentence that begins with an introductory structure as direct speech.

Incorrect option: As A.P. Chekhov said: “Everything in a person should be beautiful.”

Correct option: As A.P. Chekhov said, “everything in a person should be beautiful.”

It is a mistake to use a capital letter in a quotation when conveying indirect speech.

Incorrect option: The Senate decided that “The petitioner lost his son for the sole reason that he relied on the defendant’s assurance to make his son happy...”.

Correct option: The Senate decided that “ petitioner lost his son for the sole reason that he relied on the defendant’s assurance to make his son happy...”

Date: 2010-05-22 10:27:14

Competent speech is not only expressive speech, but above all correct speech. At the core correct speech lies in its compliance with modern language norms.

There are lexical, phraseological, word-formation, grammatical (morphological and synthetic), spelling, punctuation, stylistic, orthoepic (pronunciation) norms.

Violations of certain literary norms are classified as speech errors(in the broad sense of the word).

I. Lexical errors.

Characteristics	Example	Cause	Correction
1. Confusion in the use of paronyms	Great prospects for the ancient city opened up before us.	Ignorance of the difference in lexical meaning words	The majestic vistas of the ancient city opened up before us.
2. Use of unnecessary words (pleonasms)	Swearing and swearing were heard. The enemies were getting closer and closer. My autobiography. Criminal crimes.	Students assign different meanings to words. Ignorance of the exact meaning of foreign words.	Swearing was heard. The enemies were approaching. Autobiography. It is a crime.
3.Violation lexical compatibility words	People begin to sow crops.	Poor representation of the phenomenon being described; ignorance of the laws of word combinations.	They begin to sow winter crops, rye (or harvest)
4. Lexical incompleteness of the statement	The author sympathizes and even exalts his hero.	Insufficient understanding of semantic connections in a sentence.	The author sympathizes with his hero and even exalts him.
5. Distortion or destruction of phraseological units	Plays a role Has a role The red line runs through the thought	Ignorance of the meanings and forms of phraseological units	Plays a role Matters A red thread runs through thought

II. Grammatical errors

Characteristics	Example	Cause	Correction
1.Word-formation errors
1. Violation of word-formation structure	With her stubbornness, she achieved what she wanted.		With my stubbornness...
2.Morphological errors
1. Errors in gender and number of nouns	Mom learned how to make jam. Streams ran along the asphalt	Influence of vernacular	...to make jam. ...on the asphalt.
2. Errors in using reliable forms	He spent the evening with his friends. Best friends his were the driver.	Circumstantial meaning of noun. The second declension has the ending y. Indeclinable nouns they don’t change the ending: without a coat, in the cinema...	...with my friends. ...there were drivers.
3. Errors in the formation of adjective forms	The day was cloudier than usual. We solve the most important problem. More than fifty rubles	comparative adjectives are formed using the words more, less, or the suffix her, eish.	it was more cloudy. ...the most important task. Fifty rubles
4. Errors in the use of forms of numerals	In four hundred and seventy-six books. year two thousand eight	When declension of compound numerals, all words change; in ordinal numbers, only the last one changes.	In four hundred and seventy-six books. Two thousand and eight.
5. Errors in the use of verb forms. Confusion of times.	We played in the forest for a very long time. “Go, son, to the city alone.” Lights a fire. At the meeting were representatives of all districts, with the exception of two delegates, absent for a good reason.		We played in the forest. “Go, son, to the city alone.” The fire is burning. At the meeting were representatives of all districts, with the exception of two delegates, o absent for a good reason.
6. Errors in the formation of participles	A student writing an essay.	The participle has no future tense	The student who will write the essay. ( participial must be replaced by a subordinate clause).
7. Mixing the reflexive and passive meanings of participles.	A girl being raised by her grandmother...		A girl raised by her grandmother...
3. Syntax errors
1. Violation of agreement in number between subject and predicate	Young people have always been ahead. Chekhov shows the philistinism with their petty interests.		Young people have always been ahead. ...the philistinism with its petty interests.
2. Incorrect management of words.	Gogol describes the adventures of Chichikov. Confidence in victory.		Describes the adventures of Chichikov. ...in victory.
3.Use of homogeneous members of a sentence: - combination of incompatible concepts; - combination of a participial phrase and a subordinate clause;	I drink tea with lemon and enjoy it. Mayakovsky is pleased with the labor upsurge that has gripped the masses and in which he sees the guarantee of victory.		I enjoy drinking tea with lemon. Mayakovsky is pleased with the labor upsurge that has swept the masses. He sees it as the key to victory.
4.Use of participial phrases.	Trying to convince readers, the author does not always succeed.	The main verb and the additional action of the gerund must be performed by one person (object)	Trying to convince readers, the author is sometimes too straightforward.
5. Erroneous use of prepositions.	Thanks to the artist's art. Came home from school		Thanks to the artist's art. …from school.
8. Use of the participial phrase	The book lying on the table has been read.	Ignorance of the structure of the participial phrase	The book lying on the table has been read. or The book lying on the table has been read.
9. Errors in the use of direct and indirect speech.	Yuri said that I would be a pilot. The mayor told the officials assembled with him that I invited you, gentlemen, in order to tell you very unpleasant news.		Yuri said that he would be a pilot. The mayor told the officials who had gathered with him that he had invited them to tell them the most unpleasant news.
10. Agreement of the subject with the predicate.	Anyone who has ever visited St. Petersburg will never forget...	Incorrect identification of the grammatical basis in the main and subordinate parts of a complex sentence.	Anyone who has ever visited St. Petersburg will never forget...
11. Pile of alliances.	All the newspapers wrote about the scandal in the government, but, nevertheless, there were people who knew nothing about it.		All the newspapers wrote about the scandal in the government, but there were people who knew nothing about it. (or any of these terms).

In the 2008 KIMs there are tasks that test speech knowledge. Tasks A3 test the ability to determine the meaning of a word or distinguish paronyms in context. Paronyms are usually called words of one part of speech, usually the same root, similar in sound, but differing in prefixes or suffixes. For example, malicious - evil (poachers are malicious, i.e. deliberately violating the law, deserving of punishment; evil is a quality of a person, not subject to punishment).

Grammar rules

Knowledge of grammatical (morphological) norms is checked by tasks A4. Grammatical (syntactic) norms are presented in tasks A5, A6, A28. Tasks A5 test the ability to construct a sentence with an adverbial phrase. It should be remembered that participial turnover(gerund) and predicate denote the action of the same person. For example, When sending a telegram, be sure to include the address. Tasks A6 test mastery of syntactic norms (coordination, control, construction of sentences with homogeneous members, complex sentences with direct and indirect speech). Difficulties are caused by mastering the norms of agreement between the predicate and the subject, agreement of participles and adjectives with the defined noun: the image of the heroine mourning her youth (the image is mourning?).

Task A28 allows you to test your knowledge of various grammatical means, the expression of thought, involves the transformation of syntactic structures in compliance with the main meaning; if there is an indicative word in the main part of a complex sentence, then it is impossible to replace the subordinate part with a participial phrase. For example, Grushnitsky is one of those people who have ready-made pompous phrases for all occasions.

IV. But what about part C?..

In the structure of the Unified State Examination test in the Russian language, the third part is of greatest importance, since it is this task that allows you to sufficiently test and objectively test the speech preparation of the examinees and evaluate their practical literacy.

Dear graduates, first we offer you some advice on what no need do:

DO NOT go beyond the margin on the form;

DO NOT forget about the correct and accurate writing of letters;

DO NOT forget about the paragraph division of the essay (a red line is required!) and its

compositional completeness (conclusions are required!);

DO NOT turn your essay into an exposition; what is needed is not a retelling of the text, but its inter-

pretation - interpretation of the problem raised in the text;

DO NOT start your essay with a pronominal phrase (I’m interested... I don’t care

liked... This article...) and from unions;

DO NOT forget to use speech cliches;

DO NOT forget to justify your point of view (2-3 examples);

DO NOT forget about the moderate use of quotes (no more than 2-3 small

volume, well-designed different ways);

DO NOT distort quotes;

DO NOT forget to give examples from the text when denoting copyrighted works.

significant techniques, and also explain their role in the text;

DO NOT show your ignorance by changing the writer's name, patronymic, title

works, etc.;

DO NOT impose your point of view, but prove it by arguing with facts or

quotes;

DO NOT forget that work written without relying on the proposed text is not about

is believed and not evaluated;

DO NOT forget that the length of the essay should be from 150 to 300 words;

DO NOT forget that approximately half of the total time is allocated for writing, i.e.

90 minutes, of which approximately 60 minutes are required to work on the draft, and

in 30 minutes - check and rewrite the essay into a clean copy.

Some features of the essay-argument genres:

Essay- a prose composition of small volume and free composition, expressing individual impressions and considerations on a specific occasion or issue and not claiming to be an exhaustive interpretation of the subject, but, as a rule, suggesting a new, original view of the subject. The style of the essay is characterized by imagery, aphorism, and frequent use of introductory words.

Review– a general assessment of the work, an expression of one’s own attitude towards what has been read, viewed, an emotional assessment of the personal perception of the work, impressions of it with justification: what in the work caused exactly these feelings and experiences.

Review– analysis, analysis and evaluation of the text, a genre of criticism, literary and newspaper journalism, in which a creative dialogue takes place between the reviewer and the author. The reviewer must see the creative individuality of the author, the color of the text, and carefully justify his opinion.

1. Introduction essay-reasoning should be emotional, short (3-4 sentences), energetic, it presents the topic, the main idea of the text and global problem, raised by the author of the text. You can start it:

1) From reflection on the topic that is touched upon in the text.

Among the errors and shortcomings associated with the use of complex sentences, direct and indirect speech, the most common are the following: incorrect construction of the sentence structure itself, the use of unnecessarily cumbersome constructions.

1. One of the most common shortcomings is cluttering a complex sentence with subordinate clauses.

Wed: A statement by representatives of foreign circles that ignores the fact that trade relations, which last years have steadily developed and are showing a tendency to further growth, indicates that someone is still interested in maintaining the atmosphere of the Cold War and eliminating the massive desire for friendship that has gripped the peoples of Europe and America, and this cannot but affect the actions our state, which continues to count on the success of the negotiations, although it understands that achieving progress in such negotiations will not be easy, but we are accustomed to overcoming difficulties.

It is also inappropriate to string together the same type of syntactic constructions of a compound or complex sentence.

Wed: Kai tried to unhook the sled, but it seemed to be stuck, and the rider turned and shook his head, and Gerda just looked after her friend.

2. In some cases, the same situation can be expressed using both compound and complex sentences.

Wed: He came in And we got up; When he entered, we stood up.

At the same time, cases of “structure failure” are often observed in speech: a sentence that begins as a complex sentence ends as a complex sentence, and vice versa. It is unacceptable!

Wed: When Murka was tired of messing with kittens, And she went somewhere to sleep.

3. Grammatical errors also include the use of different types of parts of a complex sentence.

For example: The representative of our delegation put forward two points: 1) without Russia, the Council of Europe cannot fully function; 2) the need to stabilize the situation in the Caucasus. In this non-union proposal when explaining in the first case, a two-part sentence is used ( The council cannot function, in the second - a noun sentence with one main member - the subject necessity(this part can also be characterized as a phrase rather than a sentence).

4. A speech defect when constructing a complex sentence is the so-called construction shift.

For example: The last thing I will talk about is cost overruns. In this case, in the main clause ( One last thing...it's about cost overruns.) there was a shift in the construction under the influence of the subordinate clause ( what will I say). A more grammatically correct construction would be: The last thing I'll say is cost overruns..

5. Errors and shortcomings associated with the incorrect use of conjunctions and allied words are very common in speech:

A) using several conjunctions, allied words, extra particles at the same time would at the union to .

For example:

1. Mother got sick but nevertheless, however, she didn't stay at home. Correct design: Mother got sick but nonetheless didn't stay at home.

2. He thought What it's over whether life at thirty years old. Correct design: He thought it was over whether life at thirty years old.

3. Necessary, to he came in would to me. Correct design: I need him to come to me;

b) inappropriate insertion or, on the contrary, illegal omission of demonstrative words: that, that, such and etc.

For example:

1. Your mistake is that you are in too much of a hurry to publish your poem.– the index word is omitted. Correct design: is that...

2. Necessary That for you to come to me– index word That erroneously used with an adverb that does not require such extension;

V) inappropriate use of one conjunction or allied word instead of another:

You can't put up with a situation where work is done hastily- should: You can't put up that work is done hastily;

G) inappropriate use of both a conjunction and an allied word with homogeneous subordination:

The writer understood What Bulka ran after him 20 miles and Which he has a devoted friend- should: The writer understood What Bulka, who ran 20 miles after him, is a devoted friend; The writer realized that Bulka had been running after him for 20 miles and that the dog was a devoted friend.

To avoid missing the train, I had to take a taxi.

You cannot use infinitive constructions in cases where different subjects act in the main and subordinate clauses.

For example: To write an essay, the teacher told us about the plan. In this case, the essay will be written by schoolchildren, and the teacher told them about the plan! Therefore, the grammatically correct construction would be: So that we could write an essay, the teacher told us about the plan.

It is also not recommended to use target clauses with the conjunction to (especially in the position - after the main sentence!) in the event that the main sentence expresses not an active action, but a passive state, attitude, etc.:

Light bulbs on the skating rink are burning just enough to illuminate the skating rink.

7. The lack of expression of an essential link of thought associated with the perception of a phenomenon or its assessment often leads to speech defects that look like logical errors:

It is cold in the library because there is a shawl on the chair.

8. When using attributive clauses, the following errors and omissions are typical:

A) subordinate clauses are separated from the word they define:

Warm rain wet the ground which the crops needed so much;

b) allied words mistakenly agree with the wrong noun, which is being defined:

Squirrel - the beast that lives on a tree;

V) a conjunctive word that is unlawfully transferred to the middle of the subordinate clause:

Mtsyri is a Georgian youth, in childhood which was captured by a Russian general;

G) The qualified word in the main clause is illegally omitted.

For example: The officer invited who saved the boy. In this case, the subordinate clause must correlate with either a noun or a pronoun: The officer invited the man who saved the boy; The officer invited the one who saved the boy.

In addition, it should be borne in mind that allied words which, which, whose replace the noun closest to them. It is especially important to take this into account if the subordinate clause comes after a phrase that includes several nouns of the same gender or are in the plural.

For example: Horses rushed ahead Cossacks who were covered with foam. With this order of words, it should be concluded that the Cossacks, and not their horses, were covered with foam. To correct a statement, you can put a participial phrase in front of the word to which the action of the participle refers (cf.: Foam-covered Cossack horses rushed ahead).

In general, when constructing a complex sentence, you must ensure that the thought unfolds logically accurately! Otherwise, not only logical, but also grammatical errors may appear.

9. When translating direct speech into indirect speech, it is often not taken into account that these are different constructions.

In particular, a typical mistake is to preserve the first person form of the subject and the predicate verb.

Wed: Sergey said that I'll come back next week. Correct design: Sergey said that he will return next week.

Quite often in indirect speech the construction of direct speech is mistakenly preserved without changing.

Wed: He asked if I knew about my mother’s illness. Correct design: He asked, I know whether I'm talking about my mother's illness.

Section 4. Social variants of the Russian language

Any modern society internally heterogeneous in its social composition. It is possible to highlight separate groups people - by gender, age, territory of residence, level of education, social status, profession, etc. Each of social groups has its own characteristics, uses language in its own way, in different conditions and for different purposes, which cannot but be reflected in their speech. This is how they are formed social variants of language (strata). These subsystems are generally national language historically changeable, mobile, just as society itself is changeable and mobile.

In the modern Russian language, several main strata can be distinguished, that is, social varieties (variants) of the language: literary language, territorial and social dialects, vernacular.

Literary language is not limited either territorially or socially, since it must be understood by all speakers of Russian. Literary language can be used in everyday communication (literary Speaking), but its main function is to serve high spheres of communication: state, politics, science, religion, education, art, etc. That is why it cannot exist spontaneously. On the contrary, society (primarily with the help of specialists) constantly monitors its improvement and maintenance in a “suitable” state. This ensures unity, accuracy, expressiveness and stability of literary speech.

Literary language is a language processed by “masters of words” and standardized. Its norms are reflected in grammars, various types dictionaries (grammatical, explanatory, spelling, etc.). It exists in both oral and written form. However, the written form is still fundamental for literary speech. This is quite natural, since for high spheres communication (state, science, art, etc.) this form is fundamental.

Territorial dialects (dialects)- varieties of a national language characteristic of a particular rural area. The Russian language is widespread over a vast territory. Therefore, we have a whole system of dialects, and the differences between them are sometimes quite significant.

For example, in the south of Russia “akayut” and “yakayut” are pronounced G fricative (γ), final consonant T in verbs of the present and simple future tense it is pronounced softly. There is even such a “tease”:

And here in Ryazan
Eat γfishes with γlases.
To eat them -
Ani, look.

In the north of Russia - “okayut”, often in the instrumental case plural nouns use the dative ending ( made it with my own hands). In the Arkhangelsk region, in many villages they “clack”, that is, on the spot h pronounce ts , and often – soft: not h udo, A ts Yudo, Not molo h ny, A molo ts ny etc. In the Novgorod region, at the end of a word, some consonants are pronounced only firmly, for example: se m instead of se mm .

There are many differences in the names of objects and phenomena.

For example, in the Arkhangelsk region bispoy- this is “gray-haired, silvery”, temple- “stream, channel”, beyond the shore– “the first ice off the coast”; in the Ryazan region goiter- "There is", makhotka- “clay vessel for milk”, cocklebur- “Ledum”; in the Pskov region rubbish- "lean meat" gookalo- “drink”, fornicate, to sneer, to sneer- “to walk, wander.”

Words that are part of individual dialects are called dialectisms. The same term is used to refer to dialect words used in fiction.

Language systems of dialects cover all levels of language (phonetics, grammar, vocabulary). But their norms exist spontaneously; they are not as stable as in the literary language. The main form of existence of dialect (in contrast to literary language) is the oral form.

The main difference between dialects and a literary language is that they are used only in everyday communication, as a rule, by uneducated and poorly educated layers of rural residents. At the same time, many of those who graduate from school receive specialized secondary or even higher education, leaves his native village for the city, retaining some dialect features. The most difficult thing for people from those places where dialects are common is, as a rule, to master literary pronunciation.

Social dialects (argot, jargons)- these are language variants that serve as a means of communication between different social and professional groups. Initially, jargon was used as a “secret” language, the purpose of which was to recognize “friends” and “strangers” and to hide the meaning of what was being said from a stranger. An example of the use of the jargon of the ofeni, that is, dealers in schismatic books and icons, for precisely this purpose, can be found, in particular, in the works of P.I. Melnikov-Pechersky, an expert on schismatic life:

Some guy will run into the shop... and shout to the owner:
- You're a mess and moping around, making dumplings!..
And the owner will suddenly become alarmed, rush into the tent and begin to quickly tidy it up, which is not something you can show to everyone. Whoever understood the speech of the boy who came running, then, without saying a word, immediately got out of the shop... No matter how much someone studied, no matter how many languages he knew, if he was not an idiot and not a schismatic, he would never understand what the boy scared the owner so much. And it was he who shouted to him in the Old Man style: “The management is going to the shop to read the paper.”

The function of a “secret language” is preserved in the thieves’ argot, the speech of declassed elements (cf.: feather- "knife", theater- "jail"). Other jargons are school, student, youth, athletes’ jargon, printers’ jargon, etc. – have practically lost this function. However, very often jargon retains an “identifying” function - to separate “us” from “strangers”. This is especially true for some youth groups. For example, surveys conducted among young people show that they use jargon in order to assert themselves, stand out from the circle of adults, and join the right company.

The use of jargon, like territorial dialects, is limited thematically. The subject of conversation usually does not go beyond a narrow range of topics, one way or another related to professional and social interests this team, and this is always oral informal communication. But, unlike a dialect, jargon does not reveal its specificity at all levels of the language, but, as a rule, only in the vocabulary.

Jargons and professionalisms usually refer to phenomena that are somehow related to professional activity and the social interests of a particular social group.

For example, in the speech of aviators: on all fours- “airplane take-off with jumps”, girlish eyes– “locator”, master of the sky- "dispatcher" forecast- "weather station" chatterologist- "signalman" cigarette butt, whistle– “Yak-40 aircraft”; in students' speech: spur- “cheat sheet”, tail– “academic debt”, swim- “perform poorly on an exam” fishing rod– “satisfactory assessment.”

Vernacular- This is mainly the everyday speech of uneducated layers of urban residents. The specificity of this social variant of the language is most clearly manifested in the vocabulary.

For example: drip- “to convey” railway carriage- “about a large amount of something”, eat- “listen, meekly endure the offensive, offensive.”

Differences from the literary language are also manifested in the peculiarities of pronunciation, the formation of individual words and constructions.

For example: tra n wai instead of literary tra m wai, quarter instead of literary quarter, those To yeah instead of those h yeah etc.

However, the vernacular does not have its own special system. Phonetics and grammar, as a rule, coincide with literary norms. And if there are differences, then they are borrowed from dialects.

For example, in Rostov, as in the surrounding Don dialects, it will be pronounced G fricative, in the North there will be “okay”, etc.

The presence of various social variants of the language is historically determined - this is evidence of the richness of the language and the high creative potential of the people. A special place in the system of social variants belongs to territorial dialects. It was one of them that formed the basis of the Russian literary language. Dialectisms quite regularly replenish the vocabulary of the literary language:

farmhand, roach, mumble, eagle owl, frail and etc.

The dialects are an invaluable repository of national identity and folk culture. Currently, dialects are gradually being lost. Therefore, in many countries, for example, in France, special programs have been developed for the preservation and development of dialects.

One of the outstanding scientists who devoted his life to the study of Russian dialects was Vladimir Ivanovich Dal (1801–1872). He compiled " Dictionary living Great Russian language" in four volumes, containing 200 thousand words, not only literary, but also regional (dialect). Dictionary V.I. Dalia is our national treasure.

At the same time, the pattern of coexistence of different social variants (strata) of the national language does not mean their equality. The most important thing in the life of a country is the literary language. This is due not only to the fact that only this option language can be the language of the state, science, means mass media, fiction. This stratum is not limited territorially and socially. Therefore, when speaking in a literary language, a person can be quite confident that he will be well understood by any addressee.

The use of other social options is limited territorially and functionally, thematically and situationally. Communication in jargon, dialect, and vernacular is appropriate and advisable only in an informal setting and only if it involves representatives of the same group who understand it well, and the subject of the conversation does not go beyond a fairly narrow range of topics. In jargon, dialect and vernacular it is impossible to adequately express any scientific theory, presidential decree, etc.

In addition, the use of non-literary language variants, even in informal communication in a socially heterogeneous group, can lead to communicative failure. Firstly, the speaker may simply not be understood. Secondly, he himself may be perceived as an uneducated and impolite person who is not interested in the reaction of those listening. An example of such a communication failure is described by the satirist L. Izmailov in the story “Unnecessary Words”:

One day I met a neighbor’s boy, Vanya Sidorov, and we had the following conversation:
- Hello, Vanya, how are you?
He says:
- Wow, things are going strong.
- I'm sorry, what?
- Cool, I say. Now one of the wicks has frozen something like that, he rolls up to one of the skets, let him, he says, drive the bike, he sat down and scratched, and then the teacher, he started showing off, he opened his mitten, and so he jerked off. Himself with a black eye, the teacher almost went crazy, and the bike booed. Laugh, cool, right?
I speak:
- Was there a horse there?
-What horse?
- Well, who was neighing, or I didn’t understand anything. Well, let's first.
- Let's. So, one wick...
- Without a candle?
- Without.
- What kind of wick is this?
- Well, there’s one guy, a long one, rolling up to the net. Let me drive the bike, he said, he sat down and scratched...
- To what sket?
- Well, one little guy. Yes, you know him, he walks around here with such a snob.
- With whom, with whom?
- Not with whom, but with what. His nose is like a snob. The switch is like a soldering iron. Let me drive the bike, he says. He sat down and scratched.
- Did he have an itch?
- No, he sawed...
- Well, how did you saw it?
- What did you saw?
- Well, shnobel.
- No, the sket had a black eye, but the wick had a black eye, a freak hit him in the head, he began to wander around, opened his mitten, and so he whooped. Do you understand now?
– I realized that you don’t know the Russian language at all.

The principle of appropriateness and expediency of using extra-literary elements is no less important for fiction. Dialectisms, jargon, and colloquial words can be found in the works of A.S. Pushkina, I.S. Turgeneva, L.N. Tolstoy, M.A. Sholokhova, M.M. Zoshchenko, A.I. Solzhenitsyn and others. Similar elements may be needed to create local color, speech characteristics characters, enhancing the expressiveness of the text, etc.

However, violation of the principle of appropriateness and expediency can also lead to communicative failure. K.G. Paustovsky, for example, wrote about the use of dialectisms in literary text: “A local word can enrich the language if it is figurative, euphonious and understandable. There is no need for boring explanations or footnotes to make it understandable. It’s just that this word should be placed in such a connection with all neighboring words that its meaning is clear to the reader immediately, without the author’s remarks.” In general, as A.S. very subtly noted. Pushkin, “true taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn of phrase, but in a sense of proportionality and conformity.”

Of particular importance are these thoughts of A.S. Pushkin have at the present time, when there is a clear tendency to belittle the role of the literary language. Its boundaries are blurred and it is heavily influenced by jargon and vernacular.